Micropipette In Action
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A pipette (sometimes spelled as pipet) is a type of laboratory tool commonly used in
chemistry Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a physical science within the natural sciences that studies the chemical elements that make up matter and chemical compound, compounds made of atoms, molecules a ...
and
biology Biology is the scientific study of life and living organisms. It is a broad natural science that encompasses a wide range of fields and unifying principles that explain the structure, function, growth, History of life, origin, evolution, and ...
to transport a measured volume of liquid, often as a
media dispenser A media dispenser or a culture media dispenser is a device for repeatedly delivering small fixed volumes (typically between 1 ml and 50 ml) of liquid such as a laboratory growth medium like molten agar or caustic or volatile solvents li ...
. Pipettes come in several designs for various purposes with differing levels of
accuracy and precision Accuracy and precision are two measures of ''observational error''. ''Accuracy'' is how close a given set of measurements (observations or readings) are to their ''true value''. ''Precision'' is how close the measurements are to each other. The ...
, from single piece glass pipettes to more complex adjustable or electronic pipettes. Many pipette types work by creating a
partial vacuum A vacuum (: vacuums or vacua) is space devoid of matter. The word is derived from the Latin adjective (neuter ) meaning "vacant" or "void". An approximation to such vacuum is a region with a gaseous pressure much less than atmospheric pressur ...
above the liquid-holding chamber and selectively releasing this vacuum to draw up and dispense liquid. Measurement accuracy varies greatly depending on the instrument.


History

The first simple pipettes were made of glass, such as
Pasteur pipette An eye dropper, also called Pasteur pipette or simply dropper, is a device used to transfer small quantities of liquids. They are used in the laboratory and also to dispense small amounts of liquid medicines. A very common use is to dispense eye ...
s. Large pipettes continue to be made of glass; others are made of squeezable plastic for situations where an exact volume is not required. During or prior to 1877,
Joseph Lister Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister, (5 April 1827 – 10 February 1912) was a British surgeon, medical scientist, experimental pathologist and pioneer of aseptic, antiseptic surgery and preventive healthcare. Joseph Lister revolutionised the Sur ...
(1827 – 1912) invented the first adjustable micropipette, consisting of a "pipette with a syringe" (photograph shown at right). The micropipette was patented in 1957 by Dr
Heinrich Schnitger Heinrich Schnitger (10 May 1925 in Lemgo – 27 August 1964 in Upper Bavaria) was a German physician. He is considered the inventor of the piston stroke Micropipette, a laboratory device for dispensing small amounts of liquid. Life Heinrich Schn ...
(
Marburg Marburg (; ) is a college town, university town in the States of Germany, German federal state () of Hesse, capital of the Marburg-Biedenkopf Districts of Germany, district (). The town area spreads along the valley of the river Lahn and has ...
, Germany). The founder of the company Eppendorf, Dr. Heinrich Netheler, inherited the rights and started the commercial production of micropipettes in 1961. The modern adjustable micropipette is a Wisconsin invention developed through interactions among several people, primarily inventor Warren Gilson and Henry Lardy, a professor of biochemistry at the
University of Wisconsin–Madison The University of Wisconsin–Madison (University of Wisconsin, Wisconsin, UW, UW–Madison, or simply Madison) is a public land-grant research university in Madison, Wisconsin, United States. It was founded in 1848 when Wisconsin achieved st ...
.


Nomenclature

Although specific names exist for each type of pipette, in practice, any type can be referred to as a "pipette". Pipettes that dispense less than 1000 
μL The litre ( Commonwealth spelling) or liter (American spelling) (SI symbols L and l, other symbol used: ℓ) is a metric unit of volume. It is equal to 1 cubic decimetre (dm3), 1000 cubic centimetres (cm3) or 0.001 cubic metres (m3). A cubic ...
are sometimes distinguished as micropipettes. The terms "pipette" and "pipet" are used interchangeably despite minor historical differences in their usage.


