Mahathir Bin Mohamad

Mahathir bin Mohamad (; ; born 10 July 1925) is a Malaysian politician, author and doctor who was respectively the fourth and seventh prime minister of Malaysia from 1981 to 2003 and from 2018 to 2020. He was the country's longest-serving prime minister, serving for a cumulative total of 24 years. His political career has spanned more than 75 years, from joining protests opposing citizenship policies for non-Malays in the Malayan Union in the 1940s to forming the Gerakan Tanah Air coalition in 2022. During his premiership, Mahathir was granted the title "Father of Modernisation" () for his pivotal role in transforming the country's economy and infrastructure. At nearly 100 years old, he is currently the oldest living former Malaysian prime minister.

Born and raised in Alor Setar, Kedah, Mahathir excelled at school and became a physician. He became active in UMNO before entering the parliament of Malaysia in 1964 as the Member of Parliament for Kota Setar Selatan, serving until 1969 amid losing his seat, subsequently falling out with Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman and being expelled from UMNO. In 1970, he released the book '' The Malay Dilemma''. When Tunku resigned, Mahathir re-entered UMNO and parliament through Kubang Pasu constituency, and was promoted to Minister of Education from 1974 to 1978 and Minister of Trade and Industry from 1978 to 1981. He became deputy prime minister in 1976 and in other cabinet before being sworn in as prime minister in 1981.

During Mahathir's first tenure, Malaysia underwent modernization and economic growth, and his government initiated widespread industry privatisation and a series of bold infrastructure projects. Mahathir was a dominant political figure, winning five consecutive general elections and fending off several rivals for UMNO's leadership. He centralised power through undermining judicial independence and supporting a constitutional amendment to remove legal immunity for royalty. He continued pro- ''bumiputera'' policies, and oversaw Malaysia's relatively fast recovery from the 1997 Asian financial crisis. In 1987, he detained various activists and religious figures under Operation Lalang, and in 1998 had his deputy Anwar Ibrahim arrested. As prime minister, he was an advocate of Asian values and development models, and was particularly prominent across the Muslim world.

Mahathir resigned in 2003 after 22 years in office, but remained politically influential and was critical of his successors. He quit UMNO over the 1MDB corruption scandal in 2016, joining BERSATU and leading the Pakatan Harapan opposition coalition to victory in the 2018 general election. During a second tenure as prime minister, he pledged to investigate the 1MDB scandal, combat corruption, and cut spending on large infrastructure projects. He also secured the pardon and release of Anwar Ibrahim. Mahathir resigned in 2020 amidst a political crisis. Despite losing his parliamentary seat in the 2022 general election, he remained active in politics and shifted party affiliation several times. In 2019, ''Time'' magazine listed him as one of the world's 100 most influential people.

Mahathir's political views have shifted during his life, and are shaped by his Malay nationalism and Islamic religious beliefs.

Early life and education

Mahathir was born at his parents' home in a poor neighbourhood at Lorong Kilang Ais, Alor Setar, in the capital of the Malay sultanate of Kedah under a British protectorate, on 10 July 1925. He was the first prime minister that was not born into the aristocracy or a prominent religious or political family. Mahathir's mother, Wan Tempawan Wan Hanapi, was a Malay from Kedah. His father, Mohamad Iskandar, was from Penang of Malay and Indian descent. Mahathir's paternal grandfather had come from Kerala, British India but many claim that Mahathir's paternal grandfather had come from Satkania Upazila, Chittagong, British India (present part of Bangladesh).

Mohamad Iskandar was the principal of an English-medium secondary school, whose lower-middle-class status meant his daughters were unable to enrol in a secondary school. Wan Tempawan had only distant relations to members of Kedah's royalty. Both had been married previously. Mahathir was born with six half-siblings and two full-siblings. His childhood home, with a single shared bedroom and no electricity supply, was later converted to a tourist attraction and opened to the public. During his childhood, Mahathir enjoyed playing snakes and ladders and demonstrated multiple creative talents, including playing the trumpet, interior decorating, and engaging in crafts and carpentry work. He once shared that he was bullied in his youth, recalling how he sold balloons for a small profit but was forced by a stronger peer to use his earnings to buy food for him.

Mahathir began his education at Seberang Perak Malay Boys School, Alor Setar, Kedah in 1930. Mahathir was a hard-working student. Discipline imposed by his father motivated him to study, and he showed little interest in sports. Having become fluent in English well ahead of his primary school peers, including editing the English student newspaper and winning a series of language awards, he won a position in a selective English-medium secondary school Government English School in 1933. Although he was not a sports fan, Mahathir took up rugby during his school days because he liked the sport and wanted to avoid being lazy and weak. With schools closed during the Japanese occupation of Malaya in World War II, he started a small business at Pekan Rabu, selling coffee and snacks such as '' pisang goreng'' (banana fritters). Even after becoming Prime Minister, Mahathir continued to visit Pekan Rabu whenever he traveled to Alor Setar.

After the war, Mahathir graduated from secondary school with the highest rank and enrolled to study medicine at the King Edward VII College of Medicine in Singapore. Mahathir studied medicine at what was then called University of Malaya, later renamed University of Singapore. When the university granted him an honorary degree in November 2018, he said "I will always value my stay in Singapore for nearly six years." During his college years, Mahathir developed a passion for driving, often traveling long distances, including from Singapore to his hometown in Alor Setar, in his convertible. In 1947, Mahathir, writing under the pen name 'Che Det' in ''The Sunday Times'', published an article titled ''Malay Women Make Their Own Freedom'', in which he discussed the struggle of Malay women in the post-war period and stated, "It is up to the men and especially the fathers, to realise that they can no longer confine their womenfolk to the kitchen."

Medical career (1953–1959)

After graduating in 1953 from Universiti Malaya in Singapore, Mahathir began his housemanship at Penang General Hospital. In 1954, he was sent to Alor Setar General Hospital before being posted to government clinics in Langkawi, Jitra, and Perlis. During his time in Langkawi in 1955, Mahathir was the island's first stationed doctor, witnessing its underdeveloped state—a memory that later influenced his efforts to transform it into a major tourist destination when he became Prime Minister. Reflecting on his early career, Mahathir said he prioritized work over salary, starting with RM400 as a medical officer before a promotion raised it to RM770. He then resigned to open his private practice, named "Maha Klinik" (''Maha Clinic''), while his wife worked as a government doctor for 25 years. Maha Klinik was the first privately owned clinic established by a Malay in Malaysia.

Mahathir acquired the reputation of being a caring doctor, willing to make house calls at any hour, trudging across rice fields in the dark to treat patients. If they could not afford his fee, they settled by installments or paid what they had. He was the town's first Malay physician and a successful one. He built a large house and employed a Chinese man to chauffeur him in his Pontiac Catalina (most chauffeurs at the time were Malay). Mahathir and Siti Hasmah were also involved in welfare and public health activities. He served as President of the Kedah Tuberculosis Association, visiting Indian workers on rubber plantations to treat the disease, while she volunteered in the Kedah Family Planning Association. With the money from his medical practice, Mahathir indulged in his entrepreneurial streak and invested in property development, tin mining, a franchised petrol station, and a shop to do quick printing–sometimes to rescue Malay businessmen in trouble. He helped found the Malay Chamber of Commerce and served as its director.

Early political career (1959–1970)

After World War II ended and the Japanese withdrew, the British grouped the Malay states and the Straits Settlements into the Malayan Union, and granted citizenship to non-Malays. This caused major backlash from Malays and a wave of Malay nationalism swept across the country. Mahathir became politically activated by these changes, joining protests and activism against the new citizenship policies. Mahathir later argued for affirmative action for Malays at medical college. While at college, he contributed to ''The Straits Times'' under the pseudonym "C.H.E. Det" and a student journal, in which he fiercely promoted Malay rights, such as calling for the restoration of Malay as an official language. While practising as a physician in Alor Setar, Mahathir became active in UMNO. His earliest political involvement was in the Kampung Charok Kudong Umno branch, where he made his debut in politics. By the time of the first general election for the independent state of Malaya in 1959, he was the chairman of the party in Kedah.

Despite his prominence in UMNO, Mahathir was not a candidate in the 1959 election, ruling himself out following a disagreement with then Prime Minister Tunku Abdul Rahman. Their relationship had been strained since Mahathir had criticised Tunku's agreement to retain British and Commonwealth forces in Malaya after independence. Tunku opposed Mahathir's plans to introduce minimum educational qualifications for UMNO candidates. For Mahathir, this was a significant enough slight to delay his entry into national politics in protest. He contested in the following general election in 1964, and was elected as the federal parliamentarian for the Alor Setar-based seat of Kota Setar Selatan.

Elected to parliament in a volatile political period, Mahathir, as a backbencher, launched himself into the main conflict of the day: Singapore's future, with its large and economically powerful ethnic Chinese population, as a state of Malaysia. He vociferously attacked Singapore's dominant People's Action Party for being "pro-Chinese" and "anti-Malay" and called its leader, Lee Kuan Yew, "arrogant". Singapore was expelled from Malaysia in Mahathir's first full year in parliament. In 1965, Mahathir stated in Parliament that Article 153 of the Federal Constitution, which grants special rights to Malays, was a source of shame for the community and would eventually be abolished. Despite Mahathir's prominence, he lost his seat in the 1969 election, defeated by Yusof Rawa of the Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party (PAS).Tan & Vasil, p. 51 Mahathir attributed the loss of his seat to ethnic Chinese voters switching support from UMNO to PAS. Being a Malay-dominated seat, only the two major Malay parties fielded candidates, leaving Chinese voters to choose between the Malay-centric UMNO and the Islamist PAS.

