{{Infobox settlement , name = Ljubljana , official_name = , settlement_type =

Capital city A capital city, or just capital, is the municipality holding primary status in a country, state (polity), state, province, department (administrative division), department, or other administrative division, subnational division, usually as its ...

, image_skyline = {{multiple image , border = infobox , perrow = 1/2/2/1 , total_width = 260 , align = center , caption_align = center , image1 = Ljubljana made by Janez Kotar.jpg , caption1 = Ljubljana old town , image2 = Ljubljana Robba fountain (23665322093).jpg , caption2 =

Town Hall In local government, a city hall, town hall, civic centre (in the UK or Australia), guildhall, or municipal hall (in the Philippines) is the chief administrative building of a city, town, or other municipality. It usually houses the city o ...

, image3 = LOpéra-Ballet (Ljubljana) (9408363203).jpg , caption3 =

Opera House An opera house is a theater building used for performances of opera. Like many theaters, it usually includes a stage, an orchestra pit, audience seating, backstage facilities for costumes and building sets, as well as offices for the institut ...

, image4 = Dragon on the Dragon Bridge in Ljubljana-3906673.jpg , caption4 = Dragon Bridge , image5 = Ljubljana (36048969485).jpg , caption5 =

University of Ljubljana The University of Ljubljana (, , ), abbreviated UL, is the oldest and largest university in Slovenia. It has approximately 38,000 enrolled students. The university has 23 faculties and three art academies with approximately 4,000 teaching and re ...

, image6 = Le Château de Ljubljana et la place du Congrès (9413277819).jpg , caption6 =

Congress Square Congress Square () is one of the central squares in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. In the late 1930s, the square was renovated by the prominent Slovene architect Jože Plečnik. Since August 2021, it has been inscribed as part of Plečnik ...

, image_flag = Flag of Ljubljana.svg , image_shield = Blason ville si Ljubljana (Slovénie).svg , map_caption = Interactive map of Ljubljana , image_map = {{maplink , frame = yes , plain = yes , frame-align = center , frame-width = 290 , frame-height = 290 , frame-coord = {{coord, qid=Q437 , zoom = 11 , type = shape , marker = city , stroke-width = 2 , stroke-color = #0096FF , fill = #0096FF , id2 = Q437 , type2 = shape-inverse , stroke-width2 = 2 , stroke-color2 = #5F5F5F , stroke-opacity2 = 0 , fill2 = #000000 , fill-opacity2 = 0 , mapsize = 230px , pushpin_map = Slovenia#Europe , pushpin_relief = 1 , coordinates = {{coord, 46, 03, 05, N, 14, 30, 22, E, region:SI_type:city, display=inline,title , subdivision_type =

Country A country is a distinct part of the world, such as a state, nation, or other political entity. When referring to a specific polity, the term "country" may refer to a sovereign state, state with limited recognition, constituent country, ...

, subdivision_name = {{flag, Slovenia , subdivision_type1 =

Municipality A municipality is usually a single administrative division having municipal corporation, corporate status and powers of self-government or jurisdiction as granted by national and regional laws to which it is subordinate. The term ''municipality' ...

, subdivision_name1 =

City Municipality of Ljubljana The Urban Municipality of Ljubljana (), also the City of Ljubljana (, acronym MOL) is one of twelve city and metropolitan municipalities in Slovenia. Its seat is Ljubljana, the largest and capital city of Slovenia. , its mayor is Zoran Janković ...

, established_title = First mention , established_date = 1112–1125 , established_title1 = Town privileges , established_date1 = 1220–1243 , established_title2 = Roman Catholic diocese , established_date2 = 6 December 1461 , parts_type = Subdivisions , leader_title =

Mayor In many countries, a mayor is the highest-ranking official in a Municipal corporation, municipal government such as that of a city or a town. Worldwide, there is a wide variance in local laws and customs regarding the powers and responsibilitie ...

, leader_name = Zoran Janković , leader_party = {{nowrap,

Zoran Janković List The Zoran Janković List () is a Slovenian independent (politician), non-party list, formed in 2006 by the mayor of Ljubljana, Zoran Janković (politician), Zoran Janković. On 23 October 2006, Janković was elected the mayor of Ljubljana, and his l ...

, area_total_km2 = 274.99 , area_total_sq_mi = 170.87 , area_urban_km2 = 163.8{{cite web , title=Naselje Ljubljana , url=https://www.stat.si/krajevnaimena/Settlements/Details/2370 , website=Krajevna imena , publisher=Statistični urad Republike Slovenije , access-date=6 August 2024 , area_urban_sq_mi = 63.2 , area_metro_km2 = 2334 , elevation_footnotes = {{cite web , url=http://www.stat.si/letopis/2002/01_02/01-06-02.asp?jezik=en , title=Nadmorska višina naselij, kjer so sedeži občin , language=sl, en , trans-title=Height above sea level of seats of municipalities , year=2002 , publisher=Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524220943/http://www.stat.si/letopis/2002/01_02/01-06-02.asp?jezik=en , archive-date=24 May 2013 , df=dmy-all , elevation_m = 295 , elevation_ft = 968 , population_total = 300,354 , population_as_of = 2025 , population_footnotes = {{cite web , url=https://pxweb.stat.si/SiStatData/pxweb/sl/Data/Data/05C5003S.px/, title=Prebivalstvo po spolu in po starosti, občine in naselja, Slovenija, letno , publisher=Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia , access-date=14 June 2025 , population_density_km2 = auto , population_urban = 290,903 , population_metro = 569,475 , population_demonym = , postal_code_type = Postal codes , postal_code = 1000–1211, 1231, 1260, 1261 , area_code = 01 (+386 1 if calling from abroad) , website = {{URL, www.ljubljana.si , footnotes = {{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site , Official_name=The works of Jože Plečnik in Ljubljana – Human Centred Urban Design , child = yes , ID = 1643bis , Year = 2021 , Criteria = Cultural: iv , Area = 19.138 ha , Buffer_zone = , timezone =

CET CET or cet may refer to: Places * Cet, Albania * Cet, standard astronomical abbreviation for the constellation Cetus * Colchester Town railway station (National Rail code CET), in Colchester, England Arts, entertainment, and media * Comcast En ...

