Manned-Unmanned Teaming

Manned-Unmanned Teaming (MUM-T) refers to the collaborative operation of manned and unmanned systems, typically in military or aerospace contexts, to enhance mission effectiveness. It enables human operators to control, coordinate, or supervise autonomous or semi-autonomous platforms, such as drones or robotic systems, to improve situational awareness, reduce risk, and optimize performance in complex environments.

A loyal wingman is a proposed type of unmanned combat air vehicle (UCAV) which incorporates artificial intelligence (AI) and is capable of collaborating with the next generation of crewed combat aircraft, including sixth-generation fighters and bombers such as the Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider. Also unlike the conventional UCAV, the loyal wingman is expected to be capable of surviving on the battlefield but to be significantly lower-cost than a crewed aircraft with similar capabilities. In the US, the concept is known as the collaborative combat aircraft (CCA). CCAs are intended to operate in collaborative teams with the next generation of manned combat aircraft, including sixth-generation fighters and bombers such as the Northrop Grumman B-21 Raider. Unlike the conventional UCAVs, the CCA incorporates artificial intelligence (AI), denoted an "autonomy package", increasing its survivability on the battlefield. It is still expected to cost much less than a manned aircraft with similar capabilities. The US Air Force plans to spend more than $8.9 billion on its CCA programs from fiscal years 2025 to 2029, with an additional $661 million planned for fiscal year 2024. The success of the CCA program may lessen the need for additional manned squadrons.

Characteristics

The loyal wingman is a military drone with an onboard AI control system and capability to carry and deliver a significant military weapons load. The AI system is envisaged as being significantly lighter and lower-cost than a human pilot with their associated life support systems, but to offer comparable capability in flying the aircraft and in mission execution.

Some concepts are based on a standardised aircraft deployed in two variants; one as a sixth-generation fighter with a human pilot and/or battle commander in the cockpit, and the other as a loyal wingman with an AI system substituted in the same location. BAE Systems envisage the Tempest to be capable of operating in either configuration.

Another concept is to develop a shorter-range, and hence smaller and cheaper, wingman to be carried by the manned parent aircraft and air-launched when needed. The drone in turn carries its own munitions. This reduces the overall cost while maintaining protection for the crewed aircraft on the battlefield.
A CCA is a military drone with an onboard AI control system and capability to carry and deliver a significant military weapons load. Its AI system is envisaged as being significantly lighter and lower-cost than a human pilot with their associated life support systems, but offering comparable capability in flying the aircraft and in mission execution.

Role

The principal application is to elevate the role of human pilots to mission commanders, leaving AIs as "loyal wingmen" to operate under their tactical control as high-skill operators of relatively low-cost robotic craft.Theresa Hitchen
(20 August 2020) AI Slays Top F-16 Pilot In DARPA Dogfight Simulation
The AI systems are eventually to serve as wingmen for human commanders.
*Eric Tegle
(20 August 2020) AI Just Won A Series Of Simulated Dogfights Against A Human F-16 Pilot, 5-0. What Does That Mean?
*DARPAt
(20 August 2020) AlphaDogfight Trials Final Event
5 hour live stream.

Loyal wingmen can perform other missions as well, as "a sensor, as a shooter, as a weapons carrier, as a cost reducer".

Capabilities

A loyal wingman is expected to cost significantly less than a crewed fighter, and will typically be considered vulnerable to attrition. It would have sufficient intelligence and onboard defence systems to survive on the battlefield. The United States Secretary of the Air Force Frank Kendall has described them as remotely controlled versions of targeting pods, electronic warfare pods or weapons carriers to provide additional sensors and munitions; to balance affordability and capability.

Although a CCA will be a fraction of the cost of a manned fighter, they would not be considered expendable or even vulnerable to attrition. A CCA would have sufficient intelligence and onboard defense systems to survive on the battlefield. US Air Force Secretary Frank Kendall has described them as playing perhaps "100 roles": remotely controlled versions of targeting pods, electronic warfare pods or weapons carriers to provide additional sensors and munitions; to balance affordability and capability.

