Mesopotamian Arabic
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Mesopotamian Arabic (), also known as Iraqi Arabic or the Iraqi dialect (), or just as Iraqi (), is a group of
varieties of Arabic Varieties of Arabic (or dialects or vernaculars) are the linguistic systems that Arabic speakers speak natively. Arabic is a Semitic languages, Semitic language within the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic family that originated in the Arabian P ...
spoken in the
Mesopotamia Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq and forms the eastern geographic boundary of ...
n basin of
Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...
, as well as in
Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
, southeastern
Turkey Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia, with a relatively small part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia (country), Georgia, Armen ...
,
Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...
,
Kuwait Kuwait, officially the State of Kuwait, is a country in West Asia and the geopolitical region known as the Middle East. It is situated in the northern edge of the Arabian Peninsula at the head of the Persian Gulf, bordering Iraq to Iraq–Kuwait ...
and
Iraqi diaspora The Iraqi diaspora refers to native Iraqis who have left for other countries as emigrants or refugees, and is now one of the largest in modern times, being described by the UN as a "humanitarian crisis" caused by the 1991 Gulf War and 2003 ...
communities.


History

Aramaic Aramaic (; ) is a Northwest Semitic language that originated in the ancient region of Syria and quickly spread to Mesopotamia, the southern Levant, Sinai, southeastern Anatolia, and Eastern Arabia, where it has been continually written a ...
was the
lingua franca A lingua franca (; ; for plurals see ), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, link language or language of wider communication (LWC), is a Natural language, language systematically used to make co ...
in Mesopotamia from the early 1st millennium BCE until the late 1st millennium CE, and as may be expected, Mesopotamian Arabic shows signs of an Aramaic substrate. The Gelet and the Judeo-Iraqi varieties have retained features of Babylonian Aramaic.


Varieties

Mesopotamian Arabic has two major varieties: Gelet Mesopotamian Arabic and Qeltu Mesopotamian Arabic. Their names derive from the form of the word for "I said" in each variety. Gelet Arabic is a Bedouin variety spoken by Muslims (both sedentary and non-sedentary) in central and southern Iraq and by nomads in the rest of Iraq. Qeltu Arabic is an urban dialect spoken by Non-Muslims of central and southern Iraq (including Baghdad) and by the sedentary population (both Muslims and Non-Muslims) of the rest of the country. Non-Muslims include
Christians A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the world. The words '' Christ'' and ''C ...
,
Yazidis Yazidis, also spelled Yezidis (; ), are a Kurdish languages, Kurdish-speaking Endogamy, endogamous religious group indigenous to Kurdistan, a geographical region in Western Asia that includes parts of Iraq, Syria, Turkey, and Iran. The major ...
, and
Jews Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...
, until most Iraqi Jews were exiled from Iraq in the 1940s–1950s. Geographically, the gelet–qeltu classification roughly corresponds to respectively
Upper Mesopotamia Upper Mesopotamia constitutes the Upland and lowland, uplands and great outwash plain of northwestern Iraq, northeastern Syria and southeastern Turkey, in the northern Middle East. Since the early Muslim conquests of the mid-7th century, the regio ...
and
Lower Mesopotamia Lower Mesopotamia is a historical region of Mesopotamia. It is located in the alluvial plain of Iraq from the Hamrin Mountains to the Faw Peninsula near the Persian Gulf. In the Middle Ages it was also known as the '' Sawad'' and al-Jazira al-s ...
. The isogloss is between the rivers
Tigris The Tigris ( ; see #Etymology, below) is the eastern of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of the Armenian Highlands through the Syrian Desert, Syrian and Arabia ...
and
Euphrates The Euphrates ( ; see #Etymology, below) is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of West Asia. Tigris–Euphrates river system, Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia (). Originati ...
, around Fallujah and Samarra. During the Siege of Baghdad (1258), the
Mongols Mongols are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, China ( Inner Mongolia and other 11 autonomous territories), as well as the republics of Buryatia and Kalmykia in Russia. The Mongols are the principal member of the large family o ...
killed all Muslims. However, sedentary Christians and Jews were spared and northern Iraq was untouched. In southern Iraq, sedentary Muslims were gradually replaced by Bedouins from the countryside. This explains the current dialect distribution: in the south, everyone speaks Bedouin varieties close to
Gulf Arabic Gulf Arabic or Khaleeji ( ' local pronunciation: or ', local pronunciation: ) is a variety of the Arabic language spoken in Eastern Arabia around the coasts of the Persian Gulf in Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, the United Arab Emirates, southern Iraq, ...
(continuation of the Bedouin dialects of the
Arabian Peninsula The Arabian Peninsula (, , or , , ) or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At , comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world. Geographically, the ...
), except urban Non-Muslims who continue to speak pre-1258 qeltu dialects while in the north the original qeltu dialect is still spoken by all, Muslims and Non-Muslims alike.


