Mirrors for princes or mirrors of princes () constituted a literary

genre Genre () is any style or form of communication in any mode (written, spoken, digital, artistic, etc.) with socially agreed-upon conventions developed over time. In popular usage, it normally describes a category of literature, music, or other fo ...

of didactic

political Politics () is the set of activities that are associated with decision-making, making decisions in social group, groups, or other forms of power (social and political), power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of Social sta ...

writings throughout the

Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ...

and the

Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) is a Periodization, period of history and a European cultural movement covering the 15th and 16th centuries. It marked the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and was characterized by an effort to revive and sur ...

. It was part of the broader speculum or mirror literature genre. The Latin term ''speculum regum'' appears as early as the 12th century and may have been used even earlier. It may have developed from the popular speculum literature popular from the 12th to 16th century, focusing on knowledge of a particular subject matter. These texts most frequently take the form of textbooks for the instruction of kings, princes, or lesser rulers on successful

governance Governance is the overall complex system or framework of Process, processes, functions, structures, Social norm, rules, Law, laws and Norms (sociology), norms born out of the Interpersonal relationship, relationships, Social interaction, intera ...

and

behaviour Behavior (American English) or behaviour (British English) is the range of actions of Individual, individuals, organisms, systems or Artificial intelligence, artificial entities in some environment. These systems can include other systems or or ...

. The term is also used for histories or literary works presenting model images of good and bad kings. Authors often composed such "mirrors" at the accession of a new king, when a young and inexperienced ruler was about to come to power. One could view them as a species of prototypical

self-help Self-help or self-improvement is "a focus on self-guided, in contrast to professionally guided, efforts to cope with life problems" —economically, physically, intellectually, or emotionally—often with a substantial psychological basis. When ...

book or study of

leadership Leadership, is defined as the ability of an individual, group, or organization to "", influence, or guide other individuals, teams, or organizations. "Leadership" is a contested term. Specialist literature debates various viewpoints on the co ...

before the concept of a "leader" became more generalised than the concept of a monarchical

head of state A head of state is the public persona of a sovereign state.#Foakes, Foakes, pp. 110–11 " he head of statebeing an embodiment of the State itself or representative of its international persona." The name given to the office of head of sta ...

. One of the earliest works was written by Sedulius Scottus ( 840–860), the Irish poet associated with the Pangur Bán gloss poem ( 9th century). Possibly the best known European "mirror" is ''

The Prince ''The Prince'' ( ; ) is a 16th-century political treatise written by the Italian diplomat, philosopher, and Political philosophy, political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli in the form of a realistic instruction guide for new Prince#Prince as gener ...

'' ( 1513) by

Niccolò Machiavelli Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli (3 May 1469 – 21 June 1527) was a Florentine diplomat, author, philosopher, and historian who lived during the Italian Renaissance. He is best known for his political treatise '' The Prince'' (), writte ...

, although this was not the most typical example.

Antiquity

Sumer

Instructions of Shuruppak __NOTOC__ The Instructions of Shuruppak (or, ''Instructions of Šuruppak son of Ubara-tutu'') are a significant example of Sumerian wisdom literature. Wisdom literature, intended to teach proper piety, inculcate virtue, and preserve community s ...

(Early 3rd millennium BC)

Egypt

* Ptahhotep, ''

The Maxims of Ptahhotep ''The Maxims of Ptahhotep'' or ''Instruction of Ptahhotep'' is an ancient Egyptian literary composition by the Vizier Ptahhotep around 2375–2350 BC, during the rule of King Djedkare Isesi of the Fifth Dynasty. The text was discovered in The ...

'' (2375–2350 BC) * Kheti III, '' Teaching for King Merykara'' () *Kheti the Scribe, "

Instructions of Amenemhat Instructions of Amenemhat (aka "Teaching of King Amenemhat to His Son Senusret") is a short ancient Egyptian poem of the ''sebayt'' genre written during the early Middle Kingdom of Egypt, Middle Kingdom. The poem takes the form of an intensely dr ...

" (), a guide-poem on kingship for

Senusret I Senusret I (Egyptian language, Middle Egyptian: wikt:z-n-wsrt, z-n-wsrt; /suʀ nij ˈwas.ɾiʔ/) also anglicized as Sesostris I and Senwosret I, was the second pharaoh of the Twelfth dynasty of Egypt, Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt. He ruled from 1971 ...

, the son of the former Pharaoh

Amenemhat I :''See Amenemhat (disambiguation), Amenemhat, for other individuals with this name.'' Amenemhat I (Egyptian language, Ancient Egyptian: ''Ỉmn-m-ḥꜣt'' meaning 'Amun is at the forefront'), also known as Amenemhet I, was a pharaoh of ancient ...

. * Amenemope, Son of Kanakht, '' Instruction of Amenemope'' ()

Indian

Vishnu Sharma Sharma (Sanskrit: विष्णुशर्मन् / विष्णुशर्मा) was an Indian scholar and author who wrote the ''Panchatantra'', a collection of fables. Works Panchatantra is one of the most widely translated non-r ...

, ''

Panchatantra The ''Panchatantra'' ( IAST: Pañcatantra, ISO: Pañcatantra, , "Five Treatises") is an ancient Indian collection of interrelated animal fables in Sanskrit verse and prose, arranged within a frame story.

'' (Between 200 BC and 300 AD) *

Chanakya Chanakya (ISO 15919, ISO: ', चाणक्य, ), according to legendary narratives preserved in various traditions dating from the 4th to 11th century CE, was a Brahmin who assisted the first Mauryan emperor Chandragupta Maurya, Chandragup ...

, ''

Arthashastra ''Kautilya's Arthashastra'' (, ; ) is an Ancient Indian Sanskrit treatise on statecraft, politics, economic policy and military strategy. The text is likely the work of several authors over centuries, starting as a compilation of ''Arthashas ...