The price point of a CCA will determine how many types of missions a single airframe can perform, with more expensive designs able to be multirole aircraft, while cheaper designs could be modular to perform different tasks on different days which can afford to be lost in combat. Two increments are planned: increment 1 CCAs will have sensor and targeting systems to focus on carrying additional munitions for manned aircraft; increment 2 CCAs will have greater stealth and autonomy to perform missions including EW, SEAD, and potentially act as decoys. It's possible two distinct solutions could emerge from this stage, one high end and "exquisite" and the other more basic and inexpensive oriented around a single mission. Service officials started out developing the increment 2 CCA as a high-end, stealthy platform, but wargames showing that large numbers of low-end aircraft would be more effective than small numbers of high-end versions in a simulated Pacific conflict influenced them to rethink their approach.

The USAF is seeking CCAs with greater thrust than the current MQ-28 and the XQ-58.

By country

The concept of the loyal wingman arose in the early 2000s and, since then, countries such as Australia, China, Japan, Russia, the UK and the US have been researching and developing the necessary design criteria and technologies.

Australia

Boeing Australia is leading development of the MQ-28 Ghost Bat loyal wingman for the RAAF, with BAE Systems Australia providing much of the avionics. The MQ-28 was first flown in 2021 and since then, at least 8 aircraft have been built.

China

China is known to be developing various "loyal wingman" prototypes such as AVIC Dark Sword, which is a concept first revealed in 2006. As of 2019, China manufactures drones at large scale and has well-developed swarming technology. However, the planned level of autonomy and integration with these systems is not known.

Crewed component

China planned to use twin-seat stealth fighters to coordinate unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAVs) and "loyal wingman" platforms via networking and datalink. The advantage of a second operator includes the potential for better interpreting and exploiting the enormous sensory data collected by all friendly platforms, which could overload the limited cognitive and processing capacity for a single human, especially in a contested air combat environment. The back-seater operator would focus on managing the manned or unmanned aircraft fleet, reducing the pilot's workload in a contested air combat environment. With increased automation and artificial intelligence in the aircraft system, the two men crew would likely be able to delegate more complex AEW&C tasks, absorb information, and make tactical decisions. The stealth platform could act as a more survivable and distributed alternative to traditional control aircraft, as the stealth allows them to collect data from "loyal wingman" systems and sensors on the frontline.

The development of a twin-seater variant of the Chengdu J-20 was hinted at by its chief designer in 2019. In January 2021, Aviation Industry Corporation of China released computer renderings of the twin-seat variant of the J-20 fighter in celebration of the 10th anniversary of the jet's maiden flight. In February 2021, a South China Morning Post infographic depicted a twin-seat J-20 variant powered by thrust vectoring WS-10C. In October 2021, a taxiing prototype, dubbed J-20S by analysts, was spotted near Chengdu Aircraft Corporation facilities, making J-20S the first-ever two-seat stealth fighter.

In July 2024, USAF Major Joshua Campbell of CASI recommended that the USAF evaluate the concept of twin-seat J-20 fighters for future combat systems. Campbell found merit in China's approach to human-to-machine interaction in an operationally limited (CDO-L) combat environment with information saturation. He believed the twin-seat J-20, with its secondary pilot serving as a control operator for managing collaborative combat aircraft (CCA) and other aircraft in formation, could serve as an inspiration for the F-15EX program and air platforms beyond traditional roles before more advanced AI decision-maker becomes available.

In January 2019, Dr. Wang Haifeng, chief designer of the Chengdu Aircraft Corporation (CAC) announced that China had begun pre-research on a sixth-generation aircraft, which would include capability to control unmmaned aircraft. Intelligence and rumors indicated the Chinese designs would use tailless flying wing or flying arrowhead configuration that can provide greater broadband stealth characteristics compared to the previous generation of fighters, new propulsion technologies, improved sensors allowing the aircraft to operate alongsideManned-Unmanned Teaming (MUM-T) aircraft or unmanned combat aerial vehicles (UCAVs), etc.

On 26 December 2024, one of the Chinese six-generation fighter prototypes was spotted in China. Based on the available footage, analysts Bill Sweetman, writing for the Australian Strategic Policy Institute, speculated that J-36 could serve as a supercruising launching platform for long-range missiles and a command and control hub for other manned and unmanned aircraft. Justin Bronk of the Royal United Services Institute (RUSI), suggested large crewed aircraft can offer unique strategic advantages for China and the US in the Indo-Pacific region, which has limited forward bases and increasing threats from missiles, drones, and electronic warfare (EW) environment. Bronk argued that while distributed uncrewed systems, such as collaborative combat aircraft (CCA), offer cost-effective combat mass, their reliance on datalinks makes them vulnerable to EW disruption, highlighting the enduring value of crewed aircraft like J-36, which can operate independently in contested environments.