, utc_offset = +1 , timezone_DST = CEST , utc_offset_DST = +2 , blank_name =

Vehicle Registration Motor vehicle registration is the registration of a motor vehicle with a government authority, either compulsory or otherwise. The purpose of motor vehicle registration is to establish a link between a vehicle and an owner or user of the vehicle. ...

, blank_info = LJ , subdivision_type2 = Statistical region , subdivision_name2 = Central Slovenia Lublana

{{Quote box , title=Historical affiliations , quote={{flagicon image, Wappen Erzbistum Salzburg.png

Archbishop of Salzburg The Archdiocese of Salzburg (; ) is a Latin Church, Latin rite archdiocese of the Catholic Church centered in Salzburg, Austria. It is also the principal diocese of the ecclesiastical province of Salzburg. The archdiocese is one of two Austrian ...

(1112–1555)
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(1555–1804)
{{Flag, Austrian Empire (1804–1809)
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Illyrian Provinces The Illyrian Provinces were an autonomous province of France during the First French Empire that existed under Napoleonic Rule from 1809 to 1814. The province encompassed large parts of modern Italy and Croatia, extending their reach further e ...

(1809–1814; capital)
{{Flag, Austrian Empire (1814–1867)
{{Flag, Austria-Hungary (1867–1918)
{{flag, State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (1918)
{{flag, Kingdom of Yugoslavia{{efn, Known as: Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (1918–1929) (1918–1941)
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Nazi Germany Nazi Germany, officially known as the German Reich and later the Greater German Reich, was the German Reich, German state between 1933 and 1945, when Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party controlled the country, transforming it into a Totalit ...

(1943–1945; de facto)
{{flag, SFR Yugoslavia{{efn, Known as: Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia (1945–1963); Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (1963–1992) (1945–1991)
{{flag, Slovenia (1991–present; capital) , align=right , width=24em , fontsize=86% , bgcolor=#B0C4DE Ljubljana{{efn, Pronunciation: * {{IPAc-en, UK, ˌ, lj, uː, b, ˈ, l, j, ɑː, n, ə, ,_, ˌ, l, ʊ, b, l, i, ˈ, ɑː, n, ə {{respell, lewb, LYAH, nə, ,_, LUUB, lee, AH, nə,{{cite web , url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/ljubljana , title=Ljubljana , work=

Collins English Dictionary The ''Collins English Dictionary'' is a printed and online dictionary of English. It is published by HarperCollins in Glasgow. It was first published in 1979. Corpus The dictionary uses language research based on the Collins Corpus, which is ...

, publisher=

HarperCollins HarperCollins Publishers LLC is a British–American publishing company that is considered to be one of the "Big Five (publishers), Big Five" English-language publishers, along with Penguin Random House, Hachette Book Group USA, Hachette, Macmi ...

, access-date=21 July 2019 , archive-date=21 July 2019 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190721192759/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/ljubljana , url-status=live {{cite web , url=https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/ljubljana , title=Ljubljana , work=

Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English The ''Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English'' (''LDOCE''), first published by Longman in 1978, is an advanced learner's dictionary, providing definitions using a restricted vocabulary, helping non-native English speakers understand meanin ...

, publisher=

Longman Longman, also known as Pearson Longman, is a publisher, publishing company founded in 1724 in London, England, which is owned by Pearson PLC. Since 1968, Longman has been used primarily as an imprint by Pearson's Schools business. The Longman ...

, access-date=4 September 2019 , archive-date=4 September 2019 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904163214/https://www.ldoceonline.com/dictionary/ljubljana , url-status=live {{IPAc-en, US, ˌ, lj, uː, b, l, i, ˈ, ɑː, n, ə, ,_, l, i, ˌ, uː, - {{respell, LEW, blee, AH, nə, ,_, lee, OO, - * {{IPA, sl, ljuˈbljàːna, lang, Ljubljana.ogg, small=no, {{IPA, sl, luˈblàːna, label=locally also, small=no. (also known by other historical names) is the

capital Capital and its variations may refer to: Common uses * Capital city, a municipality of primary status ** Capital region, a metropolitan region containing the capital ** List of national capitals * Capital letter, an upper-case letter Econom ...

and

largest city The United Nations uses three definitions for what constitutes a city, as not all cities in all jurisdictions are classified using the same criteria. Cities may be defined as the cities proper, the extent of their urban area, or their metrop ...

Slovenia Slovenia, officially the Republic of Slovenia, is a country in Central Europe. It borders Italy to the west, Austria to the north, Hungary to the northeast, Croatia to the south and southeast, and a short (46.6 km) coastline within the Adriati ...