'' (Between 200 BC and 300 AD) * Narayan Pandit, '' Hitopdesha'' ( – 860 AD) *

Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj Sambhaji (Sambhajiraje Shivajiraje Bhonsle, ; 14 May 1657 – 11 March 1689), also known as Shambhuraje, ruled from 1681 to 1689 as the second king (Chhatrapati) of the Maratha Empire, a prominent state in early modern India. He was the eldes ...

, "Budhbhushan" ( – 1680 AD)

Greek and Roman

Plato Plato ( ; Greek language, Greek: , ; born BC, died 348/347 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher of the Classical Greece, Classical period who is considered a foundational thinker in Western philosophy and an innovator of the writte ...

, ''

Republic A republic, based on the Latin phrase ''res publica'' ('public affair' or 'people's affair'), is a State (polity), state in which Power (social and political), political power rests with the public (people), typically through their Representat ...

'' (375 BC) *

Xenophon Xenophon of Athens (; ; 355/354 BC) was a Greek military leader, philosopher, and historian. At the age of 30, he was elected as one of the leaders of the retreating Ancient Greek mercenaries, Greek mercenaries, the Ten Thousand, who had been ...

, '' The Education of Cyrus'' (c. 370 BC) *

Aristotle Aristotle (; 384–322 BC) was an Ancient Greek philosophy, Ancient Greek philosopher and polymath. His writings cover a broad range of subjects spanning the natural sciences, philosophy, linguistics, economics, politics, psychology, a ...

, ''

Politics Politics () is the set of activities that are associated with decision-making, making decisions in social group, groups, or other forms of power (social and political), power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of Social sta ...

'' (c. mid-4th century BC) *

Isocrates Isocrates (; ; 436–338 BC) was an ancient Greek rhetorician, one of the ten Attic orators. Among the most influential Greek rhetoricians of his time, Isocrates made many contributions to rhetoric and education through his teaching and writte ...

, ''To Nicocles'' and ''Evagoras'' *

Philodemus Philodemus of Gadara (, ''Philodēmos'', "love of the people"; – prob. or 35 BC) was an Epicurean philosopher and poet. He studied under Zeno of Sidon in Athens, before moving to Rome, and then to Herculaneum. He was once known chiefly for h ...

, ''The Good King According to Homer'' * Dio Chrysostom, ''The First Discourse on Kingship'', ''The Second Discourse on Kingship'', ''The Third Discourse on Kingship'', and ''The Fourth Discourse on Kingship'' *

Cicero Marcus Tullius Cicero ( ; ; 3 January 106 BC – 7 December 43 BC) was a Roman statesman, lawyer, scholar, philosopher, orator, writer and Academic skeptic, who tried to uphold optimate principles during the political crises tha ...

, (44 BC) * Seneca, (55–56 AD) *

Plutarch Plutarch (; , ''Ploútarchos'', ; – 120s) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo (Delphi), Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''Parallel Lives'', ...

, () *

Pliny the Younger Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus (born Gaius Caecilius or Gaius Caecilius Cilo; 61 – ), better known in English as Pliny the Younger ( ), was a lawyer, author, and magistrate of Ancient Rome. Pliny's uncle, Pliny the Elder, helped raise and e ...

, ''Panegyric of Trajan'' (100 AD) *

Eusebius of Caesarea Eusebius of Caesarea (30 May AD 339), also known as Eusebius Pamphilius, was a historian of Christianity, exegete, and Christian polemicist from the Roman province of Syria Palaestina. In about AD 314 he became the bishop of Caesarea Maritima. ...

's '' Life of Constantine'' (c. 339 AD) may be a mirror for princes. This text's precise genre, audience, and aims has been a subject of scholarly controversy. *

Ambrose Ambrose of Milan (; 4 April 397), venerated as Saint Ambrose, was a theologian and statesman who served as Bishop of Milan from 374 to 397. He expressed himself prominently as a public figure, fiercely promoting Roman Christianity against Ari ...

, (c. 391 AD) – although the book is for clergy, many of its lessons can be applied to secular lords due to its inspiration and criticism of Cicero's original. *

Augustine of Hippo Augustine of Hippo ( , ; ; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430) was a theologian and philosopher of Berber origin and the bishop of Hippo Regius in Numidia, Roman North Africa. His writings deeply influenced the development of Western philosop ...

The City of God ''On the City of God Against the Pagans'' (), often called ''The City of God'', is a book of Christian philosophy written in Latin by Augustine of Hippo in the early 5th century AD. Augustine wrote the book to refute allegations that Christian ...

, Book V, chapter 24, "The true felicity of Christian Emperors" (c. 413–426 AD) * Salvian, (439–451 AD)

Western European texts

Early Middle Ages

* Pope Gregory the Great, '' The Book of Pastoral Rule'' (590 AD) Although dedicated to clergy, lessons may also apply to nobles. *

Gregory of Tours Gregory of Tours (born ; 30 November – 17 November 594 AD) was a Gallo-Roman historian and Bishop of Tours during the Merovingian period and is known as the "father of French history". He was a prelate in the Merovingian kingdom, encom ...

' ''History of the Franks'' (late 6th century) which warns against internal strife. *

Isidore of Seville Isidore of Seville (; 4 April 636) was a Spania, Hispano-Roman scholar, theologian and Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seville, archbishop of Seville. He is widely regarded, in the words of the 19th-century historian Charles Forbes René de Montal ...

, '' The Sentenciae'' (620s AD), particularly book III. *'' De duodecim abusivis saeculi'', 'On the twelve abuses of the world' (7th century), a Hiberno-Latin treatise by an anonymous Irish author sometimes referred to as Pseudo-Cyprian. This work, though not a 'mirror for princes' per se, was to be of great influence on the development of the 'genre' as it took place on the Continent. Carolingian texts. Notable examples of Carolingian textbooks for kings, counts and other laymen include: * Cathwulf, ''Epistolae'' (775) written for

Charlemagne Charlemagne ( ; 2 April 748 – 28 January 814) was List of Frankish kings, King of the Franks from 768, List of kings of the Lombards, King of the Lombards from 774, and Holy Roman Emperor, Emperor of what is now known as the Carolingian ...