Uncrewed component

One of the earliest attempts at the loyal wingman concept in China was the AVIC Dark Sword. In October 2022, Chinese media showcased the concept of the J-20 two-seater controlling stealth Hongdu GJ-11 unmanned combat aerial vehicles, and the back seat is designated for the weapons officer. It could also potentially manage the LJ-1, a low-end modular drone platform. The Chengdu WZ-10 is another drone envisioned for loyal wingman usage.

In 2021, China Aerospace Science and Technology Corporation, a Chinese state-owned defense and aerospace manufacturer, revealed the Feihong FH-97 prototype unmanned combat aerial vehicle with stealth capabilities. It was developed as a "loyal wingman" drone, designed to suppress air defenses with electronic countermeasures, fly ahead of aircraft to provide early warning, act as an expandable decoy, as well as provide reconnaissance and damage evaluation. The FH-97 can also deploy the FH-901 to strike maneuvering targets. In 2022, the company revealed Feihong FH-97A, a prototype loyal wingman drone designed to fly alongside the J-20 fighter. It can also carry up to 8 air-to-air missiles or loitering munitions and use rocket boosters to takeoff without a runway.

Germany

European aerospace manufacturer Airbus has proposed the Airbus Wingman, a loyal wingman aircraft. The aircraft would be an unmanned combat aerial vehicle (UCAV) which would accompany a Eurofighter Typhoon or other combat aircraft as a force multiplier.

India

The HAL CATS Warrior is an AI-enabled wingman drone under development by Hindustan Aeronautics Ltd. (HAL) for the proposed Combat Air Teaming System (CATS). Successful completion of engine ground runs was done in 2025.

Japan

Japan announced a development programme for a loyal wingman drone in 2021, issuing the first round of funding in 2022. The drone is intended to be carried for deployment by a proposed F-X fighter, also under development.

Russia

Russian projects for wingman-class drones are thought to include the Sukhoi S-70 Okhotnik and the Kronshtadt Grom. However, although Russia already manufactured drones, the planned level of autonomy or even AI for these systems are not known.

South Korea

In addition to the production of the new generation fighter, KF-21, South Korea plans to develop several types of UCAVs as wingmen to team up with the manned fighter.

Turkey

TAI Anka-3 is a jet-powered, flying wing type stealth UCAV. Its maiden flight was successfully completed on 28 December 2023. On October 30, 2024, a TAI Anka-3 UCAV armed with a cruise missile became the first drone in history to be controlled by another aircraft in the loyal wingman role, representing an advancement in remote control capabilities for military aviation.

United Kingdom

The RAF in the UK has been developing the Loyal Wingman concept since 2015, with the Spirit Mosquito technology demonstrator flying in 2020. Programme funding was cancelled in June 2022 because the Ministry of Defence felt that it was better spent on less ambitious advances.

United States

The concept of the CCA arose in the early 2000s. CCA programs include the USAF Next Generation Air Dominance (NGAD) program. The US Navy and USAF plan to be able to control the CCAs and NGADs of either service.Michael Marro
(7 Mar 2023) Next gen numbers: Air Force plans ‘nominal’ buy of 200 NGAD fighters, 1,000 drone wingmen
"One way to think of ollaborative combat aircraftis as remotely controlled versions of the targeting pods, electronic warfare pods or weapons now carried under the wings of our crewed aircraft" —Frank Kendall The CCA is being developed in collaborative fashionaf.mil Secretary of the Air Force Public Affairs Office (SAF/PAO
(17 November 2022) Senior Leaders hold Background Briefing on Collaborative Combat Aircraft on November 17, 2022. by multiple commands of the USAF: MG Heather L. Pringle
of the Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL); MG R. Scott Jobe of Air Combat Command (ACC); LTG Dale R. White, program executive officer (PEO) for fighters and advanced aircraft; and BG Joseph Kunkel, Air Staff (United States), DCS, Plans and Programs. All four generals agreed on the need to put CCAs into the Joint Simulation Environment.