,{{cite journal , last=Vuk Dirnberk , first=Vojka , author2=Tomaž Valantič , title=Statistični portret Slovenije v EU 2010 , trans-title=Statistical Portrait of Slovenia in the EU 2010 , url=http://www.stat.si/doc/pub/PortretSlovenijaEU2010.pdf , journal=Statistični Portret Slovenije V Eu ...=Statistical Portrait of Slovenia in the Eu , language=sl, en , publisher=Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia , issn=1854-5734 , access-date=2 February 2011 , archive-date=16 October 2011 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111016173725/http://www.stat.si/doc/pub/PortretSlovenijaEU2010.pdf , url-status=live {{Cite news , last1=Zavodnik Lamovšek, first1=Alma, last2=Drobne, first2=Samo, last3=Žaucer, first3=Tadej , year=2008 , title=Small and Medium-Size Towns as the Basis of Polycentric Urban Development , volume=52 , page=303 , journal=Geodetski Vestnik , publisher=Association of Surveyors of Slovenia , issue=2 , url=http://www.geodetski-vestnik.com/52/2/gv52-2_290-312.pdf , issn=0351-0271 , access-date=30 January 2012 , archive-date=14 October 2017 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014100114/http://www.geodetski-vestnik.com/52/2/gv52-2_290-312.pdf , url-status=live located along a trade route between the northern

Adriatic Sea The Adriatic Sea () is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkans, Balkan Peninsula. The Adriatic is the northernmost arm of the Mediterranean Sea, extending from the Strait of Otranto (where it connects to the Ionian Se ...

and the

Danube The Danube ( ; see also #Names and etymology, other names) is the List of rivers of Europe#Longest rivers, second-longest river in Europe, after the Volga in Russia. It flows through Central and Southeastern Europe, from the Black Forest sou ...

region,{{cite web , last=Mehle Mihovec , first=Barbka , date=19 March 2008 , title=Kje so naše meje? , trans-title=Where are our borders? , url=http://www.gorenjskiglas.si/novice/priloga_moja_gorenjska/index.php?action=clanek&id=18737 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080531165835/http://www.gorenjskiglas.si/novice/priloga_moja_gorenjska/index.php?action=clanek&id=18737 , archive-date=31 May 2008 , access-date=7 August 2009 , work=Gorenjski glas , language=sl north of the country's largest marsh, inhabited since prehistoric times. It is the country's cultural, educational, economic, political and administrative center and the seat of the

Urban Municipality of Ljubljana The Urban Municipality of Ljubljana (), also the City of Ljubljana (, acronym MOL) is one of twelve Municipalities of Slovenia, city and metropolitan municipalities in Slovenia. Its seat is Ljubljana, the largest and capital city of Slovenia. , it ...

. During antiquity, a

Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of Roman civilization *Epistle to the Romans, shortened to Romans, a letter w ...

city called

Emona Emona (early ) or Aemona (short for ) was a Roman castrum, located in the area where the navigable Nauportus River came closest to Castle Hill,12th century The 12th century is the period from 1101 to 1200 in accordance with the Julian calendar. In the history of European culture, this period is considered part of the High Middle Ages and overlaps with what is often called the Golden Age' of the ...

. It was the historical capital of

Carniola Carniola ( ; ; ; ) is a historical region that comprised parts of present-day Slovenia. Although as a whole it does not exist anymore, Slovenes living within the former borders of the region still tend to identify with its traditional parts Upp ...

, one of the Slovene-inhabited parts of the

Habsburg monarchy The Habsburg monarchy, also known as Habsburg Empire, or Habsburg Realm (), was the collection of empires, kingdoms, duchies, counties and other polities (composite monarchy) that were ruled by the House of Habsburg. From the 18th century it is ...

. It was under

Habsburg The House of Habsburg (; ), also known as the House of Austria, was one of the most powerful dynasties in the history of Europe and Western civilization. They were best known for their inbreeding and for ruling vast realms throughout Europe d ...

rule from the Middle Ages until the dissolution of the

Austro-Hungarian Austria-Hungary, also referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Dual Monarchy or the Habsburg Monarchy, was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. A military and diplomatic alliance, it consist ...

Empire in 1918. After

World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...

, Ljubljana became the capital of the

Socialist Republic of Slovenia The Socialist Republic of Slovenia (, sh-Latn-Cyrl, separator=" / ", Socijalistička Republika Slovenija, Социјалистичка Република Словенија), commonly referred to as Socialist Slovenia or simply Slovenia, was one ...

, part of the

Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (commonly abbreviated as SFRY or SFR Yugoslavia), known from 1945 to 1963 as the Federal People's Republic of Yugoslavia, commonly referred to as Socialist Yugoslavia or simply Yugoslavia, was a country ...

. The city retained this status until Slovenia became independent in 1991 and Ljubljana became the capital of the newly formed state.{{cite book , title=Statistični letopis 2011 , publisher=Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia , year=2011 , volume=15 , page=108 , trans-title=Statistical Yearbook 2011 , chapter=Volitve , trans-chapter=Elections , issn=1318-5403 , chapter-url=http://www.stat.si/letopis/2011/05_11/05-11-11.htm , access-date=3 February 2016 , archive-date=26 August 2013 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130826065022/http://www.stat.si/letopis/2011/05_11/05-11-11.htm , url-status=live

Name

The exact origin of the name ''Ljubljana'' is unclear. In

medieval times In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and t ...

, both the river and the town were also called ''Laibach'' ({{IPA, de, ˈlaɪbax, lang, audio=De-Laibach.ogg) in German. This name was used within the region until 1918 and continues to be used in German. In Italian, the city is referred to as '' Lubiana'', and in

Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...

, it is known as ''Labacum''. The German name was first documented in 1144, and the Slovenian form appeared in records as early as 1146. The 10th-century work "Life of Gregentios" provides the Greek variant Λυπλιανές (''Lyplianes'') and situates it among the Avars in the 6th century. This account is influenced by an earlier northern Italian source written shortly after the conquest of 774. The connection between the Slovene and German names has posed a puzzle for scholars. In 2007, linguist Tijmen Pronk, an authority in comparative Indo-European linguistics and Slovene dialectology from the

University of Leiden Leiden University (abbreviated as ''LEI''; ) is a public research university in Leiden, Netherlands. Established in 1575 by William, Prince of Orange as a Protestant institution, it holds the distinction of being the oldest university in the Neth ...

