The Ming treasure voyages were maritime expeditions undertaken by
Ming China's
treasure fleet between 1405 and 1433. The
Yongle Emperor
The Yongle Emperor (2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Chengzu of Ming, personal name Zhu Di, was the third List of emperors of the Ming dynasty, emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1402 to 142 ...
ordered the construction of the fleet in 1403. The grand project resulted in seven far-reaching ocean voyages to the coastal territories and islands of the
South China Sea
The South China Sea is a marginal sea of the Western Pacific Ocean. It is bounded in the north by South China, in the west by the Indochinese Peninsula, in the east by the islands of Taiwan island, Taiwan and northwestern Philippines (mainly Luz ...
and
Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or approximately 20% of the water area of Earth#Surface, Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia (continent), ...
. Admiral
Zheng He
Zheng He (also romanized Cheng Ho; 1371–1433/1435) was a Chinese eunuch, admiral and diplomat from the early Ming dynasty, who is often regarded as the greatest admiral in History of China, Chinese history. Born into a Muslims, Muslim famil ...
was commissioned to command the fleet for the expeditions. Six of the voyages occurred during the Yongle Emperor's reign () and the seventh voyage occurred during the
Xuande Emperor's reign (). The first three voyages reached up to
Calicut on India's
Malabar Coast
The Malabar Coast () is the southwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. It generally refers to the West Coast of India, western coastline of India stretching from Konkan to Kanyakumari. Geographically, it comprises one of the wettest regio ...
, while the fourth voyage went as far as
Hormuz in the
Persian Gulf
The Persian Gulf, sometimes called the Arabian Gulf, is a Mediterranean seas, mediterranean sea in West Asia. The body of water is an extension of the Arabian Sea and the larger Indian Ocean located between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula.Un ...
. In the last three voyages, the fleet traveled up to the
Arabian Peninsula
The Arabian Peninsula (, , or , , ) or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At , comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world.
Geographically, the ...
and
East Africa
East Africa, also known as Eastern Africa or the East of Africa, is a region at the eastern edge of the Africa, African continent, distinguished by its unique geographical, historical, and cultural landscape. Defined in varying scopes, the regi ...
.
The Chinese expeditionary fleet was heavily militarized and carried great amounts of treasures, which served to project Chinese power and wealth to the known world. They brought back many foreign ambassadors whose kings and rulers were willing to declare themselves
tributaries of China. During the course of the voyages, they
destroyed Chen Zuyi's pirate fleet at
Palembang,
captured the Sinhalese Kotte kingdom of King Alakeshvara, and defeated the forces of the
Semudera pretender Sekandar in northern
Sumatra
Sumatra () is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the list of islands by area, sixth-largest island in the world at 482,286.55 km2 (182,812 mi. ...
. The Chinese maritime exploits brought many countries into China's
tributary system and sphere of influence through both military and political supremacy, thus incorporating the states into the greater Chinese world order under Ming
suzerainty
A suzerain (, from Old French "above" + "supreme, chief") is a person, state (polity)">state or polity who has supremacy and dominant influence over the foreign policy">polity.html" ;"title="state (polity)">state or polity">state (polity)">st ...
. Moreover, the Chinese restructured and established control over an expansive
maritime network in which the region became
integrated and its countries became interconnected on an economic and political level.
The Ming treasure voyages were commanded and overseen by the
eunuch establishment whose political influence was heavily dependent on imperial favor. Within Ming China's imperial state system, the civil officials were the primary political opponents of the eunuchs and the opposing faction against the expeditions. Near the end of the maritime voyages, the civil government gained the upper hand within the state bureaucracy, while the eunuchs gradually fell out of favor after the death of the Yongle Emperor and lost the authority to conduct these large-scale endeavors. Furthermore, local authorities and elites had economic interests antagonistic to the central state control of commerce, since the state-sponsored maritime enterprise had been key to counterbalancing localized private trade.
Over the course of these maritime voyages, Ming China became the pre-eminent
naval power by projecting its sea power further to the south and west. There is still much debate regarding issues such as the actual purpose of the voyages, the size of the ships, the magnitude of the fleet, the routes taken, the nautical charts employed, the countries visited, and the cargo carried.
Background
Creation of the fleet
On 17 July 1402, in
Ming China, Zhu Di, the Prince of Yan, ascended the throne as the
Yongle Emperor
The Yongle Emperor (2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Chengzu of Ming, personal name Zhu Di, was the third List of emperors of the Ming dynasty, emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1402 to 142 ...
. He inherited a powerful navy from his father, the
Hongwu Emperor
The Hongwu Emperor (21 October 1328– 24 June 1398), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Taizu of Ming, personal name Zhu Yuanzhang, courtesy name Guorui, was the List of emperors of the Ming dynasty, founding emperor of the Ming dyna ...
, and further developed it as an instrument for an expansive overseas policy.
[.][.] The contains 24 short entries for the imperial orders for shipbuilding, with figures pointing to at least 2,868 ships, from 1403 to 1419.
[.] Over the course of 1403,
Fujian
Fujian is a provinces of China, province in East China, southeastern China. Fujian is bordered by Zhejiang to the north, Jiangxi to the west, Guangdong to the south, and the Taiwan Strait to the east. Its capital is Fuzhou and its largest prefe ...