Large government losses in the election were followed by the race riots of 13 May 1969. Hundreds of people were killed in clashes between Malays and Chinese. In 1968, Mahathir had expressed concern over escalating racial tensions in two newspaper articles, and feared preventative measures would be needed to avoid violence. Outside parliament, he openly criticised the government, also sending an open dissenting letter to Tunku for failing to uphold Malay interests and calling for his resignation. By the end of the year, Mahathir was fired from UMNO's Supreme Council and expelled from the party. Tunku had to be persuaded not to have him arrested.

Expelled from UMNO, Mahathir wrote his first book, '' The Malay Dilemma'', in which he set out his vision for the Malay community. The book argued that a balance had to be achieved between government support for Malays, so that their economic interests would not be dominated by the Chinese, and exposing Malays to sufficient competition. Mahathir saw Malays as typically avoiding hard work and failing to "appreciate the real value of money and property", and hoped this balance would rectify this. Mahathir criticised Tunku's government in the book, which led to it being banned in Malaysia. The ban was only lifted in 1981 under Mahathir's premiership.

Rise to prominence (1970–1976)

In 1971, Mahathir announced his plan to rejoin UMNO, stating he would make a formal statement at an appropriate time; that same year, he also met Prime Minister Abdul Razak Hussein during a visit to Morib. Mahathir rejoined UMNO on 7 March 1972. Recognizing his potential and sharp political acumen, Razak appointed Mahathir as a Senator for Kedah in 1973. Around the same time, Mahathir also became the chairman of Food Industries of Malaysia (FIMA) Sdn. Bhd. In January 1973, as chairman of the FIMA, Mahathir visited a government factory in Pekan Nanas. He faced peaceful protests from over 200 workers demanding better working conditions and wage improvements. After Mahathir spoke to the workers and promised to review their grievances, they dispersed peacefully. He remained chairman of FIMA until 1981, when he became Prime Minister and was succeeded by Basir Ismail.

Mahathir rose quickly in the Abdul Razak government, returning to UMNO's Supreme Council in 1973. He returned to the House of Representatives in the 1974 election, winning the Kedah-based seat of Kubang Pasu unopposed. He was appointed to Cabinet in September 1974 as the Minister for Education. During his tenure, Mahathir rolled out a new school curriculum for both primary and secondary schools, designed to provide holistic education and cultivate well-rounded individuals. Around this time, he also ceased his private medical practice.

In 1975, Mahathir ran for one of the three vice-presidencies of UMNO. The contest was regarded as a struggle for the party's leadership succession, as the health of Abdul Razak and his deputy, Hussein Onn, waned. Each of Abdul Razak's preferred candidates was elected: former Chief Minister of Melaka, Ghafar Baba; Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah, a wealthy businessman and member of Kelantan's royal family; and Mahathir. When Razak died the following year, Hussein, as his successor, had to choose between the three men, alongside the Minister of Home Affairs Ghazali Shafie, to be deputy prime minister. Mahathir's rivals had significant political liabilities: Ghazali, having been defeated by others for the vice-presidency, lacked the support of UMNO members; Ghafar had no higher education and was not fluent in English; and Razaleigh was young, inexperienced, and unmarried. Despite their lack of a close relationship, Hussein eventually appointed Mahathir as his deputy.

Deputy prime minister (1976–1981)

After six weeks of indecision, Mahathir was appointed deputy prime minister on 5 March 1976. Several political figures praised his appointment, recognizing his proven ability and experience. The appointment meant that Mahathir was the anointed successor to the prime ministership. In October, Mahathir was appointed to lead a cabinet committee to review the Petroleum Development Act. To address the growing drug problem, Mahathir launched a nationwide anti-drug campaign in 1978 and announced plans to build a large rehabilitation center on Pisang Island, Johor. He later warned that if the issue was not addressed, drug abuse could lead to the destruction of the nation.

Mahathir is regarded as having been a successful Minister of Education and then Minister of Trade and Industry (1978–81). In the latter post, he implemented a "heavy industries policy", establishing a HICOM, a government-controlled corporation, to invest in the long-term development of manufacturing sectors such as an indigenous car industry. He spent much of his time in the ministry promoting Malaysia through overseas visits. Besides this, as UMNO deputy president, he played a key role in coordinating among the ten component parties of the ruling Barisan Nasional coalition. In the 1978 general election, Mahathir served as BN's election director for the state of Perak.

In September 1978, Mahathir launched the Central Unit of the Federal Industrial Development Authority, a streamlined "one-stop agency" aimed at simplifying the application process for licences, permits, and facilities. Later that month, he led a 31-member trade delegation on a 20-day tour to the United States, aiming to attract American investors by highlighting opportunities in Malaysia, including tax exemptions and other incentives. In June 1979, Mahathir led a 23-member delegation to Pyongyang to sign Malaysia's first trade agreement with North Korea, aimed at exploring opportunities to increase imports of North Korean products. During the visit, he also met with North Korea's supreme leader, Kim Il Sung. In August, Mahathir reported that total approved capital investment in Malaysian companies for 1978 had increased by 38.6 per cent from the previous year, rising from US$441.3 million in 1977 to US$611.4 million; the number of approved projects also increased from 400 to 428, and the number of approved projects for expansion grew from 103 in 1976 and 150 in 1977 to 190 in 1978. In December, Mahathir launched the Manpower Development Board to improve manpower training and to help make the 1980s a decade of resource-based industries.

In 1981, facing health issues and advancing age, Hussein Onn decided to step down, paving the way for Mahathir to take over. In his first speech as UMNO president, Mahathir said that Malaysia and the majority Malays had a bright future, but achieving it required a just, strong, and stable government. A few days before being sworn in, Mahathir told ''Bernama'' that there would be no major changes in Malaysia's policies, particularly in foreign affairs, trade, and education, while also emphasizing Islam's continued prominence as the official religion.

First term as prime minister (1981–2003)

First 100 days

On 16 July 1981, Mahathir was officially appointed as Malaysia's fourth Prime Minister by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, Sultan Haji Ahmad Shah, and was sworn in during a ceremony attended by acting Chief Justice Sultan Azlan Shah and Chief Secretary to the Government Hashim Aman. The swearing-in ceremony, which took 10 minutes, was witnessed by all Cabinet ministers except for Foreign Minister Tengku Ahmad Rithauddeen Ismail, who was in New York. He said effective implementation of the economic programme and strengthening of relations with the neighbouring ASEAN countries would be the priority items in his domestic and foreign policies. Two days after his appointment, Mahathir announced a cabinet reshuffle, including the appointment of Musa Hitam as Deputy Prime Minister.

At his first Cabinet meeting on 23 July, Mahathir announced that the government had chosen the contractor and decided on a concrete girder type design for the long-planned Penang Bridge project. Shortly after taking office, he freed 21 political prisoners, including Kassim Ahmad, chairman of the opposition Malaysian People's Socialist Party, and two members of parliament from the Democratic Action Party, while also lifting the ban on his book '' The Malay Dilemma''.

Mahathir implemented a new initiative to promote punctuality in the government by introducing a clock-in system for all ministers and senior officials. The system required even top leaders to "punch" in, setting an example for the rest of the civil service. His policy quickly showed results, reducing tardiness among civil servants and easing traffic jams in Kuala Lumpur as workers began their journeys earlier to avoid penalties for being late to government offices. Mahathir later said he introduced the system because he noticed then that some civil servants left the office at 3pm.

Throughout August, he welcomed Chinese Premier Zhao Ziyang and made his first official visits to Indonesia and Thailand. Zhao assured Mahathir that China had made efforts to distance itself from the Communist Party of Malaya, and Mahathir responded that Malaysia would only be fully satisfied if China severed all ties with the CPM. On 29 August, ''The Straits Times'' commented that in just six weeks, Mahathir had shown he meant business through bold actions and rapid reforms, with his hyperactive movements generating almost daily headlines in the local press. Meanwhile, Mahathir fell ill with an upset stomach during an open-air rally in Alor Star, and had to cut short his speech; this also prompted him to leave for a two-week vacation in Spain and Portugal with his family starting from September 1, during which Musa Hitam acted as Prime Minister.

In September, during a meeting with Iranian Parliament Speaker Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani, Mahathir offered Malaysia's assistance for Iran's development programme, pledged to strengthen economic and trade cooperation, and reaffirmed Malaysia's commitment to helping resolve the Iran-Iraq conflict. Meanwhile, Mahathir announced that he would not attend the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) in Melbourne, citing heavy workload in Malaysia and criticising the Commonwealth for producing "too much talk and very little results. He approved a secretive stock market operation known as the " Dawn Raid" on the London Stock Exchange, enabling Malaysian agency Permodalan Nasional Berhad (PNB) to regain majority control of Guthrie, a major British plantation company.

On 23 October, as Mahathir was nearing his first 100 days as Prime Minister, Finance Minister Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah introduced a budget focused on tax cuts, inflation control, and encouraging savings and tourism. Mahathir believed that the removal of various taxes under the 1982 Budget would stimulate Malaysia's commercial sector and strengthen its tourism industry.

Domestic affairs

Mahathir launched the 'Bersih, Cekap & Amanah' campaign to improve government efficiency and combat corruption. He explained that the concept emphasized administrative integrity, public service responsiveness, and disciplined, hardworking personnel guided by strong ethical values and a commitment to the public good.

Mahathir suffered a heart attack in 1989 but chose to undergo treatment locally, later leading to the establishment of the National Heart Institute. In 1989, Mahathir oversaw peace talks with the Communist Party of Malaya, resulting in the Hat Yai Agreement that ended the decades-long conflict.

Under his leadership, the Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, and Eighth Malaysia Plans were successively introduced.