. * Paulinus of Aquileia, ''Liber exhortationis'' (795), for Count Heiric of Friuli. *

Alcuin Alcuin of York (; ; 735 – 19 May 804), also called Ealhwine, Alhwin, or Alchoin, was a scholar, clergyman, poet, and teacher from York, Northumbria. He was born around 735 and became the student of Ecgbert of York, Archbishop Ecgbert at Yor ...

, ''De virtutibus et vitiis'' (–800), written for Count Wido of Brittany. * Smaragdus of Saint-Mihiel, ''Via regia'' (813), arguably the first true European mirror for princes, dedicated to

Louis the Pious Louis the Pious (; ; ; 16 April 778 – 20 June 840), also called the Fair and the Debonaire, was King of the Franks and Holy Roman Emperor, co-emperor with his father, Charlemagne, from 813. He was also King of Aquitaine from 781. As the only ...

, when king of Aquitania. *

Einhard Einhard (also Eginhard or Einhart; ; 775 – 14 March 840) was a Franks, Frankish scholar and courtier. Einhard was a dedicated servant of Charlemagne and his son Louis the Pious; his main work is a biography of Charlemagne, the ''Vita Karoli M ...

's ''

Vita Karoli Magni ''Vita Karoli Magni'' (''Life of Charlemagne'') is a biography of Charlemagne, King of the Franks and Holy Roman Emperor, Emperor of the Romans, written by Einhard.Ogg, p. 109 The ''Life of Charlemagne'' is a 33 chapter account starting with th ...

'' () which promotes

's reign as something for other rulers to aspire to. *

Jonas of Orléans Jonas (c. 760–843) was Bishop of Orléans and played a major political role during the reign of Emperor Louis the Pious. Jonas was born in Aquitaine. Probably a cleric by the 780s, he served at the court of Louis the Pious, who ruled as K ...

, ''De Institutione Laicali'' (818–828), (originally) written for Count Matfrid of Orléans. *

, ''De Institutione Regia'' (), written for Pepin I of Aquitaine, apparently on the basis of a council at Orléans. * Agobard of Lyons, his letters, ''A Comparison of Ecclesiastical and Political Government and Wherein the Dignity of the Church Outshines the Majesty of Empires'' and the ''Liber Apologeticus''. (833 AD) * Dhuoda, (841–843) ''Liber manualis'', written for her son William. * Sedulius Scottus, ''De rectoribus christianis'' 'On Christian rulers' (–9), addressed to King Lothar II of Lotharingia. * Hincmar of Reims, ''De regis persona'' 'The Person of the King' * Hincmar of Reims, '' De ordine palatii'' 'On the management of the palace' (882), which sets out the moral duties of a king and includes an account of the organisation of the palace. Irish texts *see ''De duodecim abusivis saeculi'' above. The vernacular mirrors differ from most texts mentioned here in that the ones who are described as giving and receiving advice are commonly legendary figures. *'' Audacht Morainn'' ('The Testament of Morann'), written , an Old Irish text which has been called a forerunner of the 'mirrors for princes'. The legendary wise judge Morann Mac Máin is said to have sent advice to Feradach Finnfechtnach when the latter was about to be made King of Tara. *''Tecosca Cormaic'', 'The Instructions of Cormac', in which the speaker Cormac mac Airt is made to instruct his son Cairbre Lifechair about a variety of matters. *''Bríatharthecosc Con Culainn'' 'The precept-instruction of Cúchulainn' (interpolated in '' Serglige Con Culainn''), addressed to Lugaid Réoderg. *''Tecosc Cuscraid'' 'The instruction of Cuscraid' *''Senbríathra Fithail'' 'The ancient precepts of Fíthal' *''Briathra Flainn Fína'' 'The Sayings of Flann Fína'

High Middle Ages

Stephen I of Hungary Stephen I, also known as King Saint Stephen ( ; ; ; 975 – 15 August 1038), was the last grand prince of the Hungarians between 997 and 1000 or 1001, and the first king of Hungary from 1000 or 1001 until his death in 1038. The year of his bi ...

, '' Admonitions'' (1010s), written for his son and

heir presumptive An heir presumptive is the person entitled to inherit a throne, peerage, or other hereditary honour, but whose position can be displaced by the birth of a person with a better claim to the position in question. This is in contrast to an heir app ...

Saint Emeric. * John of Salisbury, ''Policraticus ='' 'The Statesman's Book' (1159). *

Godfrey of Viterbo Godfrey of Viterbo (c. 1120 – c. 1196) was a Roman Catholic chronicler, either Italian or German. From an early age he displayed great activity as one of the clergy at the court of Conrad III and later Frederick I, accompanying the latter on ma ...

, ''Speculum regum'' (), dedicated to his Staufian imperial patrons, father

Frederick Barbarossa Frederick Barbarossa (December 1122 – 10 June 1190), also known as Frederick I (; ), was the Holy Roman Emperor from 1155 until his death in 1190. He was elected King of Germany in Frankfurt on 4 March 1152 and crowned in Aachen on 9 March 115 ...

and son Henry VI. *

Pseudo-Plutarch Pseudo-Plutarch is the conventional name given to the actual, but unknown, authors of a number of pseudepigrapha (falsely attributed works) attributed to Plutarch but now known not to have been written by him. Some of these works were included in s ...