,
Jiangxi
; Gan: )
, translit_lang1_type2 =
, translit_lang1_info2 =
, translit_lang1_type3 =
, translit_lang1_info3 =
, image_map = Jiangxi in China (+all claims hatched).svg
, mapsize = 275px
, map_caption = Location ...
,
Zhejiang
)
, translit_lang1_type2 =
, translit_lang1_info2 = ( Hangzhounese) ( Ningbonese) (Wenzhounese)
, image_skyline = 玉甑峰全貌 - panoramio.jpg
, image_caption = View of the Yandang Mountains
, image_map = Zhejiang i ...
, and
Huguang's provincial governments as well as
Nanjing
Nanjing or Nanking is the capital of Jiangsu, a province in East China. The city, which is located in the southwestern corner of the province, has 11 districts, an administrative area of , and a population of 9,423,400.
Situated in the Yang ...
,
Suzhou
Suzhou is a major prefecture-level city in southern Jiangsu province, China. As part of the Yangtze Delta megalopolis, it is a major economic center and focal point of trade and commerce.
Founded in 514 BC, Suzhou rapidly grew in size by the ...
, and other cities' military garrisons were ordered to begin constructing ships.
[.]
Under the reign of the Yongle Emperor, Ming China underwent
militaristic expansionism with ventures such as the treasure voyages.
[.] In 1403, he issued an imperial order to start the immense construction project of the
treasure fleet.
[.] The fleet was known as the (), its original designation, in Chinese sources. It came to comprise many trading ships, warships, and support vessels.
[ The Longjiang shipyard was the construction site for many of the fleet's ships,][.] including all of the treasure ships.[ It was located on the Qinhuai River near Nanjing, where it flows into the ]Yangtze River
The Yangtze or Yangzi ( or ) is the longest river in Eurasia and the third-longest in the world. It rises at Jari Hill in the Tanggula Mountains of the Tibetan Plateau and flows including Dam Qu River the longest source of the Yangtze, i ...
.[ Many trees were cut along the Min River and upper reaches of the Yangtze River to supply the necessary resources for the fleet's construction.][ Existing ships were also converted to serve in the fleet for the voyages, but this can only be said with certainty for 249 ships ordered in 1407.
The fleet's high-ranking officers, such as Admiral ]Zheng He
Zheng He (also romanized Cheng Ho; 1371–1433/1435) was a Chinese eunuch, admiral and diplomat from the early Ming dynasty, who is often regarded as the greatest admiral in History of China, Chinese history. Born into a Muslims, Muslim famil ...
, were from the eunuch
A eunuch ( , ) is a male who has been castration, castrated. Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2 ...
establishment.[.] Zheng served as the Grand Director in the Directorate of Palace Servants, a eunuch-dominated department, before his command of the expeditions.[.] The emperor placed great trust in Zheng and appointed him to command the fleet.[.] He even gave him blank scrolls stamped with his seal to issue imperial orders at sea.[ The other principal officers, such as Wang Jinghong, Hou Xian, Li Xing, Zhu Liang, Zhou Man, Hong Bao, Yang Zhen, Zhang Da, and Wu Zhong, were court eunuchs employed in the civil service.][.] The rest of the crew was predominantly from the Ming military[ and mostly recruited from Fujian.][.]
Regions
During the onset of the Ming treasure voyages, the Chinese treasure fleet embarked from the Longjiang shipyard and sailed down the Yangtze River
The Yangtze or Yangzi ( or ) is the longest river in Eurasia and the third-longest in the world. It rises at Jari Hill in the Tanggula Mountains of the Tibetan Plateau and flows including Dam Qu River the longest source of the Yangtze, i ...
to Liujiagang, where Zheng He organized his fleet and made sacrifices to the goddess Tianfei.[.] Over the course of the following four to eight weeks, the fleet gradually proceeded to Taiping anchorage in Changle,[ where they waited for the favorable northeast winter monsoon before leaving the Fujian coast.][.][.] The monsoon winds generally affected how the fleet sailed through the South China Sea and Indian Ocean.[ They reached the sea through the Wuhumen ('five tiger passage') of the Min River in Fujian.][ The port of Qui Nhon in ]Champa
Champa (Cham language, Cham: ꨌꩌꨛꨩ, چمڤا; ; 占城 or 占婆) was a collection of independent Chams, Cham Polity, polities that extended across the coast of what is present-day Central Vietnam, central and southern Vietnam from ...
was always the first foreign destination that the fleet visited.[
The voyages sent the fleet to the Western Ocean (西洋), which was the maritime region encompassing today's ]South China Sea
The South China Sea is a marginal sea of the Western Pacific Ocean. It is bounded in the north by South China, in the west by the Indochinese Peninsula, in the east by the islands of Taiwan island, Taiwan and northwestern Philippines (mainly Luz ...
and Indian Ocean
The Indian Ocean is the third-largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, covering or approximately 20% of the water area of Earth#Surface, Earth's surface. It is bounded by Asia to the north, Africa to the west and Australia (continent), ...
during the Ming dynasty. More specifically, contemporary sources such as the '' Yingya Shenglan'' place the dividing line between the Eastern Ocean and Western Ocean at Brunei
Brunei, officially Brunei Darussalam, is a country in Southeast Asia, situated on the northern coast of the island of Borneo. Apart from its coastline on the South China Sea, it is completely surrounded by the Malaysian state of Sarawak, with ...
.