Common pipettes


Air displacement micropipettes

Air displacement micropipettes are a type of adjustable micropipette that deliver a measured volume of liquid; depending on size, it could be between about 0.1 
μL The litre ( Commonwealth spelling) or liter (American spelling) (SI symbols L and l, other symbol used: ℓ) is a metric unit of volume. It is equal to 1 cubic decimetre (dm3), 1000 cubic centimetres (cm3) or 0.001 cubic metres (m3). A cubic ...
to 1,000 μL (1 mL). These pipettes require disposable tips that come in contact with the fluid. These pipettes operate by
piston A piston is a component of reciprocating engines, reciprocating pumps, gas compressors, hydraulic cylinders and pneumatic cylinders, among other similar mechanisms. It is the moving component that is contained by a cylinder (engine), cylinder a ...
-driven air displacement. A vacuum is generated by the vertical travel of a metal or ceramic piston within an airtight sleeve. As the piston moves upward, driven by the depression of the plunger, a vacuum is created in the space left vacant by the piston. The liquid around the tip moves into this vacuum (along with the air in the tip) and can then be transported and released as necessary. These pipettes are capable of being very precise and accurate. However, since they rely on air displacement, they are subject to inaccuracies caused by the changing environment, particularly temperature and user technique. For these reasons, this equipment must be carefully maintained and calibrated, and users must be trained to exercise correct and consistent technique. The first verified adjustable air displacement micropipette was invented by
Joseph Lister Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister, (5 April 1827 – 10 February 1912) was a British surgeon, medical scientist, experimental pathologist and pioneer of aseptic, antiseptic surgery and preventive healthcare. Joseph Lister revolutionised the Sur ...
during or prior to 1877 (see
History History is the systematic study of the past, focusing primarily on the Human history, human past. As an academic discipline, it analyses and interprets evidence to construct narratives about what happened and explain why it happened. Some t ...
section above). The modern micropipette was patented in 1960 by Dr.
Heinrich Schnitger Heinrich Schnitger (10 May 1925 in Lemgo – 27 August 1964 in Upper Bavaria) was a German physician. He is considered the inventor of the piston stroke Micropipette, a laboratory device for dispensing small amounts of liquid. Life Heinrich Schn ...
in
Marburg Marburg (; ) is a college town, university town in the States of Germany, German federal state () of Hesse, capital of the Marburg-Biedenkopf Districts of Germany, district (). The town area spreads along the valley of the river Lahn and has ...
, Germany. Afterwards, the co-founder of the biotechnology company Eppendorf, Dr. Heinrich Netheler, inherited the rights and initiated the global and general use of micropipettes in labs. In 1972, the modern adjustable micropipette was invented at the University of Wisconsin-Madison by several people, primarily Warren Gilson and Henry Lardy. Types of air displacement pipettes include: * adjustable or fixed * volume handled * Single-channel, multi-channel or repeater * conical tips or cylindrical tips * standard or locking * manual or electronic * manufacturer Irrespective of brand or expense of pipette, every micropipette manufacturer recommends checking the calibration at least every six months, if used regularly. Companies in the drug or food industries are required to calibrate their pipettes quarterly (every three months). Schools which are conducting
chemistry Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a physical science within the natural sciences that studies the chemical elements that make up matter and chemical compound, compounds made of atoms, molecules a ...
classes can have this process annually. Those studying forensics and research where a great deal of testing is commonplace will perform monthly calibrations.


Electronic pipette

To minimize the possible development of
musculoskeletal disorders Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are injuries or pain in the human musculoskeletal system, including the joints, ligaments, muscles, nerves, tendons, and structures that support limbs, neck and back. MSDs can arise from a sudden exertion (e.g., l ...
due to repetitive pipetting,
electronic pipettes Piston-driven air displacement pipettes are a type of micropipette, which are tools to handle volumes of liquid in the microliter scale. They are more commonly used in biology and biochemistry, and less commonly in chemistry; the equipment is sus ...
commonly replace the mechanical version.