, ''Institutio Traiani'' (first quoted in John of Salisbury's ''Policraticus''). * Gerald of Wales, () * Jean de Limoges, '' Somnium morale Pharaonis'' (–60), written for Thibaut IV or Thibaut V * Juan de Soria, '' Chronica latina regum Castellae'' (1239 AD) for use as a mirror for princes and to defend the rights of Castile against Leon. * or , () Norwegian treatise originally written for King Magnús lagabœtir. * Vincent of Beauvais, ''De eruditione filiorum nobilium'' = 'On the Education of Noble Children' (). * Guibert of Tournai, ''Eruditio regum et principum = The Education of Kings and Princes' (1259), written for Louis IX. * Guibert of Tournai, ''De modo addiscendi'' = 'On the Method of Learning' () written for John de Dampierre, provost of Bruges, son of Guy of Flanders. *

Thomas Aquinas Thomas Aquinas ( ; ; – 7 March 1274) was an Italian Dominican Order, Dominican friar and Catholic priest, priest, the foremost Scholasticism, Scholastic thinker, as well as one of the most influential philosophers and theologians in the W ...

, (), often conflated with the ''De regimine principum'' of Ptolemy of Lucca * Vincent de Beauvais, ''De morali principis institutione ='' 'On the Moral Instruction of the Prince' (), probably written for Louis IX. * William Peraldus, ''De eruditione principum'' = 'On the Education of Princes' (), formerly attributed to

. * Brunetto Latini, ''Li livres dou trésor'' (1266), written for

Charles of Anjou Charles I (early 1226/12277 January 1285), commonly called Charles of Anjou or Charles d'Anjou, was King of Sicily from 1266 to 1285. He was a member of the royal Capetian dynasty and the founder of the House of Anjou-Sicily. Between 1246 a ...

. * Giles of Rome, ''De regimine principum'' = 'On the Rule of Princes' (), written for Philip the Fair.

Late Middle Ages

* Engelbert of Admont, ''Speculum virtutum moralium'' (), written for Otto, Duke of Austria and Albert II, Duke of Austria * Paolino Veneto, ''Trattato de regimine rectoris'' (1313×1315), written for the Marino Badoer, duke of Crete * William of Pagula, ''Speculum regis'', written for

Edward III of England Edward III (13 November 1312 – 21 June 1377), also known as Edward of Windsor before his accession, was King of England from January 1327 until his death in 1377. He is noted for his military success and for restoring royal authority after t ...

(). * Don Juan Manuel, '' Tales of Count Lucanor'' (1335). * Don Juan Manuel, '' Libro Infinido o Libro de Castigos et de Consejos'' (1336–37) * Alvarus Pelagius, ''Speculum regum'' (1340s), written for

Alfonso XI of Castile Alfonso XI (11 August 131126 March 1350), called the Avenger (''el Justiciero''), was King of Castile and León. He was the son of Ferdinand IV of Castile and his wife Constance of Portugal. Upon his father's death in 1312, several disputes ...

. *'' Um styrilsi kununga ok höfþinga'' (1350s), Old Swedish treatise *''The III Consideracions Right Necesserye to the Good Governaunce of a Prince'' (), a translation of a French treatise from 1347, intended for King

John II of France John II (; 26 April 1319 – 8 April 1364), called John the Good (French: ''Jean le Bon''), was King of France from 1350 until his death in 1364. When he came to power, France faced several disasters: the Black Death, which killed between a thir ...

. * Philip of Leyden, ''De cura reipublicae et sorte principantis ("On the care of the state and the role of the ruler")'' (), dedicated to William V of Holland * Evrart de Trémaugon, ''Le songe du verger'' (1376). *''Der Fürsten reget'', (–1380) dedicated to

William, Duke of Austria William ( – 15 July 1406), known as William the Courteous (), a member of the House of Habsburg and Wilhelm, was Duke of Austria from 1386. As head of the Leopoldian line, he ruled over the Inner Austrian duchies of Carinthia, Styria and Carn ...

* Christine de Pizan, ''Epistre Othea a Hector'' (), ''Livre du corps de policie'' (1407), ''Livre de la paix'' (between 1412 and 1414). *

Pierre Salmon Pierre Salmon (–1424) was a French clergyman, courtier and diplomat under Charles VI of France, Charles VI. Salmon was educated at a university. He was in the royal service by 1395. In 1396, he accompanied Charles VI's daughter Isabella of Valo ...

, ''Dialogues'' (1409, rev. 1412/15), dedicated to

Charles VI of France Charles VI (3 December 136821 October 1422), nicknamed the Beloved () and in the 19th century, the Mad ( or ''le Fou''), was King of France from 1380 until his death in 1422. He is known for his mental illness and psychosis, psychotic episodes t ...

Thomas Hoccleve Thomas Hoccleve or Occleve (1368/69–1426) was a key figure in 15th-century Middle English literature, significant for promoting Chaucer as "the father of English literature", and as a poet in his own right. His poetry, especially his longest w ...

, ''De regimine principum'' (early 1410s) written for

Henry V of England Henry V (16 September 1386 – 31 August 1422), also called Henry of Monmouth, was King of England from 1413 until his death in 1422. Despite his relatively short reign, Henry's outstanding military successes in the Hundred Years' War against ...

. * Duarte of Portugal, ''Leal Conselheiro'' (1438), a practical manual of ethical guidance for the nobility of Portugal. * Andreas Pannonius, ''Libellus de virtutibus Matthiae Corvino dedicatus'' (1467), dedicated to

Matthias Corvinus Matthias Corvinus (; ; ; ; ; ) was King of Hungary and King of Croatia, Croatia from 1458 to 1490, as Matthias I. He is often given the epithet "the Just". After conducting several military campaigns, he was elected King of Bohemia in 1469 and ...

, and ''Libellus de virtutibus Herculi Estensi dedicatus'' (1471), dedicated to

Ercole I d'Este Ercole I d'Este (English: ''Hercules I''; 26 October 1431 – 25 January 1505) was Duke of Ferrara from 1471 until 1505. He was a member of the House of Este. He was nicknamed ''North Wind'' and ''The Diamond''. Biography Ercole was born in 143 ...