During the first three voyages from 1405 to 1411, the fleet followed the same basic maritime route: from Fujian to the first call in Champa, across the South China Sea to Java
Java is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea (a part of Pacific Ocean) to the north. With a population of 156.9 million people (including Madura) in mid 2024, proje ...
and Sumatra
Sumatra () is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the list of islands by area, sixth-largest island in the world at 482,286.55 km2 (182,812 mi. ...
, up the Strait of Malacca
The Strait of Malacca is a narrow stretch of water, long and from wide, between the Malay Peninsula to the northeast and the Indonesian island of Sumatra to the southwest, connecting the Andaman Sea (Indian Ocean) and the South China Sea (Pa ...
to northern Sumatra for assembly of the fleet, across the Indian Ocean to Ceylon
Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, also known historically as Ceylon, is an island country in South Asia. It lies in the Indian Ocean, southwest of the Bay of Bengal, separated from the Indian subcontinent, ...
, then along the Malabar Coast
The Malabar Coast () is the southwestern region of the Indian subcontinent. It generally refers to the West Coast of India, western coastline of India stretching from Konkan to Kanyakumari. Geographically, it comprises one of the wettest regio ...
to Calicut. At the time, the fleet sailed no further than Calicut.[ During the fourth voyage, the route was extended to Hormuz.][.][ During the fifth, sixth, and seventh voyages, the fleet traveled further to destinations in the ]Arabian Peninsula
The Arabian Peninsula (, , or , , ) or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At , comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world.
Geographically, the ...
and East Africa
East Africa, also known as Eastern Africa or the East of Africa, is a region at the eastern edge of the Africa, African continent, distinguished by its unique geographical, historical, and cultural landscape. Defined in varying scopes, the regi ...
.[ For the sixth voyage, the fleet sailed up to Calicut, where several detached squadrons proceeded to further destinations at the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa.][ For the seventh voyage, the fleet followed the route up to Hormuz, while detached squadrons traveled to other places at the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa.][
]
Course
First voyage
In the third lunar month (30 March to 28 April) of 1405, a preliminary order was issued to Admiral Zheng He
Zheng He (also romanized Cheng Ho; 1371–1433/1435) was a Chinese eunuch, admiral and diplomat from the early Ming dynasty, who is often regarded as the greatest admiral in History of China, Chinese history. Born into a Muslims, Muslim famil ...
and others to lead 27,000 troops to the Western Ocean. An imperial edict, dated 11 July 1405, was issued containing the order for the expedition.[.][.] It was addressed to Zheng He, Wang Jinghong, and others.[.]
The Yongle Emperor
The Yongle Emperor (2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Chengzu of Ming, personal name Zhu Di, was the third List of emperors of the Ming dynasty, emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1402 to 142 ...
held a banquet for the crew on the evening before the treasure fleet's maiden voyage.[ Gifts were presented to the officers and the common crew according to their rank.][ Sacrifices and prayers were offered to Tianfei, the patron goddess of sailors and seafarers, in the hopes of ensuring a successful journey and safe passage during the voyage.][.] In the autumn of 1405, the fleet had assembled at Nanjing
Nanjing or Nanking is the capital of Jiangsu, a province in East China. The city, which is located in the southwestern corner of the province, has 11 districts, an administrative area of , and a population of 9,423,400.
Situated in the Yang ...
and was ready to depart from the city. According to the '' Taizong Shilu's'' entry for 11 July 1405 about the dispatch of the fleet, Zheng and "others" left on the first expedition "bearing imperial letters to the countries of the Western Ocean and with gifts to their kings of gold brocade, patterned silk
Silk is a natural fiber, natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be weaving, woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is most commonly produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoon (silk), c ...
s, and colored silk gauze, according to their status".[.] The fleet made a stop at Liujiagang.[.][ There, the fleet was organized in squadrons while the fleet's crew honored Tianfei with prayers and sacrifices.] Then, the fleet sailed down the coast to Taiping anchorage in Changle near the Min River, where it awaited the northeast monsoon
A monsoon () is traditionally a seasonal reversing wind accompanied by corresponding changes in precipitation but is now used to describe seasonal changes in Atmosphere of Earth, atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with annu ...
.[ The crew offered more prayers and sacrifices to Tianfei during their wait.][ Afterwards, the fleet departed via the Wuhumen.][.]
The fleet sailed to Champa
Champa (Cham language, Cham: ꨌꩌꨛꨩ, چمڤا; ; 占城 or 占婆) was a collection of independent Chams, Cham Polity, polities that extended across the coast of what is present-day Central Vietnam, central and southern Vietnam from ...
,[.] Java
Java is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea (a part of Pacific Ocean) to the north. With a population of 156.9 million people (including Madura) in mid 2024, proje ...
,[.] Malacca
Malacca (), officially the Historic State of Malacca (), is a States and federal territories of Malaysia, state in Malaysia located in the Peninsular Malaysia#Other features, southern region of the Malay Peninsula, facing the Strait of Malacca ...
,[ Aru,][ Semudera,][ Lambri,][ ]Ceylon
Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, also known historically as Ceylon, is an island country in South Asia. It lies in the Indian Ocean, southwest of the Bay of Bengal, separated from the Indian subcontinent, ...