Positive displacement pipette

These are similar to air displacement pipettes, but are less commonly used and are used to avoid contamination and for volatile or viscous substances at small volumes, such as
DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid (; DNA) is a polymer composed of two polynucleotide chains that coil around each other to form a double helix. The polymer carries genetic instructions for the development, functioning, growth and reproduction of al ...
. The major difference is that the disposable tip is a microsyringe (plastic), composed of a capillary and a piston (movable inner part) which directly displaces the liquid. File:Positive displacement pipette.jpg, Positive displacement pipette File:Pos pipette showing grappler.jpg, The
chuck Chuck () is a masculine given name or a nickname for Charles or Charlie. It may refer to: People Arts and entertainment * Chuck Alaimo, American saxophonist, leader of the Chuck Alaimo Quartet * Chuck Barris (1929–2017), American TV produce ...
which will be used to move the plunger File:early pipette.jpg, An early pipette


Volumetric pipettes

Volumetric pipettes A volumetric pipette, bulb pipette, or belly pipette allows extremely accurate measurement (to four significant figures) of the volume of a solution. It is calibrated to deliver accurately a fixed volume of liquid. These pipettes have a large bu ...
or
bulb pipette A volumetric pipette, bulb pipette, or belly pipette allows extremely accurate measurement (to four significant figures) of the volume of a solution. It is calibrated to deliver accurately a fixed volume of liquid. These pipettes have a large bu ...
allow the user to measure a volume of solution extremely precisely (precision of four significant figures). These pipettes have a large bulb with a long narrow portion above with a single graduation mark as it is calibrated for a single volume (like a
volumetric flask A volumetric flask (measuring flask or graduated flask) is a piece of laboratory apparatus, a type of laboratory flask, calibrated to contain a precise volume at a certain temperature. Volumetric flasks are used for precise dilutions and prepar ...
). Typical volumes are 20, 50, and 100 mL. Volumetric pipettes are commonly used to make laboratory solutions from a base stock as well as prepare solutions for
titration Titration (also known as titrimetry and volumetric analysis) is a common laboratory method of Quantitative research, quantitative Analytical chemistry, chemical analysis to determine the concentration of an identified analyte (a substance to be ...
.


Graduated pipettes

Graduated pipette A graduated pipette is a pipette with its volume, in increments, marked along the tube. It is used to accurately measure and transfer a volume of liquid from one container to another. It is made from plastic or glass tubes and has a tapered tip. ...
s are a type of macropipette consisting of a long tube with a series of graduations, as on a
graduated cylinder A graduated cylinder, also known as a measuring cylinder or mixing cylinder, is a common piece of laboratory equipment used to measure the volume of a liquid. It has a narrow cylindrical shape. Each marked line on the graduated cylinder represent ...
or
burette A burette (also spelled buret) is a graduated glass tube with a tap at one end, for delivering known volumes of a liquid, especially in titrations. It is a long, graduated glass tube, with a stopcock at its lower end and a tapered capillary tub ...
, to indicate different calibrated volumes. They also require a source of vacuum; in the early days of chemistry and biology, the mouth was used. The safety regulations included the statement: "Never pipette by mouth KCN, NH3, strong acids, bases and mercury salts". Some pipettes were manufactured with two bubbles between the mouth piece and the solution level line, to protect the chemist from accidental swallowing of the solution.


Pasteur pipette

Pasteur pipette An eye dropper, also called Pasteur pipette or simply dropper, is a device used to transfer small quantities of liquids. They are used in the laboratory and also to dispense small amounts of liquid medicines. A very common use is to dispense eye ...
s are plastic or glass pipettes used to transfer small amounts of liquids, but are not graduated or calibrated for any particular volume. The bulb is separate from the pipette body. Pasteur pipettes are also called
teat A teat is the projection from the mammary glands of mammals from which milk flows or is ejected for the purpose of feeding young. In many mammals, the teat projects from the udder. The number of teats varies by mammalian species and often corr ...
pipettes, droppers, eye droppers and chemical droppers.