Change of Malaysian Standard Time

In December 1981, Mahathir proposed a change to Malaysia's official time to standardize the time zone across the country. Before this adjustment, Peninsular Malaysia operated at GMT+7:30 while Sabah and Sarawak used GMT+8:00. The half-hour difference had existed since before the formation of Malaysia in 1963. Mahathir introduced a motion in the Dewan Rakyat to move Peninsular Malaysia’s time forward by 30 minutes to match that of East Malaysia, with the change coming into effect on 1 January 1982. The proposal was approved by both houses of Parliament without amendment. Following Mahathir's visit to Singapore and discussions with Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew, the Singapore government also decided to adopt the same time zone adjustment in order to maintain synchronisation with Malaysia. The policy has remained in effect without change since its introduction in 1982.

Economic policy

During his tenure as Prime Minister, Mahathir implemented major structural reforms aimed at reducing the public sector's role in the economy. When he assumed office, Malaysia faced high budget deficits—peaking at 15% of GDP in 1982—and a federal debt level that reached over 100% of GDP by 1987. In response, Mahathir cut development spending and promoted private sector-led growth. These fiscal adjustments coincided with a recession in 1985, but they laid the groundwork for sustained economic expansion from 1988 to 1996, when GDP growth averaged 9.5% annually.

Mahathir launched the "Malaysia Incorporated" concept in 1983, which envisioned the government and private sector working as partners in national development. In line with this vision, he trimmed the civil service through the privatisation of government agencies. The policy aimed to reduce the government's role in the economy and to promote private sector growth. Industries such as telecommunications, utilities, and airlines were privatised, resulting in the establishment of major companies like Telekom Malaysia, Tenaga Nasional, and Malaysia Airlines (MAS). By the time Mahathir stepped down in 2003, the number of civil servants had fallen to below one million. However, during Najib Razak's tenure as prime minister, the civil service grew again relative to the population, which drew criticism.

Mahathir successfully diversified Malaysia's economy from reliance on raw material exports to include manufacturing, services, and tourism.

With the expiry of the New Economic Policy in 1990, Mahathir introduced his long-term economic vision for Malaysia. In 1991, he launched Vision 2020, aiming to make Malaysia a fully developed nation by 2020 through sustained growth of around seven percent GDP annually. Vision 2020 was supported by the National Development Policy (NDP), which continued affirmative action while opening some programs to non-Bumiputera groups. The policy prioritized balanced growth and regional equity.

Under the NDP, poverty fell below nine percent by 1995, and income inequality narrowed. Pro-business reforms, including tax cuts and financial liberalization, attracted foreign investment and propelled annual growth above nine percent until 1998. Malaysia became the world's 17th largest trading nation.

During the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis, Malaysia faced severe economic turmoil as the ringgit lost 35% of its value, foreign reserves dwindled, and the stock market halved. Mahathir refused to accept an IMF bailout, rejecting the austerity measures imposed by global lenders, and instead implemented unorthodox policies including capital controls, a fixed exchange rate, and lower interest rates. Though initially criticized, his measures stabilized the economy, restored investor confidence, and enabled Malaysia to recover rapidly—contracting 7.4% in 1998 but rebounding with 6.1% growth in 1999—while avoiding the social and political upheaval seen in countries like Indonesia and Thailand. Mahathir’s bold defiance of conventional economic wisdom was later vindicated by economists such as Paul Krugman and even acknowledged by the IMF and World Bank.

Industrialisation and infrastructure development

During his tenure as Prime Minister, Mahathir initiated numerous large-scale infrastructure projects.

As early as July 1979, when Mahathir was serving as Minister of Trade and Industry, he proposed a feasibility study on the development of a Malaysian-manufactured car, based on the view that heavy industries were important for national economic development. In October 1981, after becoming Prime Minister, Mahathir invited Yohei Mimura, the then President of Mitsubishi Corporation, to consider participating in the project. In January 1983, Mahathir visited Mitsubishi's Okazaki plant, where he was shown two proposed models, codenamed LM41 and LM44, as potential bases for Malaysia's national car initiative.

The national car project was approved in 1982, and Perusahaan Otomobil Nasional (Proton) was established on 7 May 1983. The company was placed under the ownership of Khazanah Nasional, Malaysia's sovereign wealth fund. By 1985, Mahathir introduced the Proton Saga, the country's first national car. The Proton Saga quickly gained popularity in Malaysia and secured a 64% market share within its segment by 1986. Following this domestic success, Proton expanded into the European market, beginning with the United Kingdom. In 1988, Proton showcased the Saga at the British International Motor Show, where it received three awards for quality, coachwork, and ergonomics. The model was also recognised as the fastest-selling new car make ever to enter the UK market at the time.

Mahathir significantly developed Langkawi by declaring it a duty-free zone in 1987, boosting trade and tourism. He upgraded infrastructure, including a modern airport, and created the Langkawi Development Authority (LADA) to ensure dedicated funding. His efforts attracted investment and major events, including the signing of the Langkawi Declaration on Environment at the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM). Mahathir also initiated key events such as Le Tour de Langkawi, the Royal Langkawi International Regatta, and the Langkawi International Maritime and Aerospace Exhibition, solidifying Langkawi's status as a key tourism hub.

The North–South Expressway (NSE) was revived during the administration of Mahathir in the 1980s. Spanning approximately 847.7 km from Bukit Kayu Hitam in Kedah near the Malaysia–Thailand border to Johor Bahru in the south, it became the longest expressway in Malaysia. The expressway was completed in stages and officially launched by Mahathir on 8 September 1994.

MEASAT (Malaysia East Asia Satellite) was Malaysia's first communications satellite initiative, launched under the leadership of Mahathir in 1993. At the time, the telecommunications sector in Malaysia was heavily dominated by Telekom Malaysia Berhad (TM), a government-owned entity. To break this monopoly and encourage private sector participation, Mahathir facilitated the establishment of Binariang Sdn Bhd, a privately owned company that was awarded the contract to operate the MEASAT system. Binariang later became known as Maxis. In 1994, Binariang signed a contract with Hughes Space and Communications Company (now Boeing Satellite Systems) to build two satellites. The first, MEASAT-1, was launched in January 1996 from the Guiana Space Centre in Kourou, French Guiana, in a ceremony officiated by Mahathir himself. It was positioned in geostationary orbit at 91.5° East and enabled direct-to-home broadcasting, expanded telecommunications coverage, and supported the growth of private broadcasters such as Astro. Later that year, MEASAT-2 was launched to supplement the first satellite, offering additional capacity and coverage. Together, MEASAT-1 and MEASAT-2 played a crucial role in modernizing Malaysia's broadcasting and telecommunications infrastructure during the 1990s.

As part of Mahathir's modernization and infrastructure development policies, he supported large-scale projects such as the Petronas Twin Towers, which became a landmark in Kuala Lumpur. Serving as the headquarters of the national oil company, Petronas, the 88-storey towers were designed by architect César Pelli. Construction began in 1993 and was completed in 1996. The towers held the title of the tallest buildings in the world from 1998 to 2004 and remain the tallest twin towers globally. The towers were officially opened to the public on 31 August 1999 by Mahathir. Mahathir maintained an office on the 86th floor of one of the towers.

Additionally, Mahathir supported the development of Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA). The project was launched in 1993 based on the government's assessment—under Mahathir's leadership—that Subang Airport was no longer able to accommodate the increasing volume of air passengers. KLIA officially opened on 27 June 1998. Since its inauguration, the airport has been regarded as a world-class international gateway and has received numerous awards from global institutions, including Skytrax and the International Air Transport Association. Another notable project was the Kuala Lumpur Tower (KL Tower), a telecommunications and broadcasting facility that also became a cultural and tourism landmark. Mahathir officiated the installation of the tower's antenna mast on 13 September 1994, marking its final height of 421 meters, and later presided over its official launch on 1 October 1996.

In the 1980s, Mahathir proposed the establishment of a new federal administrative center to decentralize government functions and ease congestion in Kuala Lumpur. In 1993, the Cabinet approved the selection of Prang Besar as the development site, and the area was later renamed Putrajaya in 1994. Mahathir launched the construction of Putrajaya in 1995, with the project projected to be completed by 2005 at an estimated cost of RM20 billion. He officiated the groundbreaking ceremony on 10 September 1996 and declared Putrajaya a city in 1997. On 21 June 1999, Mahathir began working from his new office in Putrajaya, marking the official move of the Prime Minister's Department. In 2001, Mahathir announced that Putrajaya would become Malaysia's third Federal Territory, after Kuala Lumpur and Labuan. The city was once described by the BBC as "one of the world's greenest cities".

Mahathir launched the Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC) in 1996 as part of his efforts to transform Malaysia into a knowledge-based economy in line with Vision 2020. He officially announced the project at the Multimedia Asia Conference on 1 August 1996, aiming to develop a high-tech zone stretching from the Petronas Twin Towers to Kuala Lumpur International Airport, including Putrajaya and Cyberjaya. To promote the initiative, Mahathir visited the United States in January 1997, where he successfully attracted interest from major IT companies and established an international advisory panel of 30 experts to support the MSC's development. Cyberjaya, developed as the first hub of MSC, has since become known as Malaysia's "Silicon Valley" due to its concentration of tech infrastructure, multinational corporations, and higher learning institutions.

In 2000, Microsoft founder Bill Gates described the MSC in Cyberjaya as the fastest developing IT centre in the world, praising it as one of the most ambitious and committed technology initiatives outside the United States. Mahathir also invested heavily in constructing the Bukit Jalil National Stadium and related facilities to host the 1998 Commonwealth Games. The event was widely regarded as a success, during which Queen Elizabeth II, who officiated the closing ceremony, remarked that she and Prince Philip were deeply impressed with Malaysia's infrastructure development. Commonwealth Games chairman Michael Fennell also declared during the closing ceremony that "Malaysia promised the best ever Commonwealth Games, and Malaysia delivered".