Dialects

Gelet dialects include: * Gilit ** Northwestern Mesopotamian group *** Shāwi dialects (including Urfa and al-Raqqah) *** Rural dialects of northern and central Iraq. ** Central Iraqi Group *** Baghdad Arabic *** The surrounding area around Baghdad ** Southern Iraqi and Khuzestani Arabic group *** Urban dialects *** Rural dialects *** Marshland dialects of the Marsh Arabs of the Mesopotamian Marshes Qeltu dialects include: * Qeltu ** Anatolian Qeltu ***
Mardin Mardin (; ; romanized: ''Mārdīn''; ; ) is a city and seat of the Artuklu District of Mardin Province in Turkey. It is known for the Artuqids, Artuqid architecture of its old city, and for its strategic location on a rocky hill near the Tigris ...
dialects:
Mardin Mardin (; ; romanized: ''Mārdīn''; ; ) is a city and seat of the Artuklu District of Mardin Province in Turkey. It is known for the Artuqids, Artuqid architecture of its old city, and for its strategic location on a rocky hill near the Tigris ...
and surrounding villages, Mhallami, Qamishli, Nusaybin (Christians),
Cizre Cizre () is a city in the Cizre District of Şırnak Province in Turkey. It is located on the river Tigris by the Syria–Turkey border and close to the Iraq–Turkey border. Cizre is in the historical region of Upper Mesopotamia and the cultura ...
(Jews) *** Siirt dialects *** Diyarbakır dialects:
Diyarbakır Diyarbakır is the largest Kurdish-majority city in Turkey. It is the administrative center of Diyarbakır Province. Situated around a high plateau by the banks of the Tigris river on which stands the historic Diyarbakır Fortress, it is ...
(Christians and Jews), Diyarbakır villages (Christians), Siverek, Çermik and Urfa (Jews) *** KozlukSasonMuş dialects **
Tigris The Tigris ( ; see #Etymology, below) is the eastern of the two great rivers that define Mesopotamia, the other being the Euphrates. The river flows south from the mountains of the Armenian Highlands through the Syrian Desert, Syrian and Arabia ...
Qeltu *** ''Moslawi'':
Mosul Mosul ( ; , , ; ; ; ) is a major city in northern Iraq, serving as the capital of Nineveh Governorate. It is the second largest city in Iraq overall after the capital Baghdad. Situated on the banks of Tigris, the city encloses the ruins of the ...
and surrounding villages ( Bahzani, Bashiqa, Ain Sifni) *** ''Moslawi'' group (Jews only) **** Northern Moslawi: Sandur, Akre,
Erbil Erbil (, ; , ), also called Hawler (, ), is the capital and most populated city in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq. The city is the capital of the Erbil Governorate. Human settlement at Erbil may be dated back to the 5th millennium BC. At the h ...
, Šoš **** Southern Moslawi:
Kirkuk Kirkuk (; ; ; ) is a major city in northern Iraq, serving as the capital of the Kirkuk Governorate. The city is home to a diverse population of Kurds, Iraqi Turkmen, Iraqi Turkmens and Arabs. Kirkuk sits on the ruins of the original Kirkuk Cit ...
, Tuz Khurmatu, Khanaqin *** Tikrit and surroundings *** Baghdad and southern Iraq (
Jews Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...
and Christians only) **
Euphrates The Euphrates ( ; see #Etymology, below) is the longest and one of the most historically important rivers of West Asia. Tigris–Euphrates river system, Together with the Tigris, it is one of the two defining rivers of Mesopotamia (). Originati ...
Qeltu *** Khawetna (Syria, Iraq, Turkey) *** Deir ez-Zor *** Anah and Abu Kamal *** Hit, Iraq Baghdadi Arabic is Iraq's de facto national vernacular, as about half of the population speaks it as a mother tongue, and most other Iraqis understand it. It is spreading to northern cities as well. Other Arabic speakers cannot easily understand Moslawi and Baghdadi. The Iraqi dialect is notable for its diversity and its general closeness to Modern Standard Arabic (MSA), with Iraqis often capable of pronouncing classical Arabic with proper phonetics.


Moslawi Dialect

Iraqi Arabic varies depending on the region. In the north, particularly in
Mosul Mosul ( ; , , ; ; ; ) is a major city in northern Iraq, serving as the capital of Nineveh Governorate. It is the second largest city in Iraq overall after the capital Baghdad. Situated on the banks of Tigris, the city encloses the ruins of the ...
, the local dialect is known as the Moslawi dialect, or as Iraqis call it, ( Maslawi). This dialect closely resembles Modern Standard Arabic in its pronunciation of the letter Qaf. Most Iraqis, due to their regional dialects, pronounce the Qaf as a voiced velar plosive / g/, similar to the Egyptian "g". For example, in southern Iraq, the word (قال) "he said" is pronounced with a voiced Qaf as . In contrast, Maslawis pronounce it with the voiceless uvular stop as in classical Arabic /q/. As you travel south from Mosul, the dialect begins to shift toward a Bedouin-influenced variety, especially in towns like Baiji, Sharqat, Al-Alam, and Al-Duluiya in Salah al-Din Province. However, in Tikrit and Al-Dour, the dialect remains closer to the Moslawi variety.