,[ Quilon,][ and Calicut.][.] From Lambri, the fleet sailed straight through the Indian Ocean instead of following the Bay of Bengal
The Bay of Bengal is the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean. Geographically it is positioned between the Indian subcontinent and the Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochinese peninsula, located below the Bengal region.
Many South Asian and Southe ...
coastline to Ceylon.[ Three days after their departure from Lambri, a ship split off and went to the ]Andaman and Nicobar Islands
The Andaman and Nicobar Islands is a union territory of India comprising 572 islands, of which only 38 are inhabited. The islands are grouped into two main clusters: the northern Andaman Islands and the southern Nicobar Islands, separated by a ...
.[ Six days after the separation, the fleet saw the mountains of Ceylon and arrived at Ceylon's western coast two days later.][ They left this region as they were met with hostility from the local ruler, Alakeshvara. Dreyer (2007) states that it is possible that Zheng made port at Quilon—although there is no account confirming this—because the King of Quilon traveled with the fleet to China in 1407.][ Mills (1970) states that the fleet may have stayed four months at Calicut from December to April 1407.][ Around Cape Comorin on the southern tip of the ]Indian subcontinent
The Indian subcontinent is a physiographic region of Asia below the Himalayas which projects into the Indian Ocean between the Bay of Bengal to the east and the Arabian Sea to the west. It is now divided between Bangladesh, India, and Pakista ...
, the fleet changed direction and began its return journey to China.[.] During the return, the fleet stopped at Malacca again.[.]
During the return trip in 1407, Zheng and his associates engaged Chen Zuyi and his pirate fleet in battle at Palembang.[ Chen had seized Palembang][ and dominated the maritime route along the Malaccan Strait.][ The battle concluded with the defeat of Chen's pirate fleet by the Chinese treasure fleet.][.] He and his lieutenants were executed on 2 October 1407 when the Chinese fleet returned to Nanjing.[.] The Ming court appointed Shi Jinqing as the Pacification Superintendent of Palembang, establishing an ally at Palembang and securing access to its port.[.]
The fleet returned to Nanjing on 2 October 1407.[.] After accompanying the fleet during the return journey, the foreign envoys (from Calicut, Quilon, Semudera, Aru, Malacca, and other unspecified nations) visited the Ming court to pay homage and present tribute with their local products.[.] The Yongle Emperor ordered the Ministry of Rites, whose duties included the protocol concerning foreign ambassadors, to prepare gifts for the foreign kings who had sent envoys to the court.[
]
Second voyage
The imperial order for the second voyage was issued in October 1407.[ The edict was addressed to Zheng He, Wang Jinghong, and Hou Xian ().][ Lang Ying's () records that Zheng, Wang, and Hou were dispatched in 1407.][.] The records that Zheng and others went as envoys to the countries of Calicut, Malacca, Semudera, Aru, , Java, Siam, Champa, Cochin
Kochi ( , ), formerly known as Cochin ( ), is a major port city along the Malabar Coast of India bordering the Laccadive Sea. It is part of the district of Ernakulam in the state of Kerala. The city is also commonly referred to as Ernaku ...
, , Quilon, Lambri, and .[
On 30 October 1407, a grand director was dispatched with a squadron to Champa before Zheng followed with the main body of the treasure fleet. The fleet departed in the fifth year of the Yongle reign (late 1407 or possibly early 1408).] The fleet traveled from Nanjing to Liujiagang to Changle. Then it sailed to Champa; Siam; Java; Malacca; Semudera, Aru, and Lambri on Sumatra
Sumatra () is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the list of islands by area, sixth-largest island in the world at 482,286.55 km2 (182,812 mi. ...
; , Quilon, Cochin, and Calicut in India
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
. Dreyer (2007) states that it is possible that Siam and Java were visited by the fleet or by detached squadrons before regrouping at Malacca. During this voyage, the fleet did not land on Ceylon.[.] The fleet was tasked to carry out the formal investiture of Mana Vikraan as the King of Calicut.[.] A tablet was placed in Calicut to commemorate the relationship between China and India.
In this voyage, the Chinese forcibly settled the enmity between Ming China and Java.[ In a civil war on Java between 1401 and 1406, the King of West Java killed 170 members of a Chinese embassy who had come ashore in his rival's territory at East Java.][ The entry dated to 23 October 1407 in the '' Ming Shilu'' states that the Western King of Java had sent an envoy to the Ming court to admit his guilt for mistakenly killing 170 Ming troops who had gone ashore to trade.][ It further states that the Ming court responded by demanding 60,000 '' liang'' of gold for compensation and atonement, warning that they would dispatch an army to punish the Javanese ruler for his crime if he failed to comply and stating that the situation in Annam (referring to Ming China's successful invasion of Vietnam) could serve as an example.][.] The Chinese accepted the payment and apology, and restored diplomatic relations.[ Yan Congjian's notes that the emperor later forgave 50,000 of gold that was still owed from this as long as the western ruler was remorseful for his crime.][ Tan (2005) remarks that Zheng had submitted the case of the killings to the emperor for a decision, rather than undertake a military invasion in revenge, as the killings were not willful.][.] The Chinese would use further voyages to keep surveillance over Java.[.]