, provided strong support for the theory that the Slavic ''ljub-'' 'to love, like' was the most likely origin. He argued that the river's name likely stemmed from the settlement's name. Silvo Torkar, a linguist with expertise in Slovene names, put forth the idea that Ljubljana's name has its roots in ''Ljubija'', the original name of the Ljubljanica River. This can be traced back to the Old Slavic male name ''Ljubovid'', which translates to 'the one with a lovely appearance'. Torkar also asserted that the name ''Laibach'' is a combination of German and Slovene, sharing its origins with the same personal name.

Dragon symbol

The city's symbol is the Ljubljana Dragon. It is depicted on the top of the tower of

Ljubljana Castle Ljubljana Castle (, ) is a castle complex standing on Castle Hill above downtown Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. It is a key landmark of the town. Originally a medieval fortress, it was probably constructed in the 11th century and rebuilt in t ...

in the Ljubljana coat of arms and on the Ljubljanica-crossing Dragon Bridge ({{lang, sl, Zmajski most).{{cite book , author=C Abdunur , title=ARCH'01: Troisième conferénce internationale sur les ponts en arc , publisher=Presses des Ponts , year=2001 , isbn=978-2-85978-347-1 , page=124 It represents power, courage, and greatness. Several explanations describe the origin of the Ljubljana Dragon. According to a

Slavic Slavic, Slav or Slavonic may refer to: Peoples * Slavic peoples, an ethno-linguistic group living in Europe and Asia ** East Slavic peoples, eastern group of Slavic peoples ** South Slavic peoples, southern group of Slavic peoples ** West Slav ...

myth, the slaying of a dragon releases the waters and ensures the fertility of the earth, and it is thought that the myth is tied to the

Ljubljana Marsh The Ljubljana Marsh (), located south of Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia, is the largest marsh in the country. It covers or 0.8% of the Slovene territory. It is administered by the municipalities of Borovnica, Brezovica, Ljubljana, Ig, Log ...

, the expansive marshy area that periodically threatens Ljubljana with flooding.Exhibition catalogue Emona: myth and reality
{{Webarchive , url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105154411/http://www.mgml.si/media/katalog_9_5.pdf , date=5 November 2013; Museum and Galleries of Ljubljana 2010 According to Greek legend, the

Argonauts The Argonauts ( ; ) were a band of heroes in Greek mythology, who in the years before the Trojan War (around 1300 BC) accompanied Jason to Colchis in his quest to find the Golden Fleece. Their name comes from their ship, ''Argo'', named after it ...

on their return home after having taken the Golden Fleece found a large lake surrounded by a marsh between the present-day towns of

Vrhnika Vrhnika (; ;''Leksikon občin kraljestev in dežel zastopanih v državnem zboru,'' vol. 6: ''Kranjsko''. 1906. Vienna: C. Kr. Dvorna in Državna Tiskarna, p. 120. ) is a town in Slovenia. It is the seat of the Municipality of Vrhnika. It is locat ...

and Ljubljana. There

Jason Jason ( ; ) was an ancient Greek mythological hero and leader of the Argonauts, whose quest for the Golden Fleece is featured in Greek literature. He was the son of Aeson, the rightful king of Iolcos. He was married to the sorceress Med ...

struck down a monster. This monster evolved into the

dragon A dragon is a Magic (supernatural), magical legendary creature that appears in the folklore of multiple cultures worldwide. Beliefs about dragons vary considerably through regions, but European dragon, dragons in Western cultures since the Hi ...

that today is present in the city coat of arms and flag.{{cite web , title=The dragon – city emblem , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/en/about-ljubljana/images-of-ljubljana/ , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907174416/http://www.ljubljana.si/en/about-ljubljana/images-of-ljubljana/ , archive-date=7 September 2015 , access-date=2 August 2015 , df=dmy-all It is historically more believable that the dragon was adopted from

Saint George Saint George (;Geʽez: ጊዮርጊስ, , ka, გიორგი, , , died 23 April 303), also George of Lydda, was an early Christian martyr who is venerated as a saint in Christianity. According to holy tradition, he was a soldier in the ...

, the patron of the Ljubljana Castle chapel built in the 15th century. In the legend of Saint George, the dragon represents the old ancestral

paganism Paganism (, later 'civilian') is a term first used in the fourth century by early Christians for people in the Roman Empire who practiced polytheism, or ethnic religions other than Christianity, Judaism, and Samaritanism. In the time of the ...

overcome by

Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is the Son of God (Christianity), Son of God and Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead after his Crucifixion of Jesus, crucifixion, whose ...

. According to another explanation, related to the second, the dragon was at first only a decoration above the city coat of arms. In the

Baroque The Baroque ( , , ) is a Western Style (visual arts), style of Baroque architecture, architecture, Baroque music, music, Baroque dance, dance, Baroque painting, painting, Baroque sculpture, sculpture, poetry, and other arts that flourished from ...

, it became part of the coat of arms and, in the 19th and especially the 20th century, it outstripped the tower and other elements in importance.