Baghdadi Dialect

In central Iraq, areas like
Diyala Governorate Diyala Governorate ( ) or Diyala Province is a Governorates of Iraq, governorate in northeastern Iraq. Provincial Government *Governor: Muthanna al-Tamimi *Deputy Governor: Mohammed Jassim al-Jubouri Council Geography Diyala Governorate ...
, Balad, and Dujail have dialects that are similar to the Baghdadi dialect, though with noticeable Bedouin influence. The dialect spoken in
Baghdad Baghdad ( or ; , ) is the capital and List of largest cities of Iraq, largest city of Iraq, located along the Tigris in the central part of the country. With a population exceeding 7 million, it ranks among the List of largest cities in the A ...
is known for its simplicity, slow pace, and clarity, making it one of the Iraqi dialects closest to classical Arabic. The Hilla dialect spoken in
Babil Governorate Babylon Governorate or Babil Province ( ''Muḥāfaẓa Bābil'') is a governorates of Iraq, governorate in central Iraq. It has an area of , The population in Babil for 2023 is 1,820,700. The provincial capital is the city of Al Hillah, Hillah, ...
is also quite similar to the Baghdadi dialect. The Anbari dialect spoken in western Iraq, particularly in cities like Ramadi and Fallujah, is a blend of Baghdadi and Bedouin speech. It features many old Bedouin expressions and is generally considered clear and light. The Karbala dialect is also simple and clear, very close to the Baghdadi dialect, with only slight differences. For instance, to say “this is here,” Baghdadis might say: *"Hayyata huwa hnaaneh,"* while people from Karbala would say: *"Hatha huwa hnaaneh."*


Southern Dialects

The Najafi dialect leans more toward rural speech, often involving vowel shifts at the beginning of verbs. For example, instead of “Aqullak” (“I tell you”), a Najafi speaker might say: “Agillak.” Similarly, instead of “Adrubbak” (“I hit you”), they might say: “Adhirbak.” Najafi speakers also use the word “چه” (pronounced "tsha"), which means “then” or “so.” This word originates from the Aramaic word “ka,” which has the same meaning and function, especially before verbs. It’s still used in Aramaic poetry today. As one moves further south, the beloved rural Iraqi dialect becomes more prominent. Most poets of colloquial Iraqi Arabic hail from the southern countryside, where the dialect is widely understood by Iraqis. This dialect is similar to the Najafi one but also includes many words with classical, eloquent roots. For this reason, rural poets are often more expressive than their urban counterparts, and their voices are considered more stirring and powerful when reciting poetry. The rural dialect is characterized by its simplicity and speed, though city dwellers may find some words hard to understand. The Basrawi dialect is the Iraqi dialect most closely related to the Gulf dialect. It differs markedly from the southern rural dialect and is a mix of urban and Bedouin Gulf dialects, with additional influences from Persian, English, and Turkish. It also carries elements of the southern rural dialect. The Basrawi dialect is widely spoken in
Basra Basra () is a port city in Iraq, southern Iraq. It is the capital of the eponymous Basra Governorate, as well as the List of largest cities of Iraq, third largest city in Iraq overall, behind Baghdad and Mosul. Located near the Iran–Iraq bor ...
, especially among families from old Basra, as well as in areas like Zubair, Abu Al-Khaseeb, Safwan, Umm Qasr, and parts of
Nasiriyah Nasiriyah ( , ; , BGN: , ), also spelled Nassiriya or Nasiriya, is a city in Iraq, the capital of the Dhi Qar Governorate. It lies on the lower Euphrates, about south-southeast of Baghdad, near the ruins of the ancient city of Ur. Its po ...
. However, this dialect has been gradually declining due to heavy rural migration into cities during the mid-20th century, leading to a blending with southern rural dialects.


Substrate

Mesopotamian Arabic, especially Qeltu, has a significant Eastern Aramaic substrate, and through it also has significant influences from ancient Mesopotamian languages of Sumerian and Akkadian. Eastern Aramaic dialects flourished and became the
lingua franca A lingua franca (; ; for plurals see ), also known as a bridge language, common language, trade language, auxiliary language, link language or language of wider communication (LWC), is a Natural language, language systematically used to make co ...
throughout Mesopotamia during the
Achaemenid The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenian Empire, also known as the Persian Empire or First Persian Empire (; , , ), was an Iranian empire founded by Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty in 550 BC. Based in modern-day Iran, it was the large ...
and
Hellenistic period In classical antiquity, the Hellenistic period covers the time in Greek history after Classical Greece, between the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC, which was followed by the ascendancy of the R ...
, where different dialects such as Syriac, Mandaic and Hatran Aramaic came to being. Mesopotamian Arabic also retains influences from Persian, Turkish, and
Greek Greek may refer to: Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...
.


See also

*
Varieties of Arabic Varieties of Arabic (or dialects or vernaculars) are the linguistic systems that Arabic speakers speak natively. Arabic is a Semitic languages, Semitic language within the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic family that originated in the Arabian P ...
*
Modern Standard Arabic Modern Standard Arabic (MSA) or Modern Written Arabic (MWA) is the variety of Standard language, standardized, Literary language, literary Arabic that developed in the Arab world in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and in some usages al ...


References


Further reading

* {{Authority control