. * John Ireland, ''The Meroure of Wysedome'', (1490) written for

James IV of Scotland James IV (17 March 1473 – 9 September 1513) was List of Scottish monarchs, King of Scotland from 11 June 1488 until his death at the Battle of Flodden in 1513. He inherited the throne at the age of fifteen on the death of his father, James I ...

. * Phillipus de Bergamo, ''Spiegel der regyrunge'' (15th century) translated into middle German *''Eyn kurz ordenunge in gemeyne allen den die da regieren huß, dorffere oder stede'', (15th century) short text written on how to rule a household, village or city *''Von der regeronge der stede'', (15th century) text written on how to govern a city

Renaissance

* John Skelton, '' Speculum principis'' (1501), written for the then future

Henry VIII Henry VIII (28 June 149128 January 1547) was King of England from 22 April 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry is known for his Wives of Henry VIII, six marriages and his efforts to have his first marriage (to Catherine of Aragon) annulled. ...

. A copy of this treatise, which may not be entirely the same as that presented to Henry, resides with the British Museum. *

Erasmus Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus ( ; ; 28 October c. 1466 – 12 July 1536), commonly known in English as Erasmus of Rotterdam or simply Erasmus, was a Dutch Christian humanist, Catholic priest and Catholic theology, theologian, educationalist ...

, '' Institutio principis Christiani'' 'Education of a Christian Prince' (1516), written as advice to King Charles of Spain (the later Charles V). *

Martin Luther Martin Luther ( ; ; 10 November 1483 – 18 February 1546) was a German priest, Theology, theologian, author, hymnwriter, professor, and former Order of Saint Augustine, Augustinian friar. Luther was the seminal figure of the Reformation, Pr ...

. '' On Secular Authority'' (1523), a letter dedicated to

John, Elector of Saxony John (30 June 146816 August 1532), known as John the Steadfast or John the Constant (''Johann, der Beständige''), was Prince-elector, Elector of Electorate of Saxony, Saxony from 1525 until 1532 from the House of Wettin. He is notable for organ ...

* Baldassare Castiglione's ''

The Book of the Courtier ''The Book of the Courtier'' ( ) by Baldassare Castiglione is a lengthy philosophical dialogue on the topic of what constitutes an ideal courtier or (in the third chapter) court lady, worthy to befriend and advise a prince or political leader. ...

'' (1528), based on experiences of the courts of Urbino. * Antonio de Guevara, ''Relox de príncipes'' (1529), inspired by and dedicated to Charles V, a bestseller of its times, translated during the 16th century to English, Latin, Italian, German, French and Dutch. * Justus Menius, '' Oeconomia christiana'' (1529), dedicated to Sibylle of Cleves for a right ordering of a Christian ''Lutheran'' household * Machiavelli, (, published in 1532). *

George Buchanan George Buchanan (; February 1506 – 28 September 1582) was a Scottish historian and humanist scholar. According to historian Keith Brown, Buchanan was "the most profound intellectual sixteenth-century Scotland produced." His ideology of re ...

, '' De iure regni apud Scotos'' (1579), a work in the form of a Socratic dialogue on ideal kingship dedicated to the young

James VI James may refer to: People * James (given name) * James (surname) * James (musician), aka Faruq Mahfuz Anam James, (born 1964), Bollywood musician * James, brother of Jesus * King James (disambiguation), various kings named James * Prince Ja ...

of Scotland * Giovanni Botero, '' The Reason of State'' (1589), a criticism of Machiavelli's Prince. *Johann Damgaard, ''Alithia'' (1597), written for the young Danish monarch King Christian IV. * Juan de Mariana, '' De rege et regis institutione'' (Toledo, 1598); ''The King and the Education of the King'' *

James VI of Scotland James VI and I (James Charles Stuart; 19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625) was King of Scotland as James VI from 24 July 1567 and King of England and Ireland as James I from the union of the Scottish and English crowns on 24 March 1603 until ...

, '' Basilikon Doron'' (1599) written as a gift to his eldest son. * Tomas Fernández de Medrano, ''República Mista'' (1602), dedicated to the 1st Duke of Lerma. *

Francisco de Quevedo Francisco Gómez de Quevedo y Santibáñez Villegas, Order of Santiago, Knight of the Order of Santiago (; 14 September 1580 – 8 September 1645) was a Spanish nobleman, politician and writer of the Baroque era. Along with his lifelong rival, ...

, La política de Dios, y gobierno de Cristo (1617–1626) ''The Politics of God and the Government of Christ'' *

Hugo Grotius Hugo Grotius ( ; 10 April 1583 – 28 August 1645), also known as Hugo de Groot () or Huig de Groot (), was a Dutch humanist, diplomat, lawyer, theologian, jurist, statesman, poet and playwright. A teenage prodigy, he was born in Delft an ...

, '' De jure belli ac pacis'' (1625) dedicated to

Louis XIII of France Louis XIII (; sometimes called the Just; 27 September 1601 – 14 May 1643) was King of France from 1610 until his death in 1643 and King of Navarre (as Louis II) from 1610 to 1620, when the crown of Navarre was merged with the French crown. ...

* John Gauden, ''

Eikon Basilike The ( ; , ), ''The Pourtraicture of His Sacred Majestie in His Solitudes and Sufferings'', is a purported spiritual autobiography attributed to King Charles I of England. It was published on 9 February 1649, ten days after the Execution of Ch ...

'' (1649) published after

Charles I of England Charles I (19 November 1600 – 30 January 1649) was King of Kingdom of England, England, Kingdom of Scotland, Scotland, and Kingdom of Ireland, Ireland from 27 March 1625 until Execution of Charles I, his execution in 1649. Charles was born ...

was beheaded. * Diego Fernández de Medrano y Zenizeros, '' Mirror of Princes: Crucible of their Virtues, Astonishment of their Failings, Soul of their Government and Government of their Soul'' (1657–1661), dedicated to Philip Prospero, Prince of Asturias.