Transfer pipettes

Transfer pipette An eye dropper, also called Pasteur pipette or simply dropper, is a device used to transfer small quantities of liquids. They are used in the laboratory and also to dispense small amounts of liquid medicines. A very common use is to dispense eye ...
s, also known as Beral pipettes, are similar to Pasteur pipettes but are made from a single piece of plastic and their bulb can serve as the liquid-holding chamber.


Specialized pipettes


Pipetting syringe

Pipetting syringes are hand-held devices that combine the functions of volumetric (bulb) pipettes, graduated pipettes, and
burette A burette (also spelled buret) is a graduated glass tube with a tap at one end, for delivering known volumes of a liquid, especially in titrations. It is a long, graduated glass tube, with a stopcock at its lower end and a tapered capillary tub ...
s. They are calibrated to
ISO The International Organization for Standardization (ISO ; ; ) is an independent, non-governmental, international standard development organization composed of representatives from the national standards organizations of member countries. Me ...
volumetric A grade standards. A glass or plastic pipette tube is used with a thumb-operated piston and
PTFE Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) is a synthetic fluoropolymer of tetrafluoroethylene, and has numerous applications because it is chemically inert. The commonly known brand name of PTFE-based composition is Teflon by Chemours, a spin-off fro ...
seal which slides within the pipette in a positive displacement operation. Such a device can be used on a wide variety of fluids (aqueous, viscous, and volatile fluids; hydrocarbons; essential oils; and mixtures) in volumes between 0.5 mL and 25 mL. This arrangement provides improvements in precision, handling safety, reliability, economy, and versatility. No disposable tips or pipetting aids are needed with the pipetting syringe.


Van Slyke pipette

The Van Slyke pipette, invented by Donald Dexter Van Slyke, is a graduated pipette commonly used in
medical technology Health technology is defined by the World Health Organization as the "application of organized knowledge and skills in the form of devices, medicines, vaccines, procedures, and systems developed to solve a health problem and improve quality of liv ...
with serologic pipettes for volumetric analysis.


Ostwald–Folin pipette

The Ostwald–Folin pipette, developed by
Wilhelm Ostwald Wilhelm Friedrich Ostwald (; – 4 April 1932) was a Latvian chemist and philosopher. Ostwald is credited with being one of the founders of the field of physical chemistry, with Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff, Walther Nernst and Svante Arrhenius. ...
and refined by
Otto Folin Otto Knut Olof Folin (April 4, 1867 – October 25, 1934) was a Swedish-born American chemist who is best known for his groundbreaking work at Harvard University on practical micromethods for the determination of the constituents of protein-fre ...
, is a type of volumetric pipette used to measure viscous fluids such as whole blood or serum.


Winkler–Dennis gas combustion pipette

The Winkler–Dennis gas combustion pipette, developed by
Clemens Winkler Clemens Alexander Winkler (December 26, 1838 – October 8, 1904) was a German chemist who discovered the element germanium in 1886, solidifying Dmitri Mendeleev's theory of periodicity. Life Winkler was born in 1838 in Freiberg, Kingdom ...
and refined by Louis Munroe Dennis, is an apparatus for the controlled reaction of liquids under a mild electric current and a supply of oxygen.