History

{{For timeline

Prehistory

Around 2000 BC, the Ljubljana Marsh was settled by people living in pile dwellings. Prehistoric pile dwellings and the oldest wooden wheel in the world are among the most notable archeological findings from the marshland. These lake-dwelling people survived through hunting, fishing and primitive agriculture. To get around the marshes, they used

dugout canoe A dugout canoe or simply dugout is a boat made from a hollowed-out tree. Other names for this type of boat are logboat and monoxylon. ''Monoxylon'' (''μονόξυλον'') (pl: ''monoxyla'') is Greek''mono-'' (single) + '' ξύλον xylon'' (tr ...

s made by cutting out the inside of tree trunks. Their archaeological remains, nowadays in the Municipality of Ig, have been designated a

UNESCO World Heritage Site World Heritage Sites are landmarks and areas with legal protection under an treaty, international treaty administered by UNESCO for having cultural, historical, or scientific significance. The sites are judged to contain "cultural and natural ...

since June 2011, in the common nomination of six Alpine states. Later, the area remained a transit point, for groups including the

Illyrians The Illyrians (, ; ) were a group of Indo-European languages, Indo-European-speaking people who inhabited the western Balkan Peninsula in ancient times. They constituted one of the three main Paleo-Balkan languages, Paleo-Balkan populations, alon ...

, followed by a mixed nation of the

Celts The Celts ( , see Names of the Celts#Pronunciation, pronunciation for different usages) or Celtic peoples ( ) were a collection of Indo-European languages, Indo-European peoples. "The Celts, an ancient Indo-European people, reached the apoge ...

and the Illyrians called the Iapodes, and then in the 3rd century BC a Celtic tribe, the

Taurisci The Taurisci were a federation of Celtic tribes who dwelt in today's Carinthia and northern Slovenia (Carniola) before the coming of the Romans (c. 200 BC). According to Pliny the Elder, they are the same as the people known as the Norici. Et ...

.{{cite web , title=First settlers , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/en/about-ljubljana/history/first-settlers/ , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100318073218/http://www.ljubljana.si/en/about-ljubljana/history/first-settlers/ , archive-date=18 March 2010 , access-date=31 October 2009

Antiquity

{{Main, Emona Emona3

Around 50 BC, the Romans built a military encampment that later became a permanent settlement called Iulia Aemona.{{cite web , title=The Times of Roman Emona , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/en/about-ljubljana/history/times-of-roman-emona/ , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100315124047/http://www.ljubljana.si/en/about-ljubljana/history/times-of-roman-emona/ , archive-date=15 March 2010 , access-date=31 October 2009{{cite web , title=Roman Emona , url=http://www.culture.si/en/Roman_Emona , access-date=15 October 2012 , work=Culture.si , publisher=Ministry of culture of the republic of Slovenia , archive-date=4 October 2012 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004123636/http://www.culture.si/en/Roman_Emona , url-status=live {{cite web , title=Emona, Legacy of a Roman City , url=http://www.culture.si/en/Emona,_Legacy_of_a_Roman_City , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717062836/https://www.culture.si/en/Emona,_Legacy_of_a_Roman_City , archive-date=17 July 2019 , access-date=15 October 2012 , work=Culture.si , publisher=Ministry of culture of the republic of Slovenia This entrenched fort was occupied by the ''

Legio XV Apollinaris Legio XV Apollinaris ("Apollo's Fifteenth Legion") was a legion of the Imperial Roman army. It was recruited by Octavian in 41/40 BC. The emblem of this legion was probably a picture of Apollo, or of one of his holy animals. XV ''Apollinaris ...

''.{{in lang, fr Hildegard Temporini and Wolfgang Haase, ''Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt''. de Gruyter, 1988. {{ISBN, 3-11-011893-9
Google Books, p.343
{{Webarchive, url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503154930/https://books.google.com/books?id=74vdDevajNoC&pg=PA343&lpg=PA343&dq=Emona+legion+XV&source=web&ots=Oz_GEBKbi_&sig=jODLhDZxfNwHfBW48cBMhE2GCs0&hl=fr&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=8&ct=result , date=3 May 2016 In 452, it was destroyed by the

Huns The Huns were a nomadic people who lived in Central Asia, the Caucasus, and Eastern Europe between the 4th and 6th centuries AD. According to European tradition, they were first reported living east of the Volga River, in an area that was par ...

under

Attila Attila ( or ; ), frequently called Attila the Hun, was the ruler of the Huns from 434 until his death in early 453. He was also the leader of an empire consisting of Huns, Ostrogoths, Alans, and Gepids, among others, in Central Europe, C ...

's orders, and later by the

Ostrogoths The Ostrogoths () were a Roman-era Germanic peoples, Germanic people. In the 5th century, they followed the Visigoths in creating one of the two great Goths, Gothic kingdoms within the Western Roman Empire, drawing upon the large Gothic populatio ...

and the

Lombards The Lombards () or Longobards () were a Germanic peoples, Germanic people who conquered most of the Italian Peninsula between 568 and 774. The medieval Lombard historian Paul the Deacon wrote in the ''History of the Lombards'' (written betwee ...

.Daniel Mallinus, ''La Yougoslavie'', Éd. Artis-Historia, Brussels, 1988, D/1988/0832/27, p. 37-39. Emona housed 5,000 to 6,000 inhabitants and played an important role during battles. Its plastered brick houses, painted in different colours, were connected to a drainage system. In the 6th century, the ancestors of the

Slovenes The Slovenes, also known as Slovenians ( ), are a South Slavs, South Slavic ethnic group native to Slovenia and adjacent regions in Italy, Austria and Hungary. Slovenes share a common ancestry, Slovenian culture, culture, and History of Slove ...

moved in. In the 9th century, they fell under

Frankish Frankish may refer to: * Franks, a Germanic tribe and their culture ** Frankish language or its modern descendants, Franconian languages, a group of Low Germanic languages also commonly referred to as "Frankish" varieties * Francia, a post-Roman ...

domination, while experiencing frequent Magyar raids.{{cite web , title=Ljubljana in the Middle Ages , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/en/about-ljubljana/history/ljubljana-in-middle-ages/ , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100318072655/http://www.ljubljana.si/en/about-ljubljana/history/ljubljana-in-middle-ages/ , archive-date=18 March 2010 , access-date=31 October 2009 Not much is known about the area during the settlement of

Slavs The Slavs or Slavic people are groups of people who speak Slavic languages. Slavs are geographically distributed throughout the northern parts of Eurasia; they predominantly inhabit Central Europe, Eastern Europe, Southeastern Europe, and ...

in the period between the downfall of Emona and the Early Middle Ages.