During the journey, as recorded by Fei Xin, the fleet visited the Pulau Sembilan in the Strait of Malacca
The Strait of Malacca is a narrow stretch of water, long and from wide, between the Malay Peninsula to the northeast and the Indonesian island of Sumatra to the southwest, connecting the Andaman Sea (Indian Ocean) and the South China Sea (Pa ...
in the seventh year of the Yongle reign (1409).[ Dreyer (2007) concludes that the stop was made during the return journey of the second voyage as the fleet did not leave the Chinese coast for the third voyage until early 1410.][ Fei wrote that "In the seventh year of Yongle, Zheng He and his associates sent government troops onto the island to cut incense. They obtained six logs, each eight or nine in diameter and six or seven in length, whose aroma was pure and far-ranging. The pattern f the woodwas black, with fine lines. The people of the island opened their eyes wide and stuck out their tongues in astonishment, and were told that 'We are the soldiers of the Heavenly Court, and our awe-inspiring power is like that of the gods.'" The fleet returned to Nanjing in the summer of 1409.][
The confusion of whether Zheng undertook the second voyage stems from the fact that a Chinese envoy was dispatched before he had departed with the main body of the fleet.][ The imperial edict for the third voyage was issued during the second voyage while the fleet was still in the Indian Ocean, so Zheng was either absent when the court issued the imperial order or he had not accompanied the fleet during the second voyage.][ On 21 January 1409, a grand ceremony was held in the honor of the goddess Tianfei, where she received a new title.][ Duyvendak (1938) thinks that Zheng could not have been on the second voyage, because the ceremony's importance required Zheng's attendance. Mills (1970), citing Duyvendak (1938), also states that he did not accompany the fleet for this voyage.][.] However, Dreyer (2007) states that it is strongly suggested that Zheng had been on the second voyage, as Fei's account about the 1409 visit to Pulau Sembilan explicitly mentions him.
Third voyage
The imperial order for the third voyage was issued in the first month of the seventh year of the Yongle reign (16 January to 14 February 1409).[.][ It was addressed to Zheng He, Wang Jinghong, and Hou Xian.][.]
Zheng embarked on the voyage in 1409.[ The Chinese treasure fleet departed from Liujiagang in the ninth month (9 October to 6 November 1409) and arrived at Changle the following month (7 November to 6 December 1409).][.][.] They left Changle in the twelfth month (5 January to 3 February 1410).[ They proceeded via the Wuhumen.][ The fleet made stops at Champa, Java, Malacca, Semudera, Ceylon, Quilon, Cochin, and Calicut.][.] They traveled to Champa within 10 days.[ Wang and Hou made short detours at Siam, Malacca, Semudera, and Ceylon.][ The fleet landed at ]Galle
Galle (, ; , ) (formerly ) is a major city on the southwestern tip of Sri Lanka, south of Colombo. Galle is the provincial capital and largest city of Southern Province, Sri Lanka and is the capital of Galle District.
Galle was known as ''Gi ...
, Ceylon, in 1410.[
During the homeward journey in 1411, the Chinese treasure fleet confronted King Alakeshvara of Ceylon.][.] Alakeshvara posed a threat to the countries and local waters of Ceylon and southern India.[.] When the Chinese arrived at Ceylon, they were overbearing and contemptuous of the Sinhalese, whom they considered rude, disrespectful, and hostile.[ They also resented the Sinhalese for attacking and committing piracy against neighboring countries that had diplomatic relations with Ming China.][ Zheng and 2,000 troops traveled overland into Kotte, because Alakeshvara had lured them into his territory.][.] The king separated Zheng and his men from the Chinese fleet anchored at Colombo,[ while he planned a surprise attack on the fleet.][ In response, Zheng and his troops invaded Kotte and captured its capital.][ The Sinhalese army, recorded to have over 50,000 troops, hastily returned and surrounded the capital, but were repeatedly defeated in battle by the invading Chinese troops.][ They took captive Alakeshvara, his family, and principal officials.][.]
Zheng returned to Nanjing on 6 July 1411.[ He presented the Sinhalese captives to the Yongle Emperor,][ who decided to free and return them to their country.][ The Chinese dethroned Alakeshvara in favor of their ally ]Parakramabahu VI
Parâkramabâhu VI (, ) was the first king of Kingdom of Kotte, Kotte, ruling from 1410 until his death in 1467. He is the last great king in Sri Lanka who managed to unite the island under one flag. His rule is famous for the renaissance in Sri ...
as the king with Zheng and his fleet supporting him. From then on, the fleet did not experience hostilities during visits to Ceylon.[
]
Fourth voyage
On 18 December 1412, the Yongle Emperor issued the order for the fourth voyage.[.][.] Zheng He and others were commanded to lead it.[
The emperor attended an archery contest for the Midsummer Festival of 1413 (5th day, 5th month, 11th year) that all the Chinese officials and foreign envoys were invited to.][ Duyvendak (1939) states that these envoys were so numerous that they most-likely comprised many of those whom Zheng escorted back to their countries during the fourth voyage rather than just close neighbors.][.] This expedition led the Chinese treasure fleet into Muslim countries, so it must have been important for the Chinese to seek out reliable interpreters.[ The interpreter Ma Huan joined the voyages for the first time.][ A 1523 inscription at a mosque in ]Xi'an
Xi'an is the list of capitals in China, capital of the Chinese province of Shaanxi. A sub-provincial city on the Guanzhong plain, the city is the third-most populous city in Western China after Chongqing and Chengdu, as well as the most populou ...
records that, on the 4th month of the 11th year, Zheng was there to seek reliable interpreters and found Hasan (哈三).[.] Hasan was proficient in Arabic and went on this voyage.