Glass micropipette

Glass micropipettes are fabricated in a micropipette puller and are typically used in a
micromanipulator A micromanipulator is a device which is used to physically interact with a sample under a microscope, where a level of precision of movement is necessary that cannot be achieved by the unaided human hand. It may typically consist of an input joysti ...
. These are used to physically interact with microscopic samples, such as in the procedures of
microinjection Microinjection is the use of a glass micropipette to inject a liquid substance at a microscopic or borderline macroscopic level. The target is often a living cell but may also include intercellular space. Microinjection is a simple mechanical pro ...
and
patch clamp The patch clamp technique is a laboratory technique in electrophysiology used to study ionic currents in individual Cell isolation, isolated living cells, tissue sections, or patches of cell membrane. The technique is especially useful in the st ...
ing. Most micropipettes are made of
borosilicate Borosilicate glass is a type of glass with silicon dioxide, silica and boron trioxide as the main glass-forming constituents. Borosilicate glasses are known for having very low coefficient of thermal expansion, coefficients of thermal expansion ( ...
,
aluminosilicate Aluminosilicate refers to materials containing anionic Si-O-Al linkages. Commonly, the associate cations are sodium (Na+), potassium (K+) and protons (H+). Such materials occur as minerals, coal combustion products and as synthetic materials, of ...
or
quartz Quartz is a hard, crystalline mineral composed of silica (silicon dioxide). The Atom, atoms are linked in a continuous framework of SiO4 silicon–oxygen Tetrahedral molecular geometry, tetrahedra, with each oxygen being shared between two tet ...
with many types and sizes of glass tubing being available. Each of these compositions has unique properties which will determine suitable applications.


Microfluidic pipette

A recent introduction into the micropipette field integrates the versatility of
microfluidics Microfluidics refers to a system that manipulates a small amount of fluids (10−9 to 10−18 liters) using small channels with sizes of ten to hundreds of micrometres. It is a multidisciplinary field that involves molecular analysis, molecular bi ...
into a freely positionable pipette platform. At the tip of the device, a localized flow zone is created which allows for constant control of the nanolitre environment, directly in front of the pipette. The pipettes are made from
polydimethylsiloxane Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), also known as dimethylpolysiloxane or dimethicone, is a silicone polymer with a wide variety of uses, from cosmetics to industrial lubrication and passive daytime radiative cooling. PDMS is particularly known for its ...
(PDMS), which is formed using reactive injection molding. Interfacing of these pipettes using pneumatics enables multiple solutions to be loaded and switched on demand, with solution exchange times of 100ms. This type of pipette was invented by Alar Ainla, and currently situated in the Biophysical Technology Lab. at
Chalmers University of Technology Chalmers University of Technology (, commonly referred to as Chalmers) is a private university, private research university located in Gothenburg, Sweden. Chalmers focuses on engineering and science, but more broadly it also conducts research ...
in Sweden.


Extremely low volume pipettes

A
zeptolitre The litre ( Commonwealth spelling) or liter (American spelling) (SI symbols L and l, other symbol used: ℓ) is a metric unit of volume. It is equal to 1 cubic decimetre (dm3), 1000 cubic centimetres (cm3) or 0.001 cubic metres (m3). A cubic ...
pipette has been developed at
Brookhaven National Laboratory Brookhaven National Laboratory (BNL) is a United States Department of Energy national laboratories, United States Department of Energy national laboratory located in Upton, New York, a hamlet of the Brookhaven, New York, Town of Brookhaven. It w ...
. The pipette is made of a carbon shell, within which is an alloy of gold-germanium. The pipette was used to learn about how
crystallization Crystallization is a process that leads to solids with highly organized Atom, atoms or Molecule, molecules, i.e. a crystal. The ordered nature of a crystalline solid can be contrasted with amorphous solids in which atoms or molecules lack regu ...
takes place.


Pipette aids

A variety of devices have been developed for safer, easier, and more efficient pipetting. For example, a motorized pipette controller can aid liquid aspiration or dispensing using volumetric pipettes or graduated pipettes; a tablet can interact in real-time with the pipette and guide a user through a protocol; and a pipette station can help to control the pipette tip immersion depth and improve ergonomics.


Robots

Pipette robots are capable of manipulating pipettes just as humans would do.


Calibration

Pipette recalibration is an important consideration in laboratories using these devices. It is the act of determining the accuracy of a measuring device by comparison with
NIST The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) is an agency of the United States Department of Commerce whose mission is to promote American innovation and industrial competitiveness. NIST's activities are organized into physical s ...
traceable reference standards. Pipette calibration is essential to ensure that the instrument is working according to expectations and as per the defined regimes or work protocols. Pipette calibration is considered to be a complex affair because it includes many elements of calibration procedure and several calibration protocol options as well as makes and models of pipettes to consider.