Middle Ages

The parchment sheet ''Nomina defunctorum'' ("Names of the Dead"), most probably written in the second half of 1161, mentions the nobleman Rudolf of Tarcento, a lawyer of the

Patriarchate of Aquileia The Patriarchate of Aquileia was an episcopal see and ecclesiastical province in northeastern Italy, originally centered in the ancient city of Aquileia, situated near the northern coast of the Adriatic Sea. It emerged in the 4th century as a m ...

, who had bestowed a canon with 20 farmsteads beside the castle of Ljubljana (''castrum Leibach'') to the Patriarchate. According to the historian Peter Štih's deduction, this happened between 1112 and 1125, the earliest mention of Ljubljana.{{cite book , author=Peter Štih , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/file/863357/castrumleibach-e.pdf , title=Castrum Leibach: the first recorded mention of Ljubljana and the city's early history: facsimile with commentary and a history introduction , publisher=City Municipality of Ljubljana , year=2010 , isbn=978-961-6449-36-6 , access-date=12 May 2015 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230058/http://www.ljubljana.si/file/863357/castrumleibach-e.pdf , archive-date=3 March 2016 , df=dmy-all {{COBISS, ID=252833024 The property changed hands repeatedly until the first half of the 12th century. The territory south of the

Sava The Sava, is a river in Central Europe, Central and Southeast Europe, a right-bank and the longest tributary of the Danube. From its source in Slovenia it flows through Croatia and along its border with Bosnia and Herzegovina, and finally reac ...

where Ljubljana developed, gradually became property of the Carinthian Dukes of the

House of Sponheim The House of Sponheim or Spanheim was a medieval Germans, German noble family, which originated in Rhenish Franconia. They were Imperial immediacy, immediate Counts of County of Sponheim, Sponheim until 1437 and Dukes of Duchy of Carinthia, Carint ...

. Urban settlement started in the second half of the 12th century. At around 1200,

market rights A market town is a settlement most common in Europe that obtained by custom or royal charter, in the Middle Ages, a market right, which allowed it to host a regular market; this distinguished it from a village or city. In Britain, small rural ...

were granted to Old Square ({{lang, sl, Stari trg),{{Cite news , author=Darinka Kladnik , date=October 2006 , title=Ljubljana Town Hall , publisher=Ljubljana Tourist Board , url=http://www.visitljubljana.si/file/141388/mestna-hisa-slo-ang-3.pdf , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110915023251/https://www.visitljubljana.si/file/141388/mestna-hisa-slo-ang-3.pdf , archive-date=15 September 2011 which at the time was one of Ljubljana's three original districts. The other two districts were an area called "Town" ({{lang, sl, Mesto), built around the predecessor of the present-day

Ljubljana Cathedral Ljubljana Cathedral (), officially named Saint Nicholas's Church (, unofficially also ), also named Saint Nicholas's Cathedral (), the Cathedral of Saint Nicholas, or simply the Cathedral (), is a cathedral in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. ...

at one side of the

Ljubljanica The Ljubljanica (), known in the Middle Ages as the ''Leybach'', is a river in the southern part of the Ljubljana Basin in Slovenia. The capital of Slovenia, Ljubljana, lies on the river. The Ljubljanica rises south of the town of Vrhnika and ...

River, and New Square ({{lang, sl, Novi trg) at the other side.{{cite web , title=Srednjeveška Ljubljana – Luwigana , trans-title=Ljubljana of the Middle Ages – Luwigana , url=http://arhitekturni-vodnik.org/?object=151&mode=4 , access-date=15 May 2012 , url-status=dead , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327233545/http://arhitekturni-vodnik.org/?object=151&mode=4 , archive-date=27 March 2019 , work=Arhitekturni vodnik , trans-work=Architectural Guide The Franciscan Bridge, a predecessor of the present-day

Triple Bridge The Triple Bridge (, in older sources also ''Tromostje'') comprises three bridges spanning the Ljubljanica River in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. It connects the historical medieval town on the southeastern bank with the central Prešeren ...

, and the

Butchers' Bridge The Butchers' Bridge () is a footbridge crossing the river Ljubljanica in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. It connects the Ljubljana Central Market and the Petkovšek Embankment (). The bridge was solemnly opened on 10 July 2010. The origi ...

connected the walled areas with wooden buildings. Ljubljana acquired the

town privileges Town privileges or borough rights were important features of European towns during most of the second millennium. The city law customary in Central Europe probably dates back to Italian models, which in turn were oriented towards the traditio ...

at some time between 1220 and 1243. Seven fires erupted during the Middle Ages. Artisans organised themselves into

guild A guild ( ) is an association of artisans and merchants who oversee the practice of their craft/trade in a particular territory. The earliest types of guild formed as organizations of tradespeople belonging to a professional association. They so ...

s. The

Teutonic Knights The Teutonic Order is a Catholic religious institution founded as a military society in Acre, Kingdom of Jerusalem. The Order of Brothers of the German House of Saint Mary in Jerusalem was formed to aid Christians on their pilgrimages to t ...

, the

Conventual Franciscans The Order of Friars Minor Conventual (O.F.M. Conv.) is a male religious fraternity in the Catholic Church and a branch of the Franciscan Order. Conventual Franciscan Friars are identified by the affix O.F.M. Conv. after their names. They are ...