Buy British Last and Look East Policy

In 1981, Mahathir launched the Buy British Last (BBL) policy as a response to the British government's decision to raise tuition fees for foreign students, which disproportionately affected Malaysian scholars in the United Kingdom. At the time, Malaysia had over 17,000 students in the UK, and the removal of subsidies placed a significant financial burden on the government. When Mahathir's appeal for reinstating subsidies was rejected by the Margaret Thatcher administration, Malaysia retaliated by limiting imports from British companies, publicly discouraging British goods and services unless deemed absolutely necessary.

The Buy British Last campaign was part of Mahathir's broader vision to reduce Malaysia's reliance on the West and assert greater national autonomy. In line with this approach, he introduced the Look East Policy (LEP) in 1982, which encouraged Malaysians to adopt the work ethic and development model of East Asian nations, particularly Japan and South Korea. The policy involved sending Malaysian students and trainees to Japan for education and industrial training, while also inviting Japanese professionals to contribute to Malaysia's development. Mahathir was deeply impressed by Japan's post-war recovery and industrial discipline, which he saw as a model for Malaysia's own modernization efforts. He also noted in his speech at the 20th Anniversary of the Look East Policy in 2002 that nations had looked to Japan for inspiration even prior to the policy's formal launch, citing the Meiji Restoration and Japan's victory in the Russo-Japanese War as pivotal moments that encouraged many Asian countries to resist Western colonial domination. In 2022, during the 40th anniversary of the Look East Policy, Mahathir said the policy had been largely successful, noting that over 26,000 Malaysians had been sent to Japan since 1982 and nearly 1,500 Japanese companies were operating in Malaysia, employing more than 400,000 Malaysians.

Drug policy

Upon assuming office as Prime Minister, Mahathir identified drug abuse as the primary public enemy of the nation. Shortly after taking office, he stressed that the misuse and abuse of drugs were socially destructive, and that governments bore a heavy responsibility to prevent drug abuse from harming societies and leading the younger generation into irresponsibility and social deviance.

Malaysia introduced the death penalty for offences such as murder and drug trafficking in 1975, initially as a discretionary punishment. During Mahathir's administration, the death penalty for drug trafficking was made mandatory in 1983, reflecting the government's hardline stance against drug-related crimes at the time. The media has described Malaysia as having some of the world's toughest drug laws, including a mandatory death penalty for those convicted of trafficking 15 grams (0.5 oz) or more of heroin or morphine, 1,000 grams (2.2 lbs) of opium, or 400 grams (14 oz) of cannabis.

Under Mahathir's leadership, the government also implemented other anti-drug measures, including strengthening border control and launching large-scale public education campaigns. Anti-drug stories appeared regularly in the newspapers, and public service announcements became a common feature on television. The establishment of the Anti-Narcotics Committee and its executive arm, the Anti-Narcotics Task Force, in 1983 was a key part of these efforts. The committee, chaired by the Prime Minister and accountable to the National Security Council, was empowered by legislation passed in 1985, which allowed the government to detain suspected drug syndicate leaders without trial.

According to data from Amnesty International, Malaysian authorities executed over 120 prisoners convicted of capital drug offenses between 1983 and 1992, with at least 39 executions in 1992, the highest annual total ever recorded by Amnesty International in Malaysia. Notable cases include the execution of Kevin Barlow and Brian Chambers, two Australian nationals in 1986, who became the first Westerners to be sentenced to death in Malaysia. Last-minute appeals for clemency from Australian Prime Minister Bob Hawke, British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher, and Amnesty International were unsuccessful, with Hawke condemning the hangings as "barbaric", and Mahathir responding, "You should tell that to the drug traffickers". In May 1990, eight Hong Kong citizens were hanged in Malaysia, marking the largest mass execution for drug offenses in the country's history.

Due to the anti-drug policies, Malaysia's drug-related incidents decreased from 14,624 cases in 1983 to 7,596 cases in 1987, and the number of foreign nationals apprehended for drug trafficking also declined. In 1987, Mahathir was elected as the President of the International Conference on Drug Abuse and Illicit Trafficking, where he chaired the plenary session. During the discussions on two working papers, one on guidelines for combating the drug menace and the other on the declaration against drugs, 138 nations provided overwhelming support.

Constitutional amendments and weakening of royal powers

Under Malaysia's federal and state constitutions, the Malay Rulers are bound by Westminster-style conventions, with the King generally expected to act on the advice of the executive. This arrangement had functioned relatively smoothly—until Mahathir became Prime Minister and the federal government began to take action against certain Rulers who flouted the law and lived lavishly at public expense.

In 1983, Mahathir introduced a series of constitutional amendments aimed at limiting the powers of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong. Among the proposed changes were the imposition of a 30-day limit for the monarch to veto legislation and a restriction on the King's authority to declare a state of emergency. The proposals were met with significant resistance from the Malay rulers, prompting Mahathir's government to launch a public campaign to pressure the monarchy into accepting the changes. Eventually, a compromise was reached, and a revised amendment was passed, restoring the King's right to declare emergencies and allowing up to 60 days to delay legislation, but royal assent was no longer required for the enactment of laws.

In 1993, another constitutional crisis unfolded following an alleged assault by the Sultan of Johor on hockey coach Douglas Gomez. Up until then, the rulers had enjoyed absolute personal immunity from proceedings in any civil or criminal court. On 6 December 1992, Maktab Sultan Abu Bakar Johor hockey coach Douglas Gomez lodged a police report alleging that he was beaten by the then Sultan of Johor, Sultan Iskandar Sultan Ismail. Responding to the report, Mahathir had said: "The royalty is not above the law. They cannot kill people. They cannot beat people." Four days later, on 10 December, the Dewan Rakyat held a special session and passed a motion to curb the powers of the royalty if necessary. The motion received 96 votes from the 180 lawmakers, including two votes from PAS and DAP. It was the first time a reproach against the monarchy was accepted by the Dewan Rakyat.

The then Deputy Prime Minister Ghafar Baba subsequently moved a bill to amend the Constitution to make the rulers liable to criminal and civil proceedings in ordinary courts. The motion stated that "all necessary action must be taken to ensure that a similar incident" would not recur. Semangat 46, led by Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah, opposed the motion, arguing it would undermine royal authority and Malay privileges.

During this period, page 2 of the government-controlled ''New Straits Times'' regularly featured reports exposing royal excesses. Sultan Ismail Petra of Kelantan, for instance, was said to have imported 30 duty-free luxury cars—far exceeding the permitted seven—and once evaded customs officials in a Lamborghini Diablo by claiming he was test-driving it. The paper highlighted the RM200 million cost of maintaining the rulers, including exclusive hospital wards and RM9.3 million spent on new cutlery and bedspreads for the King—enough, it noted, to build two hospitals, 46 rural clinics, or 46 primary schools.

On 19 January 1993, following a two-day special sitting, the Dewan Rakyat overwhelmingly passed the Constitution (Amendment) Bill 1993 with 133 votes in favour, aiming to remove the legal immunity of the Malay Rulers. However, the sultans refused to comply, arguing that the constitution clearly prohibited the government from enacting laws affecting them without their consent. In a joint statement condemning Parliament's move, the rulers asserted that they had always played a vital constitutional role—particularly in securing independence, shaping the federal constitution, and preserving Malay unity. In March 1993, a compromise bill was introduced with several key concessions: no civil or criminal action could commence against the royalty in their personal capacity except with the attorney-general's consent under Article 183; rulers were permitted to initiate civil proceedings; all such cases would be tried under a Special Court established under Articles 181(2) and 182; and the Conference of Rulers would nominate two out of five judges to the Special Court under Article 182(1). If convicted, the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, rulers, and their consorts could be pardoned by the Conference of Rulers under Article 42(12)(b). These reforms were eventually accepted by a majority of the Conference of Rulers, formalising the Special Court system. The first notable case under the new system occurred in October 2008, when the court ordered the then Negeri Sembilan Sultan to pay US$1 million to a bank in a civil suit.

Further reforms followed in 1994 when the government amended the constitution to ensure that any law passed by Parliament would automatically become law within 30 days, regardless of whether the King gave assent. These three episodes marked a significant shift in the balance of power between the monarchy and the executive, with Mahathir consolidating civilian authority over royal prerogatives. His administration was the first to successfully curtail the discretionary powers of the Malay rulers in post-independence Malaysia.

Defence

Under Mahathir's leadership, Malaysia undertook significant military modernization efforts. As Minister of Defence from 1981 to 1986, he played a key role in shaping the country's defense strategy. His administration oversaw the procurement of advanced military assets, including 18 Russian-made MiG-29N fighter jets and eight American-made F/A-18D Hornets, diversifying Malaysia's defense partnerships beyond traditional suppliers. Malaysia also explored the purchase of submarines, with plans to acquire British Oberon-class submarines in 1988, although the deal was later canceled. Additionally, Mahathir strengthened Malaysia's defense ties with various countries, including Poland, Brazil, India, and Pakistan, expanding the range of military equipment procurement.

A major structural reform during Mahathir's leadership was the establishment of the 10th Parachute Brigade (10 Briged Para) in 1994 as a Rapid Deployment Force (Pasukan Aturgerak Cepat). Internationally, Malaysia became a key contributor to United Nations peacekeeping missions, deploying around 18,000 military and police personnel between 1998 and 2003. The country's active participation peaked between 1992 and 1996, with about 2,500 peacekeepers sent to Cambodia, Bosnia, and Somalia. In recognition of Malaysia's commitment, the Malaysian Peacekeeping Training Centre (MPC) was established in Port Dickson in 1996, following an agreement with the UN to provide personnel for peacekeeping missions at any time.