The fleet left Nanjing in 1413, probably in the autumn.[.] It set sail from Fujian in the 12th month of the 11th year in the Yongle reign (23 December 1413 to 21 January 1414).[ Calicut was the westernmost destination during the previous voyages, but the fleet sailed beyond it this time.][ The records Malacca, Java, Champa, Semudera, Aru, Cochin, Calicut, Lambri, ]Pahang
{{Infobox political division
, name = Pahang
, official_name = Pahang Darul Makmur
, native_name =
, settlement_type = States and federal territories of Malaysia, State
, image_skyline =
, imagesize ...
, Kelantan
Kelantan (; Kelantan-Pattani Malay, Kelantanese Malay: ''Klate''; ) is a state in Malaysia. The capital, Kota Bharu, includes the royal seat of Kubang Kerian. The honorific, honorific name of the state is ''Darul Naim'' ("The Blissful Abode"). ...
, , Hormuz, , Maldives, and as stops for this voyage.[
The fleet sailed to Champa,][ Kelantan,][ Pahang,][ Malacca,][ Palembang,][ Java,][ Lambri,][ Lide,][ Aru,][ Semudera,][.][ Ceylon,][ (opposite Ceylon),][ Cochin;][ and Calicut.][ They proceeded to ( Maldive and Laccadive Islands),][ ( Bitra Atoll),][ ( Chetlat Atoll),][ and Hormuz.][.] At Java, the fleet delivered gifts and favors from the Yongle Emperor.[ In return, a Javanese envoy arrived in China on 29 April 1415 and presented tribute in the form of "western horses" and local products while expressing gratitude.][
In 1415, the fleet made a stop at northern Sumatra during the journey homeward.][.] In this region, Sekandar had usurped the Semudera throne from Zain al-'Abidin,[ but the Chinese had formally recognized the latter as the King of Semudera.][ In contrast, Sekandar, an autonomous ruler, was not recognized by the Chinese.][ Zheng was ordered to launch a punitive attack against the usurper and restore Zain al-'Abidin as the rightful king.][ Sekandar and his forces, comprising reportedly "tens of thousands" of soldiers,][ attacked the Ming forces and were defeated by them.][ The Ming forces pursued Sekandar's forces to Lambri where they captured Sekandar, his wife, and his child.][ King Zain al-'Abidin later dispatched a tribute mission to express his gratefulness.][ This conflict reaffirmed Chinese power over the foreign states and the maritime route by protecting the local political authority that sheltered the trade.][ Sekandar was presented to the Yongle Emperor at the palace gate and later executed.][ It is not known when this execution happened, but Ma states that Sekandar was publicly executed in the capital after the fleet returned.][ Fei Xin describes Sekandar as a false king who robbed, stole, and usurped the throne of Semudera, Ma Huan portrays him as someone who attempted to overthrow the ruler, and the ''Ming Shilu'' records that Sekandar was the younger brother of the former king and plotted to kill the ruler.][.]
On 12 August 1415, the fleet returned to Nanjing from this voyage.[.] The Yongle Emperor was absent since 16 March 1413 for his second military campaign against the Mongols and had not returned when the fleet arrived.[ After the fleet's return, envoys bearing tribute from 18 countries were sent to the Ming court.][
]
Fifth voyage
On 14 November 1416, the Yongle Emperor returned to Nanjing.[ On 19 November, a grand ceremony was held where he bestowed gifts to princes, civil officials, military officers, and the ambassadors of 18 countries.][.] On 28 December, the ambassadors visited the Ming court to take their leave and were bestowed robes before departure.[ That day, the emperor ordered the undertaking of the fifth voyage,][.][.] the aim of which was to return the ambassadors and to reward their kings.[
Zheng He and others received orders to escort the ambassadors back home.][ They carried imperial letters and gifts for several kings.][ The King of Cochin received special treatment because he had sent tribute since 1411 and later also sent ambassadors to request the patent of investiture and a seal.][ The Yongle Emperor granted him both requests, conferred to him a long inscription (allegedly composed by the emperor himself), and gave the title "State Protecting Mountain" to a hill in Cochin.][
Zheng may have left the Chinese coast in the autumn of 1417.][.] He first made port at Quanzhou to load up the treasure fleet's cargo holds with porcelain
Porcelain (), also called china, is a ceramic material made by heating Industrial mineral, raw materials, generally including kaolinite, in a kiln to temperatures between . The greater strength and translucence of porcelain, relative to oth ...
and other goods. Archaeological finds of contemporary Chinese porcelain have been excavated at the East African places visited by the fleet.[ A Ming tablet at Quanzhou commemorates Zheng burning incense for divine protection for the voyage on 31 May 1417.][.][.] The fleet visited Champa, Pahang, Java, Palembang, Malacca, Semudera, Lambri, Ceylon, Cochin, Calicut, (possibly Cannanore), (Maladive and Laccadive Islands), Hormuz, , Aden
Aden () is a port city located in Yemen in the southern part of the Arabian peninsula, on the north coast of the Gulf of Aden, positioned near the eastern approach to the Red Sea. It is situated approximately 170 km (110 mi) east of ...
, Mogadishu
Mogadishu, locally known as Xamar or Hamar, is the capital and List of cities in Somalia by population, most populous city of Somalia. The city has served as an important port connecting traders across the Indian Ocean for millennia and has ...