Defense policy expert Heather Penney has identified five key elements for the collaborative development of crewed-uncrewed teaming of autonomous loyal wingmen, remote pilots of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), and pilots flying separately in manned aircraft (also called ''manned-unmanned teaming''). Heather Penneybr>(September 2022) Five Imperatives for Developing Collaborative Combat Aircraft for Teaming Operations
MITCHELL INSTITUTE Policy Paper 38 Sep 2022. 40 pages,Mitchell Institute podcast pilots Heather Penney ('Lucky') and 'Slick'

* Create concepts that will maximize the strengths of both CCA and piloted aircraft working as a team.
* Include operators in CCA development to ensure they understand how they will perform in the battlespace.
* Warfighters must be able to depend on CCA autonomy.
* Warfighters must have assured control over CCA in highly dynamic operations.
* Human workloads must be manageable.

The Autonomous Core System, Skyborg's autonomy package, was shown to be portable across multiple airframes; this has led Skyborg to become a Program of Record with a Program Executive Officer (PEO) for acquisition. Skyborg will continue to serve as a science and technology platform.

Most UAVs are remotely piloted, but an AI program piloting a collaborative combat aircraft would need a mission commander for crewed-uncrewed teaming. — Heather Penney. In 2020, The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) AlphaDogfight test program established that AI programs that fly fighter aircraft will overmatch human pilots, to the extent that the AI agents even flew with fine motor control.Sydney J. Freedberg, Jr
(09 September 2020) AI To Fly In Dogfight Tests By 2024: SecDef
For "human-machine teaming".
''Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency—Our Research''
**Col. Daniel Javorsek, USAF:
(8 May 2019) AlphaDogfight
"This shifts the human role from single platform operator to mission commander". An autonomy package on the VISTA testbed has demonstrated dogfighting capability. US Air Force Secretary Frank Kendall flew in the X-62A VISTA, which was under AI control. The NGAD is anticipated to use loyal wingmen (CCAs).Alex Hollings, Sandboxx Air Force Secretary Frank Kendall envisions these uncrewed aircraft as performing parts of a larger mission; CCA development can be conducted in parallel with NGAD development, which has to take into account a larger set of requirements. Up to five autonomous CCAs would operate with an NGAD.

Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) will test their Skyborg manned-unmanned programs such as Autonomous Air Combat Operations (AACO), and DARPA will test its Air Combat Evolution (ACE) artificial intelligence program. The System for Autonomous Control of Simulation (SACS) software for human interface is being developed by Calspan.

DARPA's Longshot is an air-launched UAV meant to extend the range of a mission and reduce the risk to manned aircraft, which could then remain at standoff range; if Longshot were to use Air Combat Evolution (ACE), missiles launched from that Longshot could more effectively select targets. On March 6, 2023, DARPA chose General Atomics Aeronautical Systems (GA-ASI) to carry out the design of the air-launched Longshot drone through Critical Design Review (CDR); a LongShot would itself carry an AMRAAM or Sidewinder missile, which greatly extends the range of these missiles. In this way, a Boeing F-15EX Eagle II or similar 4th-generation fighter can greatly increase their survivability, when armed with a LongShot. GA-ASI is developing a core package (Gambit) for the CCA market.

On 9 December 2022, the Air Force Test Pilot School tested its General Dynamics X-62 VISTA, a modified F-16 Fighting Falcon which can fly autonomously, with 2 different AI packages. By 16 December 2022 the VISTA had flown eight sorties using ACE, and six sorties using AACO, at a rate of two sorties per day.Jonathan Gitli
(14 Feb 2023) The US Air Force successfully tested this AI-controlled jet fighter
This "allowed us to rapidly learn lessons and iterate at a much faster rate than with other air vehicles".—Lt. Col. Ryan "Hal" Hefron Six F-16s from Eglin AFB will be fitted with autonomy agents, to establish the foundation of the Collaborative Combat Aircraft (CCA) program.Defense Update
(1 Apr 2023) VENOM initiative will see 6 F-16s to fly autonomously !
Venom (Viper Experimentation and Next-Gen Operations Mode) Project The CCA lines of effort were:

* Developing the Collaborative combat aircraft platform itself,
* developing the autonomy package that will fly a CCA, and
* figuring out how to organize, train, equip, and supply the CCA program

On 24 January 2024, the US Air Force awarded contracts to five contractor teams led by Anduril, Boeing, General Atomics, Lockheed Martin, and Northrop Grumman for the development of collaborative combat aircraft.