Haze pollution issue

During Mahathir's first tenure as Prime Minister, transboundary haze pollution emerged as a serious regional concern, with severe episodes beginning in the early 1990s and peaking in 1997. The haze, caused primarily by forest fires in Indonesia, posed significant environmental and health risks across Southeast Asia. In response to the 1997 crisis, the Malaysian government declared a state of emergency in Sarawak and several cities in Peninsular Malaysia. Mahathir's administration deployed 2,000 firefighters, the SMART disaster relief team, and Royal Malaysian Air Force units for cloud seeding operations in affected areas. He also established a disaster management committee, introduced policies on disaster and haze control, and reactivated the National Haze Action Plan. Mahathir publicly warned 17 Malaysian plantation companies operating in Indonesia to extinguish fires on their concessions or face repercussions. On 11 December 1997, Malaysia and Indonesia signed a memorandum of understanding to jointly address transboundary haze issues through information exchange, joint training, and public awareness efforts. These bilateral efforts contributed to the eventual signing of the ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution in Kuala Lumpur on 10 June 2002.

1987 UMNO leadership election

In 1987, Mahathir faced a serious challenge to his leadership when Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah contested the UMNO presidency, supported by former deputy Musa Hitam. Mahathir, backed by most party elites and the media, narrowly retained his position. Razaleigh's faction disputed the outcome, leading to legal battles that resulted in the courts declaring UMNO illegal in 1988. Mahathir quickly formed UMNO Baru, sidelining his rivals who later formed Semangat 46 under Razaleigh.

Foreign policy

In foreign policy, Mahathir advocated for diversifying Malaysia's international relations by actively exploring non-traditional and lesser-known markets, believing that a trading nation should not rely solely on established partners. By 1999, Malaysia's trade with small and weak countries of the South had generated RM90 billion in volume annually since the Government initiated approaches in this direction. Mahathir prioritized economic diplomacy over ideological alignment. He instructed Malaysian diplomats to focus on trade and investment opportunities.

He turned to East Asia, promoting the “Look East Policy” and proposing the formation of the East Asia Economic Caucus (EAEC) to deepen regional economic integration. While initially facing resistance, the idea laid the foundation for the ASEAN Plus Three framework, which was formalised in 1999.

Mahathir also pursued broader South–South cooperation, strengthening ties with Muslim-majority countries through platforms such as the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) and the Developing Eight (D-8). His administration encouraged economic collaboration with these nations, including through the Islamic Development Bank (IDB) using Islamic finance instruments such as mudarabah.

United States

Although Mahathir was a strident critic of U.S. foreign policy during his tenure, American investment in Malaysia nevertheless boomed. After becoming Prime Minister, Mahathir declined the American ambassador's suggestion to meet the U.S. president, saying it was not in his plans, and only visited the United States three years later in 1984 while he was in North America. Mahathir said that his visit aimed to raise awareness of Malaysia among Americans and to encourage greater investment and trade ties with the United States. During his first visit, Mahathir received a warm welcome with full presidential honours, including transport by Air Force and Marine One, and met with President Ronald Reagan in the Oval Office as well as Vice President George H. W. Bush. He held discussions with Reagan on bilateral relations, global economic recovery, and regional security, with both sides expressing a high degree of agreement and a commitment to strengthening cooperation, especially in trade and economic matters.

Mahathir signed a joint counterterrorism declaration with the U.S. and called on the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) to adopt a unified definition of terrorism. The U.S., while occasionally at odds with Mahathir’s outspoken rhetoric, often prioritized strategic and economic considerations in its dealings with Malaysia. For example, the Clinton administration chose not to penalize Malaysia under the 1996 Helms-Burton Act after its state-owned Petronas signed a US$2 billion deal with Iran, citing American national interests.

Indonesia

Mahathir and former Indonesian President Suharto were close friends, frequently visiting each other during their respective tenures as national leaders. He made an official visit to Indonesia less than a month after taking office. In a joint communiqué issued after talks with Suharto, both countries urged the withdrawal of Vietnamese troops from Kampuchea and called for a political solution in Afghanistan.

During his tenure, Malaysia and Indonesia significantly expanded their bilateral economic cooperation, particularly in the sectors of investment and trade. Cooperation was notably strong in the plantation sector, with Malaysian companies investing heavily in palm oil and rubber plantations across Indonesia, including in Riau, Kalimantan, and Irian Jaya.

To facilitate and protect bilateral investments, both countries signed several agreements:
*A Double Taxation Avoidance Agreement on 22 January 1991, aimed at eliminating the double taxation of income such as business profits, dividends, and royalties, thereby enhancing cross-border trade and investment flows.
*An Investment Guarantee Agreement (IGA) on 22 January 1994, designed to protect investors from non-commercial risks such as expropriation and to ensure the free transfer of profits and capital between the two countries.

Mahathir also played a role in promoting regional subnational economic zones that included Indonesia, such as:
*The Indonesia–Malaysia–Thailand Growth Triangle (IMT-GT), proposed in 1993, which focused on economic cooperation between northern Sumatra, Peninsular Malaysia, and southern Thailand.
*The SIJORI Growth Triangle involving Singapore, Johor, and the Riau Islands, which promoted economic integration across complementary sectors.
*The Brunei Darussalam–Indonesia–Malaysia–Philippines East ASEAN Growth Area (BIMP-EAGA), established in 1994, which aimed to develop less-developed territories in Borneo and eastern Indonesia.

In 1997, Mahathir and Suharto jointly proposed the Malacca Strait Bridge, a megaproject intended to physically connect Peninsular Malaysia with Sumatra, although the plan was never realized.

Despite the strong economic ties, the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis posed serious challenges. Many Malaysian firms scaled back or suspended operations in Indonesia, and land disputes emerged as Indonesian workers and locals reclaimed plantation lands previously held by Malaysian companies. However, Mahathir and the Indonesian leadership worked to stabilize and rebuild economic relations in the post-crisis period.

On 28 August 2003, Mahathir met with Indonesian President Megawati Sukarnoputri in Kuching, where they discussed efforts to combat terrorism and address the continued influx of Indonesian undocumented migrants into Malaysia; following the meeting, Mahathir announced that both countries had agreed on a range of strategies to curb the entry of Indonesian illegal immigrants. In the same year that Mahathir was due to retire, during the ASEAN Summit in Bali, Megawati paid tribute to Mahathir ahead of his retirement, describing him as a steadfast friend and influential ASEAN leader; Mahathir responded by expressing gratitude and reaffirming Malaysia's commitment to ASEAN. Following this, media reports stated that Megawati was "in tears" at the summit due to her emotional tribute to Mahathir.

Soviet Union/Russia

On 29 July 1987, following visits to the United Kingdom and Hungary, Mahathir began an official visit to the Soviet Union, where he was received at the airport in Moscow by Soviet Foreign Minister Eduard Shevardnadze. During his meetings with Soviet officials, including a two-hour bilateral discussion with Soviet Communist Party Secretary-General Mikhail Gorbachev at the Kremlin, both sides agreed to strengthen bilateral ties through regular high-level consultations and increased economic cooperation. They affirmed support for peaceful dispute resolution and endorsed Southeast Asia as a zone of peace, freedom, and neutrality. Discussions also covered Kampuchea, Afghanistan, the Iran–Iraq War, and disarmament. Mahathir raised concerns about the Soviet stance on Antarctica, leading to an agreement for further dialogue between foreign ministers.

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Mahathir continued to strengthen Malaysia–Russia relations throughout the 1990s. Economic cooperation deepened, particularly in defense procurement, with Malaysia purchasing 18 MiG-29 fighter jets from Russia in 1995, contributing to a record bilateral trade volume of US$827.6 million that year.

In 1998, following a meeting with Khabarovsk Head of Administration Viktor Ishayev in Kuala Lumpur during the APEC summit, Mahathir abolished the visa requirement for Russians from the region for visits of up to one month.

In August 1999, Mahathir visited the Russian Far East region of Khabarovsk, where he met with local officials and emphasized the importance of fostering regional-level cooperation. He noted that due to Russia’s vast size, bilateral relations should not be limited to Moscow alone. Impressed by Khabarovsk's economic potential, he expressed interest in increasing Malaysian imports from the region and finding new markets for Malaysian exports, particularly fruits. He highlighted the need to address transportation and logistics costs to boost two-way trade. Mahathir also proposed promoting cultural exchanges among the younger generations to strengthen mutual understanding between the two countries. Subsequently, he visited the Republic of Buryatia in Russia at the invitation of its president Leonid Potapov, becoming the first foreign head of government to do so, where he explored cooperation in aero-defence technology, mining, and timber processing.

Since Vladimir Putin assumed the presidency of Russia, Mahathir met with him on multiple occasions. These included meetings during the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) summit in Brunei in 2000 and again at the 2001 APEC summit in Shanghai. Mahathir had planned to make an official visit to Moscow in September 2001, but the trip was postponed following the September 11 attacks. Following Mahathir’s official visit to Russia in March 2002, Malaysia and Russia agreed to establish a Joint Economic Commission as well as the Malaysia-Russia and Russia-Malaysia Business Councils to follow up on decisions made during the bilateral meetings held in Moscow.