Enlightenment

John Locke John Locke (; 29 August 1632 (Old Style and New Style dates, O.S.) – 28 October 1704 (Old Style and New Style dates, O.S.)) was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of the Enlightenment thi ...

, ''

Some Thoughts Concerning Education ''Some Thoughts Concerning Education'' is a 1693 treatise on the education of gentlemen written by the English philosopher John Locke. For over a century, it was the most important philosophical work on education in England. It was translat ...

'' (1693 AD) *

Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet Jacques-Bénigne Lignel Bossuet (; 27 September 1627 – 12 April 1704) was a French Bishop (Catholic Church), bishop and theology, theologian. Renowned for his sermons, addresses and literary works, he is regarded as a brilliant orator and lit ...

, '' Politics Drawn from the Very Words of Holy Scripture'' (1709 AD) dedicated to the future

Louis XV of France Louis XV (15 February 1710 – 10 May 1774), known as Louis the Beloved (), was King of France from 1 September 1715 until his death in 1774. He succeeded his great-grandfather Louis XIV at the age of five. Until he reached maturity (then defi ...

. * Johann Gottfried Gregorii, '' Curieuse Affecten-Spiegel'' (1715 AD), particularly the chapter ''On the Christian Wisdom of Kings, Princes and Rulers'' *

Frederick II of Prussia Frederick II (; 24 January 171217 August 1786) was the monarch of Prussia from 1740 until his death in 1786. He was the last Hohenzollern monarch titled ''King in Prussia'', declaring himself '' King of Prussia'' after annexing Royal Prus ...

, '' Anti-Machiavel'' (1740 AD) a critique of Machiavelli's Prince. *

, ''Letter addressed to his nephew, Charles Eugene, Duke of Württemberg'' (6 February 1744 AD) *

Montesquieu Charles Louis de Secondat, baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (18 January 168910 February 1755), generally referred to as simply Montesquieu, was a French judge, man of letters, historian, and political philosopher. He is the principal so ...

, ''

The Spirit of Law ''The Spirit of Law'' (French: ''De l'esprit des lois'', originally spelled ''De l'esprit des loix''), also known in English as ''The Spirit of heLaws'', is a treatise on political theory, as well as a pioneering work in comparative law by Mont ...

'' (1748 AD)

Modern

* Walter Bagehot, ''

The English Constitution ''The English Constitution'' is a book by Walter Bagehot. First serialised in ''The Fortnightly Review'' between 15 May 1865 and 1 January 1867, and later published in book form in 1867, it explores the constitution of the United Kingdom—spec ...

'' (1867) studied by generations of British monarchs for its insight on their role in a constitutional monarchy.

Byzantine texts

* Synesius, Bishop of Cyrene, ''De regno'', speech delivered to emperor Arcadius. * Agapetus the deacon, speech delivered to emperor

Justinian I Justinian I (, ; 48214 November 565), also known as Justinian the Great, was Roman emperor from 527 to 565. His reign was marked by the ambitious but only partly realized ''renovatio imperii'', or "restoration of the Empire". This ambition was ...

. () *

Basil I the Macedonian Basil I, nicknamed "the Macedonian" (; 811 – 29 August 886), was List of Byzantine emperors, Byzantine emperor from 867 to 886. Born to a peasant family in Macedonia (theme), Macedonia, he rose to prominence in the imperial court after gainin ...

, Admonitory chapters I and II to his son emperor

Leo VI the Wise Leo VI, also known as Leo the Wise (; 19 September 866 – 11 May 912), was Byzantine Emperor from 886 to 912. The second ruler of the Macedonian dynasty (although his parentage is unclear), he was very well read, leading to his epithet. During ...

* Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos, ''

De Administrando Imperio (; ) is a Greek-language work written by the 10th-century Byzantine Emperor Constantine VII. It is a domestic and foreign policy manual for the use of Constantine's son and successor, the Emperor Romanos II. It is a prominent example of Byz ...

'', a domestic and foreign policy manual for the use of Constantine's son and successor, the Emperor Romanos II. (948–952) * Kekaumenos, '' Strategikon'' (1075/1078), chapters 77 – 91. *Archbishop

Theophylact of Ohrid Theophylact (, ; around 1055after 1107) was a Byzantine Empire, Byzantine Archbishop of Ohrid and commentator on the Bible. He is regarded as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox Church, commemorated on December 31st. Life Theophylact was born in the ...

, ''Paideia Basilike'' (Lat. ''Institutio Regia'') (), addressed to his pupil Constantine Doukas, son of Emperor

Michael VII Doukas Michael VII Doukas or Ducas (), nicknamed Parapinakes (, , a reference to the devaluation of the Byzantine currency under his rule), was the senior Byzantine emperor from 1071 to 1078. He was known as incompetent as an emperor and reliant on ...

. *''Spaneas'' or ''Didaskalia Parainetike'', modelled on the Isocratean ''Ad Demonicum'' (12th century) * Nikephoros Blemmydes, ''Andrias Basilikos'' (Lat. ''Regia statua'', "Statue of a King"), written for

Theodore II Laskaris Theodore II Laskaris or Ducas Lascaris (; November 1221/1222 – 16 August 1258) was Emperor of Nicaea from 1254 to 1258. He was the only child of Emperor John III Doukas Vatatzes and Empress Irene Laskarina. His mother was the eldest da ...

, the future Nicaean emperor () * Thomas Magistros, ''La '' addressed to

Andronikos II Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos (; 25 March 1259 – 13 February 1332), Latinization of names, Latinized as Andronicus II Palaeologus, reigned as Byzantine emperor from 1282 to 1328. His reign marked the beginning of the recently restored em ...