, and the

Franciscans The Franciscans are a group of related organizations in the Catholic Church, founded or inspired by the Italian saint Francis of Assisi. They include three independent religious orders for men (the Order of Friars Minor being the largest conte ...

settled there. In 1256, when the Carinthian duke Ulrich III of Spanheim became lord of Carniola, the provincial capital was moved from

Kamnik Kamnik (; ''Leksikon občin kraljestev in dežel zastopanih v državnem zboru,'' vol. 6: ''Kranjsko''. 1906. Vienna: C. Kr. Dvorna in Državna Tiskarna, pp. 26–27. or ''Stein in Oberkrain'') is the ninth-largest town of Slovenia, located in t ...

to Ljubljana. In the late 1270s, Ljubljana was conquered by King

Ottokar II of Bohemia Ottokar II (; , in Městec Králové, Bohemia – 26 August 1278, in Dürnkrut, Austria, Dürnkrut, Lower Austria), the Iron and Golden King, was a member of the Přemyslid dynasty who reigned as King of Bohemia from 1253 until his death in 1278 ...

.{{cite web , title=History of Ljubljana , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/en/about-ljubljana/history/ , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150908133217/http://www.ljubljana.si/en/about-ljubljana/history/ , archive-date=8 September 2015 , access-date=1 November 2015 , publisher=Municipality of Ljubljana (includes timeline) In 1278, after Ottokar's defeat, it became—together with the rest of

—property of Rudolph of Habsburg. It was administered by the

Counts of Gorizia The County of Gorizia (, , , ), from 1365 Princely County of Gorizia, was a State of the Holy Roman Empire. Originally mediate ''Vogts'' of the Patriarchs of Aquileia, the Counts of Gorizia (''Meinhardiner'') ruled over several fiefs in the are ...

from 1279 until 1335,{{sfn, Phillips, 1911 when it became the capital town of Carniola. Renamed ''Laibach'', it was owned by the

House of Habsburg The House of Habsburg (; ), also known as the House of Austria, was one of the most powerful Dynasty, dynasties in the history of Europe and Western civilization. They were best known for their inbreeding and for ruling vast realms throughout ...

until 1797. In 1327, the Ljubljana's "

Jewish Quarter Jewish Quarter may refer to: *Jewish quarter (diaspora), areas of many cities and towns traditionally inhabited by Jews *Jewish Quarter (Jerusalem), one of the four traditional quarters of the Old City of Jerusalem *Jewish Quarter (), a popular name ...

"—now only "Jewish Street" ({{lang, sl, Židovska ulica) remains—was established with a synagogue, and lasted until Emperor Maximilian I in 1515 and expelled the Jews from Ljubljana at the request of its citizens, for which he demanded a certain payment from the town. In 1382, in front of St. Bartholomew's Church in Šiška, at the time a nearby village, now part of Ljubljana, a peace treaty was signed between the

Republic of Venice The Republic of Venice, officially the Most Serene Republic of Venice and traditionally known as La Serenissima, was a sovereign state and Maritime republics, maritime republic with its capital in Venice. Founded, according to tradition, in 697 ...

and Leopold III of

Early modern

In the 15th century, Ljubljana became recognised for its art, particularly painting and sculpture. The

Latin Catholic The Latin Church () is the largest autonomous () particular church within the Catholic Church, whose members constitute the vast majority of the 1.3 billion Catholics. The Latin Church is one of 24 ''sui iuris'' churches in full communion w ...

Archdiocese of Ljubljana The Metropolitan Archdiocese of Ljubljana (, ) is a Latin ecclesiastical territory or diocese of the Catholic Church in Slovenia.Church of St. Nicholas became the diocesan cathedral. After the

1511 Idrija earthquake The 1511 Idrija earthquake ( or ) occurred on 26 March 1511 with a moment magnitude of 6.9 and a maximum EMS intensity of X (''very destructive''). The epicenter was near the town of Idrija (now in Slovenia), although some place it in ...

,{{cite journal , last1=Bavec , first1=Milos , last2=Car , first2=Marjeta , last3=Stopar , first3=Robert , last4=Jamsek , first4=Petra , last5=Gosar , first5=Andrej , date=2012 , title=Geophysical evidence of recent activity of the Idrija fault, Kanomlja, NW Slovenia , journal=Materials and Geoenvironment , volume=59{{cite journal , last1=Lipold , first1=Marc Vincenc , date=1857 , title=Bericht über die geologischen Aufnamen in Ober-Krein im Jahre 1856 , journal=Jahrbuch der K. K. Geol. Reichsanstalt{{cite journal , last1=Fitzko , first1=F. , last2=Suhadolc , first2=P. , last3=Aoudia , first3=A. , last4=Panza , first4=G.F. , year=2005 , title=Constraints on the location and mechanism of the 1511 Western-Slovenia earthquake from active tectonics and modeling of macroseismic data , journal=Tectonophysics , volume=404 , issue=1–2 , pages=77–90 , bibcode=2005Tectp.404...77F , doi=10.1016/j.tecto.2005.05.003{{cite journal , last1=Cunningham , first1=Dickson , last2=Gosar , first2=Andrej , last3=Kastelic , first3=Vanja , last4=Grebby , first4=Stephen , last5=Tansey , first5=Kevin , date=2007 , title=Multi-disciplinary investigations of active faults in the Julian Alps, Slovenia , url=http://www.irsm.cas.cz/materialy/acta_content/2007_01/7_Cunningham.pdf , journal=Acta Geodyn. Geomater. , volume=4 , access-date=10 August 2014 , archive-date=12 August 2014 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812204818/http://www.irsm.cas.cz/materialy/acta_content/2007_01/7_Cunningham.pdf , url-status=live the city was rebuilt in the