Putin visited Malaysia twice in 2003 — first on an official trip in August, and later in October to participate in the OIC Summit. The August visit saw Putin confer the Order of Friendship on Mahathir and both leaders witness the signing of a major defence contract for 18 Su-30MKM fighter jets, along with agreements on scientific and technical cooperation and information and communications technology. According to Viktor Kladov, a senior official from Rostec and a special envoy of Putin, Putin held Mahathir in high regard and expressed strong respect for his leadership, viewing him as a figure capable of propelling Malaysia towards becoming a great nation. Putin also valued Mahathir’s longstanding efforts, particularly since the early 1990s, in developing Malaysia’s aerospace and defence sectors, including the establishment of the Langkawi International Maritime and Aerospace Exhibition (LIMA).

Japan

On 15 December 1981, Mahathir introduced the Look East Policy, identifying Japan as a model for development, and in 1983, during his visit to Japan, the policy received its first high-level endorsement when Mahathir and Foreign Minister Shintaro Abe formally affirmed bilateral cooperation. After 1982, relations between the two countries further deepened. Following the 1985 Plaza Accord, the appreciation of the yen prompted Japanese companies to shift production overseas to lower costs, while Malaysia, facing a commodity crisis, adopted an export-oriented industrialization policy—attracting substantial Japanese investment and boosting bilateral trade and official development assistance.

Under Mahathir’s leadership, Japan emerged as Malaysia’s second-largest trading partner. Between 1997 and 2002, Malaysia recorded 643 Japanese investment projects valued at RM11.4 billion. Mahathir also secured low-interest Official Development Assistance (ODA) loans from Japan, supporting infrastructure and industrial development.

Election

On 22 April 1982, Malaysia held a general election that had been called 16 months early by Mahathir. The ruling Barisan Nasional (BN) secured 131 of 154 parliamentary seats as final landslide results came in from East Malaysia. The victory was attributed to Mahathir and Musa Hitam's popularity, effective campaigning, and strategic candidate selection.

On 2 August 1986, Malaysia held a general election in which the ruling BN coalition, led by Mahathir, won 148 out of 177 parliamentary seats, securing a two-thirds majority. The strong mandate further consolidated Mahathir's leadership.

On 21 October 1990, Malaysia held its eighth general election, in which Mahathir secured a third term with a landslide victory. His BN coalition won 121 out of 180 parliamentary seats, retaining a two-thirds majority. However, the opposition alliance led by Tengku Razaleigh Hamzah won all 39 state seats in Kelantan.

On 24 April 1995, Malaysia held its ninth general election. The ruling BN, led by Mahathir, won a landslide victory by securing 162 out of 192 parliamentary seats, significantly increasing its majority from 125 seats in the previous term. The opposition Democratic Action Party (DAP) saw its representation reduced from 20 seats to just 9. The election was widely regarded as a personal triumph for Mahathir, who campaigned on his Vision 2020 agenda to transform Malaysia into a fully developed nation. The result also reinforced his position within the ruling coalition.

On 29 November 1999, Malaysia held its tenth general election. The ruling BN coalition, led by Mahathir, won 149 out of 193 parliamentary seats, securing more than a two-thirds majority. Mahathir, at a press conference after the victory, said that the result was a clear indication that "the Barisan Nasional is still the party of choice of the people of Malaysia". The election reaffirmed his leadership and the coalition's strong mandate, while the opposition DAP suffered significant losses, including the defeat of senior leaders such as Secretary-General Lim Kit Siang and Vice Chairman Karpal Singh.

Additionally, Mahathir had a 16–9 win–loss record in parliamentary by-elections while leading the ruling coalition, representing a 64 percent success rate. In one instance—Lipis in 1997—the BN coalition won uncontested. Across the 24 contested by-elections during his leadership, the ruling coalition averaged 54.37 percent of the vote share.

Retirement and succession

In May and June 2002, Mahathir made historic visits to the United States and the Vatican, respectively. On 22 June 2002, Mahathir unexpectedly announced his resignation during the UMNO general assembly. However, the decision was retracted less than an hour later following emotional appeals from his colleagues and supporters. On 26 June, the secretary-general of UMNO, Mohd Khalil Yaakob, announced that Mahathir's resignation would take effect only after the Organisation of Islamic Conference Summit in Kuala Lumpur in October 2003, stating that the reins of government would then pass to his deputy, Abdullah Ahmad Badawi.

On 31 October 2003, as Mahathir step down after 22 years in office, hundreds of tribute messages appeared in Malaysian newspapers in the weeks leading up to his retirement, hailing him as a national hero for overseeing Malaysia's rapid economic development and for giving the country a stronger voice on the global stage. A 10-volume encyclopedia of his ideas was launched in both Arabic and English. His successor, Abdullah, said that Mahathir's legacy would be reflected in "an ever-flowing cornucopia of ideas, thoughts and opinions on a wide range of issues and topics", and added that "laymen and intellectuals will find pearls of wisdom in his ideas and thoughts", while also noting that "Malaysians and Muslims will benefit enormously from reading and re-reading his speeches".

Following his retirement as Prime Minister, Mahathir and his wife, Siti Hasmah, were both conferred the Seri Maharaja Mangku Negara (S.M.N.), the nation's highest federal award, which carries the honorific title "Tun". In recognition of Mahathir's contributions to the nation, the government under Abdullah conferred upon him the title ''Bapa Pemodenan Malaysia'' (Father of Malaysia's Modernisation). As part of the tribute, Galeri Sri Perdana—the former official residence of Mahathir prior to his move to Putrajaya—was reopened as a national gallery highlighting his life and tenure as Malaysia's longest-serving Prime Minister.

Retirement and post-first term premiership (2003–2015)

On his retirement, Mahathir was named a Grand Commander of the Order of the Defender of the Realm, the highest honor in Malaysia, allowing him to adopt the title of "Tun". Under Mahathir's leadership, Malaysia was transformed into an industrialising nation. He pledged to leave politics "completely", rejecting an emeritus role in Abdullah's cabinet. Abdullah immediately made his mark as a quieter and less adversarial premier. With stronger religious credentials than Mahathir, he beat back PAS's surge in the 1999 election and lead the Barisan Nasional in the 2004 election to its biggest win ever, taking 199 of 219 parliamentary seats. On 23 October, ''Mingguan Malaysia'' published an exclusive interview with Mahathir, marking his first since retiring as Prime Minister.

After retiring, Mahathir maintained a busy schedule, engaging in various activities and speaking engagements both locally and internationally. In 2005, Russian President Vladimir Putin visited him at his private residence, where they held a four-hour meeting discussing Malaysia's economic transformation and development strategies. He emphasized the importance of staying active, stating, "Never retire. You have to work. When you work, it will keep you alive." His office at the Perdana Leadership Foundation and residence at the Mines Resort City, as well as expenses for meal allowances, escorts, bodyguards, a medical officer, and a special assistant during overseas trips, are funded by the government under the Member of Parliament (Remuneration) Act 1980 (Act 237).

Mahathir was the CEO and chairman, and hence a senior adviser, for many flagship Malaysian companies such as Proton, Perdana Leadership Foundation and Malaysia's government-owned oil and gas company Petronas. He did not receive any remuneration for his advisory positions. He was also made Universiti Teknologi Petronas (UTP) Chancellor in 2004, succeeding the late Raja Mohar Raja Badiozaman. On 15 June of the same year, Mahathir was appointed chairman of the NAM Business Council International Advisory Panel. In 2006, Mahathir co-founded The Loaf bakery with Motoko Resources Sdn Bhd, opening its first store in Telaga Harbor, Langkawi, before expanding to 12 outlets in locations such as KLCC, Pavilion, Sogo, and Empire Shopping Gallery. He also served as The Loaf's chairman.

Despite his business ventures, Mahathir remained an influential figure, and his views on national matters continued to draw attention. Mahathir and Abdullah had a major fallout over Proton in 2005. While Abdullah was attempting to reform the company and implemented high import tariffs on foreign cars, Mahathir accused Abdullah's government of cronyism in relation to import licences. Proton's chief executive, a Mahathir ally, had been sacked by the company's board. With Abdullah's blessing, Proton then sold one of its prise assets, the motorcycle company MV Agusta, which was bought on Mahathir's advice.

Mahathir criticised the awarding of import permits for foreign cars, which he claimed were causing Proton's domestic sales to suffer, and attacked Abdullah for cancelling the construction of a second causeway between Malaysia and Singapore.

Mahathir complained that his views were not getting sufficient airing by the Malaysian press. In response, he began writing a column for ''Malaysiakini'' and starting his own blog. He unsuccessfully sought election from his local party division to be a delegate to UMNO's general assembly in 2006, where he planned to initiate a challenge to Abdullah's leadership. Mahathir had previously missed the Umno General Assembly twice since 2006 for health reasons. After the 2008 election, in which UMNO lost its two-thirds majority in parliament, Mahathir resigned from the party. When Abdullah was replaced by his deputy Najib Razak in 2009, Mahathir re-joined the party and urged all former members to follow his move. Before the 2013 general election, Mahathir promised to keep the government in check and ensure it fulfilled its manifesto promises, vowing to protest and fight against it if it failed.

Mahathir established the Kuala Lumpur Initiative to Criminalise War Forum in an effort to end war globally, as well as the Kuala Lumpur War Crimes Commission to investigate the activities of the United States, Israel and its allies in Iraq, Lebanon and the Palestinian territories. In March 2015, Mahathir attended a conference where he stated his belief in a " New World Order", where an elite would attempt rule the planet in a single world government, and exterminate billions of humans.