. (14th century) * Manuel II Palaiologos, ''Paideia Regia'' dedicated to his son, John VIII Palaiologos. (15th century)

Pre-Islamic Persian texts

*''Ewen-Nāmag'' ("Book of Rules"): On the Sasanian manners, customs, skills, and arts, sciences, etc. (Between 3rd and 7th century AD) *''Andarz'' literature. (Between 3rd and 7th century AD)

Islamic texts

* Abd al-Hamid al-Katib, letter to Abdallah son of the Umayyad caliph

Marwan II Marwan ibn Muhammad ibn Marwan (; – 6 August 750), commonly known as Marwan II, was the fourteenth and last caliph of the Umayyad Caliphate, ruling from 744 until his death. His reign was dominated by a Third Fitna, civil war, and he was the l ...

() * Ibn al-Muqaffa, '' Kalila wa Dimna'' () * Abu Yahya ibn al-Batriq (d. 815) ''Sirr al-Asrar'' () *

Al-Farabi file:A21-133 grande.webp, thumbnail, 200px, Postage stamp of the USSR, issued on the 1100th anniversary of the birth of Al-Farabi (1975) Abu Nasr Muhammad al-Farabi (; – 14 December 950–12 January 951), known in the Greek East and Latin West ...

(–950), ''Fusul al-Madani'' 'Aphorisms of a Statesman' * Abu'l-Qasim al-Husayn ibn Ali al-Maghribi (981–1027), ''Kitab fi'l-si'yasa'' * Al-Tha'alibi (d. 1038), ''Ādāb al-mulūk'' * Al-Mubashshir ibn Fatik (fl.1053, Damascus), ''Mukhtār al-Hikam wa-Maḥāsin al-Kalim'' () 'Selected Maxims and Aphorisms' *'' Qabus nama'' (1082) – a Persian example of the genre *

Nizam al-Mulk Abū ʿAlī Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī Ṭūsī () (1018 – 1092), better known by his honorific title of Niẓām al-Mulk (), was a Persian Sunni scholar, jurist, political philosopher and vizier of the Seljuk Empire. Rising from a low position w ...

, '' Siyāset-nāmeh'' 'Book of Government' () (Persian) * Al-Imam al-Hadrami (d. 1095) – ''Kitâb al-Ishâra'' *

Al-Ghazali Al-Ghazali ( – 19 December 1111), archaically Latinized as Algazelus, was a Shafi'i Sunni Muslim scholar and polymath. He is known as one of the most prominent and influential jurisconsults, legal theoreticians, muftis, philosophers, the ...

(1058–1111), ''Nasihat al-muluk'' 'Counsel to Princes' (Persian) *

(1105 AD/499AH), ''Alchemy of Happiness'', Book XXI, Part Three, 'Disciplining the Self' * Yusuf Balasaghuni, '' Kutadgu Bilig'' (11th century) * At-Turtushi, ''

Siraj al-Muluk Siraj is , itself a loanword from . It may refer to: * Siraj (name), a common men's name in Muslim societies * Saraz region, an area of Jammu, India * Siraj (director), Indian film director * Siraj (name), a list of notable people with Siraj as ...

'' 'The Lamp of Kings' () * Ibn Ẓafar al-Ṣiqillī's (12th century) ''Sulwan al-Muta' fi 'udwan al-atba'' 'Consolation for the Ruler during the Hostility of Subjects'; published in English (1852) as, ''Solwān; or Waters Of Comfort'' *''Bahr Al-Fava'id'' 'Sea of (Precious) Virtues', compiled in the 12th century. *

Ibn Arabi Ibn Arabi (July 1165–November 1240) was an Andalusian Sunni Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam and the largest religious denomination in the world. It holds that Muhammad did not appoint any successor and that his closest com ...

, ''Divine Governance of the Human Kingdom (At-Tadbidrat al-ilahiyyah fi islah al-mamlakat al-insaniyyah)'' (1194–1201 AD/590-598AH) * Saadi's '' Gulistan'', chapter I, "The Manners of Kings", (1258, Persian). *'' Wasitat al-suluk fi siyasat al-muluk'' * Hussain Vaiz Kashifi's Aklhaq i Muhsini (composed in Persian AH 900/ AD 1495), translated into English as "The Morals of the Beneficent" in the mid 19th century by Henry George Keene * Abd al-Wahhab al-Sha'rani (1540s AD/946AH) "Advice for Callow Jurists and Gullible Mendicants on Befriending Emirs" * Lütfi Pasha ''Asafname'' (Mid-16th century) *Muhammad al-Baqir Najm-I Sani, ''Mau‘izah-i Jahangiri'' 'Admonition of Jahāngír' or 'Advice on the art of governance' (1612–1613).

Slavonic texts

*Patriarch

Photios I of Constantinople Photius I of Constantinople (, ''Phōtios''; 815 – 6 February 893), also spelled ''Photius''Fr. Justin Taylor, essay "Canon Law in the Age of the Fathers" (published in Jordan Hite, T.O.R., and Daniel J. Ward, O.S.B., "Readings, Cases, Mate ...

, letter addressed to

Boris I of Bulgaria Boris I (also ''Bogoris''), venerated as Saint Boris I (Mihail) the Baptizer (, ; died 2 May 907), was the ruler (knyaz) of the First Bulgarian Empire from 852 to 889. Despite a number of military setbacks, the reign of Boris I was marked wit ...

(867 AD) *Poucheniye (Instruction) of Vladmir Monomakh to his children (1120s). * () moral guide and education for children * Patriarch Antony IV of Constantinople, letter to Vasily I of Moscow (1393). * Domostroy () *

Neagoe Basarab Neagoe Basarab (; – 15 September 1521) was the Voivode (Prince) of Wallachia between 1512 and 1521. Born into the boyar family of the Craiovești (his reign marks the climax of the family's political influence) as the son of Pârvu Craioves ...

(1512–1521), ''The teachings of Neagoe Basarab to his son Theodosie'', one of the earliest literary works in

Wallachia Wallachia or Walachia (; ; : , : ) is a historical and geographical region of modern-day Romania. It is situated north of the Lower Danube and south of the Southern Carpathians. Wallachia was traditionally divided into two sections, Munteni ...