, Brava, , and Malindi
Malindi is a town on Malindi Bay at the mouth of the Sabaki River, lying on the Indian Ocean coast of Kenya. It is 120 kilometres northeast of Mombasa. The population of Malindi was 119,859 as of the 2019 census. It is the largest urban centr ...
. For Arabia and East Africa, the most likely route was Hormuz, , Aden, Mogadishu, Brava, , and then Malindi.[.] The reports that Chinese ships reached the Aden coast in January 1419 and did not leave the Rasulid capital at Ta'izz
Taiz () is a city in southwestern Yemen. It is located in the Yemeni highlands, near the port city of Mocha on the Red Sea, at an elevation of about above sea level. It is the capital of Taiz Governorate. As of 2023, the city has an estimated p ...
before 19 March.[.]
On 8 August 1419, the fleet had returned to China.[.] The Yongle Emperor was in Beijing, but he ordered the Ministry of Rites to give monetary rewards to the fleet's personnel. The accompanying ambassadors were received at the Ming court in the eighth lunar month (21 August to 19 September) of 1419.[ Their tribute included lions, leopards, dromedary camels, ostriches, zebras, rhinoceroses, antelopes, giraffes, and other exotic animals.][ The arrival of the various animals brought by foreign ambassadors caused sensation at the Ming court.][
Early in the fall of 1420, after the emperor announced the move of the capital to Beijing, he made arrangements for all foreign envoys to journey to the new capital for a celebration in early 1421.
]
Sixth voyage
The 's 3 March 1421 entry notes that the envoys of sixteen countries (Hormuz and other countries) were given gifts of paper money, coin money, ceremonial robes, and linings before the Chinese treasure fleet escorted them back to their countries.[.] The imperial order for the sixth voyage was dated 3 March 1421.[.][.] Zheng He was dispatched with imperial letters, silk brocade, silk floss, silk gauze, and other gifts for the rulers of these countries.[
Gong Zhen's records a 10 November 1421 imperial edict instructing Zheng He, Kong He (), Zhu Buhua (), and Tang Guanbao () to arrange the provisions for Hong Bao and others' escort of foreign envoys to their countries.][.] The envoys of the 16 different states were escorted to their homelands by the fleet.[ It is likely that the first few destinations were Malacca and the three Sumatran states of Lambri, Aru, and Semudera.][ The fleet was divided into several detached squadrons at Semudera.][.] All the squadrons proceeded to Ceylon, whereafter they separated for , Cochin, , or Calicut in southern India.[ The squadrons traveled from there to their respective destinations at (Maldive and Laccadive Islands), Hormuz at the Persian Gulf, the three Arabian states of Dhofar, , and Aden, and the two African states of Mogadishu and Brava.][ The eunuch Zhou (probably Zhou Man) led a detached squadron to Aden.][ Ma Huan mentions Zhou Man and Li Xing in connection to the visit of Aden.][.] Their squadron may have also visited and Dhofar.[ According to the , Zheng personally visited as an envoy in 1421.][ Of the twelve visited nations west of Sumatra, this was the only one explicitly reported to have been visited by Zheng himself.][ Even though Quilon was not visited, the squadron for Mogadishu probably separated near Quilon as a navigation point while the main body of the fleet continued to Calicut.][ A large squadron proceeded further from Calicut to Hormuz.][ They may have traveled via the Laccadives.][.]
Upon return, several squadrons regrouped at Calicut and all the squadrons regrouped further at Semudera.[ Siam was likely visited during the return journey.][ The fleet returned on 3 September 1422.][.] They brought with them envoys from Siam, Semudera, Aden, and other countries, who bore tribute in local products.[ The foreign envoys, who traveled with the fleet to China, proceeded overland or via the Grand Canal before reaching the imperial court at Beijing in 1423.]
On 31 January 1423, as reported in the , the Sultan of the Rasulid issued an order to receive a Chinese delegation in the capital Ta'izz
Taiz () is a city in southwestern Yemen. It is located in the Yemeni highlands, near the port city of Mocha on the Red Sea, at an elevation of about above sea level. It is the capital of Taiz Governorate. As of 2023, the city has an estimated p ...
in February and goods were exchanged.[ This indicates that several Chinese ships did not return with the Chinese treasure fleet to China.][
]
Nanjing garrison
On 14 May 1421, the Yongle Emperor
The Yongle Emperor (2 May 1360 – 12 August 1424), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Chengzu of Ming, personal name Zhu Di, was the third List of emperors of the Ming dynasty, emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1402 to 142 ...
ordered the temporary suspension of the treasure voyages.[.] At the expense of the voyages, imperial attention and funding was diverted to the emperor's military campaigns against the Mongols. Between 1422 and 1431, the Chinese treasure fleet remained in Nanjing
Nanjing or Nanking is the capital of Jiangsu, a province in East China. The city, which is located in the southwestern corner of the province, has 11 districts, an administrative area of , and a population of 9,423,400.
Situated in the Yang ...
to serve in the city's garrison.[.]