Return to politics (2015–2018)

By 2015, even at 90 years old, Mahathir remained sharp and combative. He repeatedly called for prime minister Najib Razak to resign over the 1Malaysia Development Berhad (1MDB) corruption scandal. On 30 August 2015, he and Siti Hasmah attended the Bersih 4 rally, a mass protest organised in response to the scandal. In 2016, Mahathir chaired the Malaysian Citizens' Declaration, which brought together several political figures and non-governmental organisations in calling for Najib's resignation. In this declaration, Mahathir listed 37 points. Later, the Citizens' Declaration reached one million signatures in May of the same year. In the 2016 Sungai Besar by-election, he supported Amanah and other Pakatan Harapan leaders, lending his influence to the opposition coalition.

Mahathir left UMNO in 2016, and formed Parti Pribumi Bersatu Malaysia (BERSATU). The new party was officially registered on 9 September 2016, and Mahathir became its chairman. By 2017, he had officially joined the opposition coalition Pakatan Harapan. Negotiations then took place between different factions of the coalition for Mahathir to become the chairman and prime ministerial candidate. He assumed the position of chairman on 14 July 2017, despite reservations from supporters of Anwar Ibrahim, who could not contest in polls himself while imprisoned.

In 2016, Mahathir had his police outriders withdrawn after his privileges were revoked due to his participation in anti-government events. A year later, in 2017, the government further withdrew his personal bodyguard service provided by the police Special Action Unit (UTK), following the earlier termination of his cook and office assistant's contracts. This decision by the government also drew criticism from various parties. However, Inspector-General of Police Mohamad Fuzi Harun denied this, stating that only ordinary police officers had been recalled, while Mahathir's bodyguard service from the elite UTK remained intact. The Prime Minister's Department also refuted this claim, stating that it was still paying for 21 staff at Mahathir's home and office.

In early 2018, Mahathir was announced as Pakatan Harapan's prime ministerial candidate for the upcoming general election. Wan Azizah, wife of his former political enemy Anwar, ran as his deputy. Mahathir's election promise was to seek a pardon for Anwar, in order to allow him to take over as prime minister after an interim period.

Second term as prime minister (2018–2020)

Pakatan Harapan defeated Barisan Nasional in the 2018 general election. Concerns for a smooth power transition emerged as Najib declared that no party had achieved a majority. The National Palace of Malaysia subsequently confirmed Mahathir would be sworn in as Malaysia's seventh prime minister, refuting any claims of delaying the appointment. Immediately after the declaration of the results, people in Kuala Lumpur expressed their joy in celebration of the historic victory. Mahathir announced a two-day public holiday, adding: 'But there will be no holidays for the winners.'

He became the world's oldest serving state leader (aged at the time), and the first Malaysian prime minister not to represent UMNO. Mahathir was also officially recognized by Guinness World Records as the world's oldest serving prime minister. His deputy, Wan Azizah became the first female deputy prime minister of Malaysia.

In April 2019, Mahathir was listed among ''Time'' magazine's 100 most influential people.

Domestic affairs

Mahathir promised to "restore the rule of law", and reopen investigations into the 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal, telling the press that Najib would face consequences if found guilty of corruption. Mahathir instructed the Department of Immigration to bar Najib and his wife, the notoriously extravagant Rosmah Mansor, from leaving the country after they attempted to fly to Indonesia.

Mahathir formed his cabinet of 29 ministers in June 2018. He abolished the unpopular Goods and Services Tax, reducing it from six to zero per cent. Mahathir implemented a "no gifts policy," stating that he would only accept food, flowers, and fruits, while prohibiting government officials from receiving any other gifts to prevent corruption.

He also vowed to cut fiscal spending by firing thousands of civil servants, cancelling an expensive Kuala Lumpur–Singapore high-speed rail link and cutting back on large infrastructure projects initiated under Najib. Malaysia's freedom of the press improved slightly under Mahathir's tenure, and the country's rank rose in the Press Freedom Index. The government announced palm oil cultivation would be limited to 6.55 million hectares by 2023, and began a lobbying campaign to improve palm oil's reputation abroad.

On 20 June 2018, Mahathir met the father of murdered Mongolian woman Altantuya Shaariibuu and agreed that the case of her murder should be reopened.

A year into his term, Mahathir's approval ratings had fallen as the economy slowed and several planned reforms, such as abolishing capital punishment and the Sedition Act 1948, were not realised amid divisions in the coalition. Mahathir announced the Shared Prosperity Vision 2030 in October 2019, which set out for Malaysia to become a high income country by 2030. Another priority of his administration was a more transparent approach to defence. The government prepared the country's first defence policy white paper outlining long-term plans for the country.

Foreign relations

Early in his second tenure, Mahathir visited Japan and Indonesia to reaffirm good relations, and reignited a water dispute with Singapore. By the end of 2018, several disputes over maritime and airspace borders with Singapore had continued. Mahathir met twice with president Rodrigo Duterte in his first year in office to strengthen cooperation with the Philippines on a broad range of security, economic and political issues. Mahathir again prioritised relations with Japan and strengthened economic and defence ties with Russia. He visited Vladivostok for a meeting of the Eastern Economic Forum in late 2019, where he cast doubt on the Joint Investigation Team's findings related to the downing of Malaysia Airlines Flight 17. Mahathir called the murder charges brought to four Russians related to the flight "ridiculous", calling it "a political issue on how to accuse Russia of wrongdoing". Malaysia launched a foreign policy framework in late 2019. In response to European Union regulations phasing out palm-oil based biofuels, Mahathir discussed bringing a formal complaint to the World Trade Organization or a case to the European Court of Justice with Indonesian president Joko Widodo.

Mahathir condemned the killing of Saudi journalist Jamal Khashoggi in October 2018 and the assassination of Iranian General Qasem Soleimani by the United States in 2020.

Mahathir was supportive of the 2018–19 Korean peace process. He also indicated that Malaysia would re-open its embassy in North Korea, which had remained closed since the 2017 assassination of Kim Jong-nam.

China

Mahathir's administration committed to retaining good relations with China, but promised to review all Belt and Road Initiative projects in Malaysia that were initiated by the previous government. He characterised these as "unequal treaties". His government suspended work on the East Coast Rail Link, which recommenced after terms had been renegotiated. Mahathir cancelled approximately $2.8 billion worth of deals with China Petroleum Pipeline Bureau altogether, citing high repayment costs.

On 13 February 2020, Mahathir spoke with Chinese President Xi Jinping to express solidarity and discuss cooperation in response to the COVID-19 outbreak. Prior to this, Mahathir had expressed his hopes that 2020, the 'Year of Culture and Tourism' between Malaysia and China, would further strengthen the ties and friendship between the two nations.

2020 political crisis and resignation

By late 2019, disagreements emerged within Pakatan Harapan about Mahathir's planned handover of power to Anwar Ibrahim, eventually culminating in a political crisis in 2020. Mahathir and a faction of the coalition felt that Anwar would be unable to command a parliamentary majority. MPs supporting Anwar demanded a timeframe for Mahathir's resignation and handover of power.

In February 2020, MPs opposed to Anwar taking over met and agreed to form a new government. Anwar told the media that he had been "betrayed". Anwar and Mahathir met to clarify the situation, where Mahathir insisted he had no involvement in a new government.

Mahathir, refusing to work with UMNO leaders, submitted his resignation to the Agong, Abdullah of Pahang, on 24 February 2020. The Agong appointed him interim prime minister until a replacement could be agreed. BERSATU President Muhyiddin Yassin declared the party's withdrawal from Pakatan Harapan; Mahathir also resigned from the party in response. The next day, Mahathir reported to work as usual in his new role as caretaker prime minister. During his interim premiership, he introduced the 2020 Economic Stimulus Package to counter the economic impact of COVID-19, based on three strategies: mitigating its impact, spurring people-centric economic growth, and promoting quality investments.

On 29 February, the Agong appointed Muhyiddin prime minister, determining that he was most likely to be able to hold the support of a majority in parliament. Mahathir unsuccessfully attempted to challenge this with the Agong, but eventually left the prime minister's office an hour before Muhyiddin was sworn in.

Post-second term premiership (2020–present)

Despite his advanced age and having stepped down as prime minister, Mahathir remains active on the international stage, frequently traveling, delivering speeches, and continuing to voice his views and influence both domestically and globally. He formed the Homeland Fighter's Party (PEJUANG) in August 2020. Four other MPs joined the new party, including Mahathir's son Mukhriz. The party was registered in July 2021. In August 2021, Mahathir and other MPs protested in Merdeka Square, calling for Muhyiddin's resignation over the government's response to the COVID-19 pandemic, after being blocked from entering parliament by police.

In April 2022, UMNO president Ahmad Zahid Hamidi filed a defamation lawsuit against Mahathir. In June 2022, Mahathir made irrendentist comments by stating that Singapore and the Riau Islands of Indonesia was once owned by Johor, and argued the state should claim them as part of Malaysia.

In September 2022, Mahathir said he was open to becoming the prime minister for a third time if there were no other suitable candidates. Having previously said he would not defend his Langkawi parliamentary seat, he announced he would contest the 2022 general election. In the election on 19 November, Mahathir lost his seat and election deposit, marking his first defeat in 53 years. No candidate from PEJUANG or Gerakan Tanah Air secured a seat. He later said that his party's plans "had to be dropped" and he would shift his focus to writing about Malaysian history.

In February 2023, Mahathir and 13 other members of PEJUANG (leaving his own son as the sole leader of that party) left the party and joined Parti Bumiputera Perkasa Malaysia (Putra). Later in 2023, Mahathir began promoting a "Malay Proclamation", aimed at uniting Malays. He met with PAS and PN leaders to garner support for the 12-point document listing political, economic and social issues. Mahathir was questioned by police over this campaign under the Malaysian Penal Code, for carrying out "activities that undermine parliamentary democracy". Mahathir also left GTA, criticising the coalition for its poor performance in the election. He supported Perikatan Nasional, the coalition that had ousted him in 2020, in six state elections and was named its "unofficial adviser" for the four state governments under its control.