On 24 April 2024, the US Air Force announced that they had eliminated Boeing, Lockheed Martin, and Northrop Grumman from the Increment I competition and that the Anduril Fury and General Atomics Gambit would be moving forward with development. The Air Force expects to make a final decision between the two companies' offerings by 2026. As the CCA program is expected to result in multiple types of aircraft with varying capabilities and costs, all companies are expected to bid again for follow-on Increments.

On 19 September 2024, General Atomics displayed a full-scale model of a CCA.Ryan Finnert
(19 September 2024) USAF’s first autonomous combat jets could act as 'missile trucks' for crewed fighters
/ref> One such CCA version is a 'missile truck', which would augment the capabilities of a crewed/uncrewed mission. Anduril, a competing CCA vendor also displayed a full-scale model.

On the 3rd of March 2025, the Air Force released a statement designating the General Atomics design the YFQ-42A, and the Anduril design the YFQ-44A.

Funding

A CCA is estimated to cost between one-half and one-quarter as much as $80 million Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II; the desired cost is between $25-30 million per airframe. US Air Force Secretary Frank Kendall is aiming for an initial fleet of 1,000 CCAs. As elements of a crewed-uncrewed team, two CCAs could be teamed with an NGAD or F-35, say two for each of the 200 NGAD platforms,Valerie Insinna; editors: Leslie Adler and Richard Chang, Reuter
(18 May 2023) U.S. Air Force to award sixth-generation fighter contract in 2024
Plan: spend $2.3 billion on the program in fiscal 2024 and two for each of the 300 F-35s, in order to work out concepts to integrate them into the service, but the full inventory could be twice that size. As of 3 July 2024, the Air Force requested reprogramming an additional $150 million for CCA development in 2024. This is a 40% increase over the $392 million budget previously requested; the FY2025 budget request will reflect an additional increment;Michael Marrow & Valerie Insinn
(3 July 2024) Air Force requests more money for drone wingmen effort
/ref>Audrey Decke
(6 Feb 2024) Robot wingmen vs. China: What a think tank's wargame revealed about a key USAF concept
"As the Air Force contemplates a range of price points, the tabletop exercise suggests cheaper is better". Mode is $10 million per CCA in the Mitchell Institute study. the money for NGAD was adjusted appropriately.

The 26th Secretary of the US Air Force listed CCAs among his top seven priorities for the fiscal year (FY) 2024 budget request to its Chief of staff: Collaborative combat aircraft are entering the FY2024 presidential budget request;Kristyn E. Jones, performing the duties of Under Secretary of the Air Force, and Deputy Assistant Secretary for Budget Maj. Gen. Mike A. Greine
(13 Mar 2023) Air Force Officials Hold a Press Briefing on President Biden's Fiscal 2024 Air Force Budget
/ref> Collaborative Combat Aircraft (CCA) projects are estimated to be $500 million for perhaps "100 roles" in USAF missions in FY2024. The US Air Force plans to spend more than $6 billion on its CCA programs over the next five years (2023 to 2028).

List of aircraft

Examples include:
* Boeing MQ-28 Ghost Bat - 8 in testing (''Block 1''), planned entry into active service in 2025
* General Dynamics X-62 VISTA - system development aircraft
* Bayraktar Kizilelma
* HAL CATS Warrior - under development
* Hongdu GJ-11
* TAI Anka-3
* Baykar Bayraktar Kızılelma
* Kratos XQ-58 Valkyrie - development prototype flying
* Kronshtadt Grom ("Thunder") - under development
* Spirit Mosquito - program cancelled
* Sukhoi S-70 Okhotnik - proposed development with upgraded avionics
* Airbus Wingman - proposed development
* Northrop Grumman Model 437 - development prototype flying
* GA-ASI Gambit
* General Atomics XQ-67
* General Dynamics X-62 VISTA
* Kratos XQ-58 ValkyrieKratos Defense & Security Solutions, Inc
(19 September 2022) Kratos Provides Update on Family of Collaborative Combat Aircraft Flights and Milestones
/ref>
* Skyborg Vanguard program entrants.

See also

*Index of aviation articles

Notes and references

{{Reflist

Unmanned military aircraft of the United States
Robotics
Command and control