In 1424, Zheng He
Zheng He (also romanized Cheng Ho; 1371–1433/1435) was a Chinese eunuch, admiral and diplomat from the early Ming dynasty, who is often regarded as the greatest admiral in History of China, Chinese history. Born into a Muslims, Muslim famil ...
departed on a diplomatic mission to Palembang.[.] Meanwhile, Zhu Gaozhi ascended the throne as the Hongxi Emperor on 7 September 1424 following the death of his father, the Yongle Emperor, on 12 August 1424.[.][ Zheng returned from Palembang after this death.][
The Hongxi Emperor was against the undertaking of the voyages.][ On 7 September 1424, the day of his accession to the throne, he terminated the undertaking of further voyages.][.] He kept the treasure fleet, which retained its original designation , to garrison Nanjing.[.] On 24 February 1425, he appointed Zheng as the defender of Nanjing and ordered him to continue his command over the fleet for the city's defense.[.] The Hongxi Emperor died on 29 May 1425 and was succeeded by his eldest son Zhu Zhanji as the Xuande Emperor.[.] The Xuande Emperor left his father's arrangements in place, so the fleet remained as a part of the institutions in Nanjing.
On 25 March 1428, the Xuande Emperor ordered Zheng and others to supervise the rebuilding and repair of the Great Bao'en Temple in Nanjing.[.] The construction of the temple was completed in 1431.[ It is possible that the funds to build it were diverted from the treasure voyages.
]
Seventh voyage
Gong Zhen records that an imperial order was issued on 25 May 1430 for the arrangement of necessary provisions for the dispatch of Zheng He, Wang Jinghong, Li Xing, Zhu Liang, Yang Zhen, Hong Bao, and others on official business to the countries of the Western Ocean.[ It was addressed to Yang Qing (), Luo Zhi (), Tang Guanbo (), and Yuan Cheng ().][ On 29 June 1430, the Xuande Emperor issued his orders for the seventh voyage.][.][.] It was addressed to Zheng and others.[ The reports that Zheng, Wang, and others were sent to distant foreign lands to bring them into deference and submission.][ The emperor wished to reinvigorate the tributary relations that were promoted during the Yongle reign.][
]
The provides information about the dates and itinerary for this voyage. On 19 January 1431, the Chinese treasure fleet embarked from Longwan ('dragon bay') in Nanjing.[.][.] On 23 January, they came to (an unidentified island in the Yangtze
The Yangtze or Yangzi ( or ) is the longest river in Eurasia and the third-longest in the world. It rises at Jari Hill in the Tanggula Mountains of the Tibetan Plateau and flows including Dam Qu River the longest source of the Yangtze, i ...
) where they went hunting.[ On 2 February, they passed through the Fuzi Passage (present-day Baimaosha Channel).][ They arrived at Liujiagang on 3 February.][ They arrived at Changle on 8 April.][ They went to Fu Tou Shan (possibly near ]Fuzhou
Fuzhou is the capital of Fujian, China. The city lies between the Min River (Fujian), Min River estuary to the south and the city of Ningde to the north. Together, Fuzhou and Ningde make up the Eastern Min, Mindong linguistic and cultural regi ...
) on 16 December.[ On 12 January 1432, they passed through the Wuhumen (in the entrance to the Min River).][ They arrived at ]Vijaya
Vijaya may refer to:
Places
* Vijaya (Champa), a city-state and former capital of the historic Champa in what is now Vietnam
* Vijayawada, a city in Andhra Pradesh, India
People
* Prince Vijaya of Sri Lanka (fl. 543–505 BC), earliest recorde ...
(near present-day Qui Nhon) in Champa on 27 January and departed from there on 12 February.[ They arrived at ]Surabaya
Surabaya is the capital city of East Java Provinces of Indonesia, province and the List of Indonesian cities by population, second-largest city in Indonesia, after Jakarta. Located on the northeastern corner of Java island, on the Madura Strai ...
in Java on 7 March and departed from there on 13 July.[.] The fleet arrived at Palembang on 24 July and departed from there on 27 July.[.] They arrived at Malacca on 3 August and departed from there on 2 September.[.] They arrived at Semudera on 12 September and departed from there on 2 November.[ They arrived at Beruwala in Ceylon on 28 November and departed from there on 2 December.][ They arrived at Calicut on 10 December and departed from there on 14 December.][ They arrived at Hormuz on 17 January 1433 and departed from there on 9 March.][.]
Hormuz was farthest west of the eight destinations recorded for the seventh voyage in the .[ The and other sources describe the voyage with the fleet visiting at least seventeen countries (including those already mentioned in the ).][.] The additional destinations reported in the are , Bengal
Bengal ( ) is a Historical geography, historical geographical, ethnolinguistic and cultural term referring to a region in the Eastern South Asia, eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. The region of Benga ...
, Laccadive and Maldive island chains, Dhofar, , Aden, Mecca
Mecca, officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, is the capital of Mecca Province in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia; it is the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow valley above ...
, Mogadishu, and Brava.[.] Gong recorded a total of 20 visited countries.[ Fei Xin mentions that the fleet stopped at the Andaman and Nicobar island chains during the voyage.][.] He writes that, on 14 November 1432, the fleet arrived at (probably the Great Nicobar Island) where it anchored for three days due to the unfavorable winds and waves.[.] He further writes that the native men and women came in log boats to trade coconuts.[ The neighboring Aru, Nagur, Lide, and Lambri were certainly visited by a few ships, according to Dreyer (2007), on the way to Semudera in northern Sumatra.][
Zheng is mentioned in the in connection to the visits of ,][.] ,[ Djorfar,][ Mogadishu,]