On 31 August 2024, Mahathir attended the Merdeka Day celebration in Putrajaya in his personal capacity, as he was not officially invited by the government. His presence at the event, where he was warmly received by the crowd, sparked public debate. Prominent academic Chandra Muzaffar criticized the government's decision, describing it as a breach of Malaysian etiquette and values, particularly given Mahathir's status as the country's longest-serving prime minister. He stated that the exclusion contradicted the principles of the Rukun Negara, which emphasize courtesy and morality, and called for a clear explanation from the government.

In February 2025, Mahathir's official Facebook account confirmed that his X account (@chedetofficial) had been hacked, resulting in a post promoting cryptocurrency, and efforts were underway to recover it. In April 2025, following the Putra Heights pipeline fire in Subang Jaya, Mahathir visited the Incident Control Post and urged the public not to make premature accusations before the investigation was completed. Shortly thereafter, he also attended the state funeral of former Prime Minister Abdullah Ahmad Badawi. In an interview in May 2025, he criticized Donald Trump's tariff policies and described him as "living in an old world" over his foreign policy.

Political positions and views

Mahathir's political views have shifted during his lengthy career. During the 1980s and 1990s, he was a supporter of third-worldism, while during other periods he has been a proponent of "Asian values" and globalisation. A Muslim thinker, he holds Islamic political views. In 2002, he characterised himself as an Islamic fundamentalist. Mahathir is generally respected in developing and Islamic countries, particularly due to his oversight of Malaysia's economic growth and his support of liberal Muslim values.

Mahathir has been described as a proponent of Malay nationalism. In '' The Malay Dilemma'', he argued that the Malay race had been marginalised, and voiced his support for affirmative action policies for them. Upon his first resignation, he expressed his disappointment at the progress made towards his "principle task" of supporting the Malay race. In 2021, Mahathir said he did not believe in "'' Ketuanan Melayu''", calling it a "fantasy", and said instead that he believed in the concept of " Bangsa Malaysia", but later clarified in 2023 that his vision of Bangsa Malaysia meant the assimilation of non-Malay people into Malay culture and argued against multiculturalism. He has been described as anti-royalist by ''Libération'', owing to his efforts to oppose immunity for members of Malaysia's monarchies.

Mahathir is a vocal critic of neoliberalism and the Western world. In 2011, Mahathir suggested that the September 11 attacks might have been staged by the United States government. Mahathir condemned the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1997, suggesting it be revised to place greater importance on economic growth over civil liberties. In 2019, Mahathir stated that Malaysians should learn from the hard work of China's citizens, which enabled their nation to achieve technological advancement within a few decades.

Mahathir has advocated for a balance between environmental protection and natural resource use for economic growth in developing countries. He referred to the outcomes of the Earth Summit as " eco-imperialism", arguing that Global North countries put an undue burden on Global South countries for environmental degradation. In response to international scrutiny, he said in 2019 that linking palm oil production to deforestation was "baseless, unfair and unjustified" and that the Malaysian palm oil sector had developed sustainably.

Antisemitism

A strident critic of Israel, Mahathir has been accused of antisemitism throughout his political life. In '' The Malay Dilemma,'' he wrote that "Jews are not merely hook-nosed, but understand money instinctively". In August 1983, Mahathir claimed in a speech that Jews control the international media. In March 1994, he banned the screening of ''Schindler's List'' on the grounds that he viewed it as anti-German, pro-Jewish propaganda. During the collapse of the ringgit and the economic crisis in 1997, he made a series of remarks blaming Jews, in particular George Soros, a Jewish "agenda", and "an international Jewish conspiracy" attempting to destroy the economies of Muslim countries.

During an Organization of Islamic Cooperation summit held in Kuala Lumpur in 2003, he accused Jews of "ruling the world by proxy" and getting "others to fight and die for them". His speech was denounced by President George W. Bush. In 2012, he claimed he was "glad to be labelled antisemitic". In a 2018 BBC interview he repeated similar statements, as well as disputing the number of Jews killed in the Holocaust. In 2019, when asked why he had previously claimed that Jews are "inclined towards money" he responded that he had Jewish friends, and that "they are not like the other Jews, that's why they are my friends." Mahathir has defended his comments about Jews as an exercise of free speech, and by claiming that "the Jews do a lot of wrong things which force us to pass comment."

LGBT rights

Mahathir opposes an expansion of LGBT rights in Malaysia. In 2001, Mahathir said that any homosexual ministers from the United Kingdom would be barred from entering Malaysia. During an October 2018 lecture to university students in Bangkok, Mahathir contrasted Malaysian values with those of Western nations and cited "the institution of marriage ndthe family" in his opposition to LGBT.

Comment about 2020 Nice stabbing

In the aftermath of the 2020 Nice stabbing and murder of Samuel Paty, Mahathir posted remarks on his blog. Mahathir said that the attacks were wrong and against Islam, but also argued that Muslims had a right to be angry and kill French people for past massacres committed by the French. Mahathir's post was later circulated on his Twitter account, where it was labelled for "glorifying violence".

Mahathir was criticised for stoking tensions and hatred by the former Australian ambassador to France Brendan Berne, Australian prime minister Scott Morrison, and French secretary of state for digital affairs Cédric O. Malaysian cleric and politician Fathul Bari Mat Jahya also condemned Mahathir's remarks.

Mahathir responded that his comments were taken out of context and he was not "promoting massacre of the French". Facebook and Twitter later removed his posts.

Personal life

Mahathir follows a disciplined lifestyle. He attributes his longevity and health to self-discipline, a controlled diet, regular reading to keep his mind active, and avoiding overeating, which he believes leads to obesity and related diseases. He has consistently maintained his weight at 62 kg for many years. His hobbies include sailing, horse riding, and carpentry, and he has built a functioning steam train and a boat. An avid reader, his favorite authors are Wilbur Smith and Jeffrey Archer.

Mahathir met his wife, Siti Hasmah, during their medical studies, and they married in 1956. They have four biological children—Marina, Mirzan, Mokhzani, and Mukhriz—and later adopted three more—Melinda, Maizura, and Mazhar. In 2021, they celebrated their 65th wedding anniversary. His granddaughter, Ineza, has described him as a family-oriented man who enjoys spending time with his grandchildren.

Mahathir is widely known for his workaholic nature. Despite his demanding schedule, he enjoys simple pleasures such as cooking and driving his family to restaurants. He is also a fan of the song "My Way" and owns a stable of horses, most of which were gifted to him.

His childhood home in Alor Setar, named ''Rumah Kelahiran Mahathir Mohamad'', was restored and opened to the public in 1992, showcasing personal memorabilia from his early life.

Over the years, Mahathir has faced various health challenges, including heart conditions and infections, requiring multiple hospitalizations. He has also been the target of security threats during his political career, though none have caused him serious harm.

Mahathir neither drinks alcohol nor smokes.

Cultural depictions

Election results

Honors, awards and recognitions

Mahathir received numerous awards and recognitions, including the Royal Family Order of Brunei (1997), Order of Mubarak the Great (1997), Honorary Ph.D. in Humanities from the National University of Mongolia (1997), Honorary Ph.D. in literature from Al-Azhar University (1998), U Thant Peace Award from the United Nations Organization (1999), Order of Merit of the Republic of Poland (2002), Russian Order of Friendship (2003), Honorary Ph.D. from Tsinghua University (2004), Honorary Ph.D. from the University of Santo Tomas (2012), Honorary Ph.D. in Laws from the National University of Singapore (2018), Japanese Order of the Paulownia Flowers (2018), Honorary Ph.D. from Qatar University (2019), Honorary Ph.D. from the International University of Japan (2019), Order of Pakistan (2019), and the Order of the Republic of Turkey (2019).

Bibliography

Books

* '' The Malay Dilemma'' (1970)
* ''The Challenge'' (1986)
* ''Regionalism, Globalism, and Spheres of Influence: ASEAN and the Challenge of Change into the 21st century'' (1989)
* ''Mahathir, Great Malaysian Hero'' (1990)
* ''The Asia That Can Say No'' (1994)
* ''The Pacific Rim in the 21st century'' (1995)
* ''The Challenges of Turmoil'' (1998)
* ''The Way Forward'' (1998)
* ''A New Deal for Asia'' (1999)
* ''Islam & The Muslim Ummah'' (2001)
* ''Globalisation and the New Realities'' (2002)
* ''Reflections on Asia'' (2002)
* ''The Malaysian Currency Crisis: How and why it Happened'' (2003)
* ''Mahathir: 22 Years, 22 Voices'' (2003)
* ''Dr Mahathir Mohamad - Father of Sports Development'' (2003)
* ''Achieving True Globalization'' (2004)
* ''Islam, Knowledge, and Other Affairs'' (2006)
* ''Principles of Public Administration: An Introduction'' (2007)
* ''Chedet.com Blog Merentasi Halangan (Bilingual)'' (2008)
* ''A Doctor in the House: The Memoirs of Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad'' (2011)
* ''Doktor Umum: Memoir Tun Dr. Mahathir Mohamad'' (2012)
* ''Blogging to Unblock (Book 2): A Citizen's Rights'' (2013)
* ''Dr. M: Apa Habaq Orang Muda?'' (2016)
* ''Capturing Hope: The Struggle Continues for a New Malaysia'' (2021)

See also

* Mahathir, the Musical
* Mahathir Science Award
*History of Malaysia
*List of oldest living state leaders

Notes

References

Cited texts

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* James Chin & Joern Dosch. Malaysia Post Mahathir: a decade of change?. Marshall Cavendish. 2016.

External links

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