Mikhail Lomonosov Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (; , ; – ) was a Russian polymath, scientist and writer, who made important contributions to literature, education, and science. Among his discoveries were the atmosphere of Venus and the law of conservation of ...

, (1760) ''Panegyric to the Sovereign Emperor, Peter the Great''

Chinese texts

Ancient

Tao Te Ching The ''Tao Te Ching'' () or ''Laozi'' is a Chinese classic text and foundational work of Taoism traditionally credited to the sage Laozi, though the text's authorship and date of composition and compilation are debated. The oldest excavated por ...

–

Lao Tzu Laozi (), also romanized as Lao Tzu #Name, among other ways, was a semi-legendary Chinese philosophy, Chinese philosopher and author of the ''Tao Te Ching'' (''Laozi''), one of the foundational texts of Taoism alongside the ''Zhuangzi (book) ...

Chinese philosopher (Can be interpreted as a mystical text, philosophical text, or political treatise on rulership) (late 4th century BC) *

Mencius Mencius (孟子, ''Mèngzǐ'', ; ) was a Chinese Confucian philosopher, often described as the Second Sage () to reflect his traditional esteem relative to Confucius himself. He was part of Confucius's fourth generation of disciples, inheriting ...

– moral advice for a ruler (late 4th century BC) * Han Fei Zi – Legalist text advice for a ruler and the art of statecraft (mid-3rd century BC) dedicated to

Qin Shi Huang Qin Shi Huang (, ; February 25912 July 210 BC), born Ying Zheng () or Zhao Zheng (), was the founder of the Qin dynasty and the first emperor of China. He is widely regarded as the first ever supreme leader of a unitary state, unitary d ...

* The Book of Lord Shang (Multiple authors spanning centuries, starting from c. 330 BC) text advice useful for a ruler and statecraft * Shizi (c. 330 BC) particularly section 15, ''The Ruler's Governance''

Imperial dynasties

Han dynasty

* Lu Jia () ''Xin Yu'' 新语 ("New Discourses"), treatise on why empires rise and fall. * Ban Biao () ''

Book of Han The ''Book of Han'' is a history of China finished in 111 CE, covering the Western, or Former Han dynasty from the first emperor in 206 BCE to the fall of Wang Mang in 23 CE. The work was composed by Ban Gu (32–92 CE), ...

'', Volume 23, Treatise on Punishment and Law * Ban Biao () Treatise on the Mandate of Kings (王命論) covers the concept of sovereignty that would influence later Chinese texts.

Tang dynasty

* Ouyang Xun (624 AD) ''Yiwen leiju'' 藝文類聚 ("Classified collection based on the Classics and other literature") * Kong Yingda (642 AD) ''Wujing Zhengyi'' 五經正義 ("Correct Meaning of the Five Classics") * Liu Zhi (7th century AD) ''Zhengdian'' 政典 ("Manual of politics"), a political encyclopaedia useful for young boys taking the

Imperial Examination The imperial examination was a civil service examination system in History of China#Imperial China, Imperial China administered for the purpose of selecting candidates for the Civil service#China, state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureau ...

Song dynasty

* Ouyang Xiu (1060 AD)

New Book of Tang The ''New Book of Tang'', generally translated as the "New History of the Tang" or "New Tang History", is a work of official history covering the Tang dynasty in ten volumes and 225 chapters. The work was compiled by a team of scholars of the So ...

, carries a treatise on how to select and appoint officials. *

Sima Guang Sima Guang (17 November 1019 – 11 October 1086), courtesy name Junshi, was a Chinese historian, politician, and writer. He was a high-ranking Song dynasty scholar-official who authored the ''Zizhi Tongjian'', a monumental work of history. B ...

(1084 AD)

Zizhi Tongjian The ''Zizhi Tongjian'' (1084) is a chronicle published during the Northern Song dynasty (960–1127) that provides a record of Chinese history from 403 BC to 959 AD, covering 16 dynasties and spanning almost 1400 years. The main text is ...

(''Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance'') *

Zhu Xi Zhu Xi ( zh, c=朱熹; ; October 18, 1130April 23, 1200), formerly romanized Chu Hsi, was a Chinese philosopher, historian, politician, poet, and calligrapher of the Southern Song dynasty. As a leading figure in the development of Neo-Confuci ...

(1172 AD)

Zizhi Tongjian Gangmu The ''Zizhi Tongjian Gangmu'' (資治通鑑綱目, "Outline and Details of the '' Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Government''"), also known as the ''Tongjian Gangmu'' or ''Gangmu'', is an 1172 Chinese history book based on Sima Guang's 1084 book '' ...

* Zheng Qiao (12th century) ''Tongzhi'' 通治 ("Comprehensive Treatise on Government")

Ming dynasty

Zhu Yuanzhang The Hongwu Emperor (21 October 1328– 24 June 1398), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizu of Ming, personal name Zhu Yuanzhang, courtesy name Guorui, was the founding emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1368 to 1398. In ...

(1373 AD) '' Huang-Ming Zuxun''

Qing dynasty

* Huang Zongxi (1661–62 AD) '' Waiting for the Dawn''

In popular culture

* ''Mirrors For Princes'' is the name of a 2010 cinematic work by Lior Shamriz. Parts of the text were based on the

and other Sumerian literature.

Antiquity

Sumer

Egypt

Indian

Greek and Roman

Western European texts

Early Middle Ages

High Middle Ages

Late Middle Ages

Renaissance

Enlightenment

Modern

Byzantine texts

Pre-Islamic Persian texts

Islamic texts

Slavonic texts

Chinese texts

Ancient

Imperial dynasties

Han dynasty

Tang dynasty

Song dynasty

Ming dynasty

Qing dynasty

In popular culture

See also

References

Further reading