Posture and injuries

Proper pipetting posture is the most important element in establishing good ergonomic work practices. During repetitive tasks such as pipetting, maintaining body positions that provide a maximum of strength with the least amount of muscular stress is important to minimize the risk of injury. A number of common pipetting techniques have been identified as potentially hazardous due to biomechanical stress factors. Recommendations for corrective pipetting actions, made by various US governmental agencies and ergonomics experts, are presented below. ;Winged elbow pipetting :Technique: elevated, “winged elbow”. The average human arm weighs approximately 6% of the total body weight. Holding a pipette with the elbow extended (winged elbow) in a static position places the weight of the arm onto the neck and shoulder muscles and reduces blood flow, thereby causing stress and fatigue. Muscle strength is also substantially reduced as arm flexion is increased. :Corrective action: Position elbows as close to the body as possible, with arms and wrists extended in straight, neutral positions (handshake posture). Keep work items within easy reach to limit extension and elevation of arm. Arm/hand elevation should not exceed 12” from the worksurface. ;Over rotated arm pipetting :Technique: Over-rotated forearm and wrist. Rotation of the forearm in a supinated position (palm up) and/or wrist flexion increases the fluid pressure in the carpal tunnel. This increased pressure can result in compression of soft tissues like nerves, tendons and blood vessels, causing numbness in the thumb and fingers. :Corrective action: Forearm rotation angle near 45° pronation (palm down) should be maintained to minimize carpal tunnel pressure during repetitive activity. ;Clenched fist pipetting :Technique: Tight grip (clenched fist). Hand fatigue results from continuous contact between a hard object and sensitive tissues. This occurs when a firm grip is needed to hold a pipette, such as when jamming on a tip, and results in diminished hand strength. :Corrective action: Use pipettes with hooks or other attributes that allow a relaxed grip and/or alleviate need to constantly grip the pipette. This will reduce tension in the arm, wrist and hand. ;Thumb plunger pipetting :Technique: Concentrated area of force (contact stress between a hard object and sensitive tissues). Some devices have plungers and buttons with limited surface areas, requiring a great deal of force to be expended by the thumb or other finger in a concentrated area. :Corrective action: Use pipettes with large contoured or rounded plungers and buttons. This will disperse the pressure used to operate the pipette across the entire surface of the thumb or finger, reducing contact pressure to acceptable levels. ;Incorrect posture can have a strong impact on available strength arm strength pipetting :Technique: elevated arm. Muscle strength is substantially reduced when arm flexion is increased. :Corrective action: Keep work items within easy reach to limit extension and elevation of arm. Arm/hand elevation should also not exceed 12” from the worksurface. ;Elbow strength pipetting :Technique: Elbow flexion or abduction. Arm strength diminishes as elbow posture is deviated from a 90° position. :Corrective action: Keep forearm and hand elevation within 12” of the worksurface, which will allow the elbow to remain near a 90° position. Unlike traditional axial pipettes, ergonomic pipetting can affect posture and prevent common pipetting injuries such as carpal tunnel syndrome, tendinitis and other musculoskeletal disorders. To be "ergonomically correct" significant changes to traditional pipetting postures are essential, like: minimizing forearm and wrist rotations, keeping a low arm and elbow height and relaxing the shoulders and upper arms.


Pipette stand

Typically the pipettes are vertically stored on holder called pipette stands. In case of electronic pipettes, such stands can recharge their batteries. The most advanced pipette stands can directly control electronic pipettes.


Alternatives

An alternative technology, especially for transferring small volumes (micro and nano litre range) is
acoustic droplet ejection Acoustic droplet ejection (ADE) uses a pulse of ultrasound to move low volumes of fluids (typically nanoliters or picoliters) without any physical contact. This technology focuses acoustic energy into a fluid sample in order to eject droplets as s ...
.


References


External links


Helpful Hints on the Use of a Volumetric Pipet
by Oliver Seely {{Laboratory equipment Laboratory glassware Laboratory equipment Microbiology equipment Volumetric instruments