Renaissance The Renaissance ( , ) is a Periodization, period of history and a European cultural movement covering the 15th and 16th centuries. It marked the transition from the Middle Ages to modernity and was characterized by an effort to revive and sur ...

style and a new wall was built around it.{{cite web , title=Renaissance and Baroque , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/en/about-ljubljana/history/renaissance-and-baroque/ , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100318072700/http://www.ljubljana.si/en/about-ljubljana/history/renaissance-and-baroque/ , archive-date=18 March 2010 , access-date=31 October 2009 Wooden buildings were forbidden after a large fire at New Square in 1524. In the 16th century, the population of Ljubljana numbered 5,000, 70% of whom spoke Slovene as their

first language A first language (L1), native language, native tongue, or mother tongue is the first language a person has been exposed to from birth or within the critical period hypothesis, critical period. In some countries, the term ''native language'' ...

, with most of the rest using German. The first

secondary school A secondary school, high school, or senior school, is an institution that provides secondary education. Some secondary schools provide both ''lower secondary education'' (ages 11 to 14) and ''upper secondary education'' (ages 14 to 18), i.e., b ...

, public library and printing house opened in Ljubljana. Ljubljana became an important educational centre. From 1529, Ljubljana had an active Slovene Protestant community. They were expelled in 1598, marking the beginning of the

Counter-Reformation The Counter-Reformation (), also sometimes called the Catholic Revival, was the period of Catholic resurgence that was initiated in response to, and as an alternative to or from similar insights as, the Protestant Reformations at the time. It w ...

. Catholic Bishop Thomas Chrön ordered the public burning of eight cartloads of Protestant books.Rajhman, Jože, & Emilijan Cevc. 1990. Tomaž Hren. ''Enciklopedija Slovenije'', vol. 4, pp. 50–51. Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga. In 1597, the

Jesuits The Society of Jesus (; abbreviation: S.J. or SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( ; ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...

arrived, followed in 1606 by the

Capuchins Capuchin can refer to: *Order of Friars Minor Capuchin, an order of Roman Catholic friars *Capuchin Poor Clares, an order of Roman Catholic contemplative religious sisters *Capuchin monkey, primates of the genus ''Cebus'' and ''Sapajus'', named af ...

, seeking to eradicate Protestantism. Only 5% of all the residents of Ljubljana at the time were Catholic, but eventually they re-Catholicized the town. The Jesuits staged the first theatre productions, fostered the development of

Baroque music Baroque music ( or ) refers to the period or dominant style of Classical music, Western classical music composed from about 1600 to 1750. The Baroque style followed the Renaissance music, Renaissance period, and was followed in turn by the Class ...

, and established Catholic schools. In the middle and the second half of the 17th century, foreign architects built and renovated monasteries, churches, and palaces and introduced

Baroque architecture Baroque architecture is a highly decorative and theatrical style which appeared in Italy in the late 16th century and gradually spread across Europe. It was originally introduced by the Catholic Church, particularly by the Jesuits, as a means to ...

. In 1702, the

Ursulines The Ursulines, also known as the Order of Saint Ursula (post-nominals: OSU), is an enclosed religious order of women that in 1572 branched off from the Angelines, also known as the Company of Saint Ursula. The Ursulines trace their origins to th ...

settled in the town, and the following year they opened the first public school for girls in the

Slovene Lands The Slovene lands or Slovenian lands ( or in short ) is the historical denomination for the territories in Central and Southern Europe where people primarily spoke Slovene. The Slovene lands were part of the Illyrian provinces, the Austrian Empi ...

. Some years later, the construction of the Ursuline Church of the Holy Trinity started.{{cite web , title=1980: Ljubljana – Cerkev sv. Trojice , trans-title=1980: Ljubljana – Holy Trinity Church , url=http://giskd2s.situla.org/rkd/Opis.asp?Esd=1980 , access-date=29 October 2012 , work=Register nepremične kulturne dediščine egistry of Immovable Cultural Heritage, publisher=Ministry of Culture, Republic of Slovenia , language=sl , archive-date=16 February 2016 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160216132434/http://giskd2s.situla.org/rkd/Opis.asp?Esd=1980 , url-status=live {{cite web , title=Ljubljana.info – Ursuline Church Ljubljana , url=http://www.ljubljana.info/sights/ursuline-church/ , work=ljubljana.info , access-date=10 February 2016 , archive-date=24 July 2008 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724182108/http://www.ljubljana.info/sights/ursuline-church/ , url-status=live In 1779, St. Christopher's Cemetery replaced the cemetery at St. Peter's Church as Ljubljana's main cemetery.

Late modern

From 1809 to 1813, during the "

Napoleonic Napoleon Bonaparte (born Napoleone di Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French general and statesman who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led a series of mi ...

interlude", Ljubljana (as ''Laybach'') was the capital of the

.{{cite web , title=Ljubljana in the 18th and 19th Centuries , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/en/about-ljubljana/history/ljubljana-18th-19th-centuries/ , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100318073535/http://www.ljubljana.si/en/about-ljubljana/history/ljubljana-18th-19th-centuries/ , archive-date=18 March 2010 , access-date=31 October 2009 In 1813, the city returned to Austria and from 1815 to 1849 was the administrative centre of the

Kingdom of Illyria The Kingdom of Illyria was a crown land of the Austrian Empire from 1816 to 1849, the successor state of the Napoleonic Illyrian Provinces, which were reconquered by Austria in the War of the Sixth Coalition. It was established according to th ...

in the Austrian Empire.{{cite book , title=Ilustrirana zgodovina Slovencev , publisher=Mladinska knjiga , year=2000 , isbn=978-86-11-15664-4 , editor-last=Vidic , editor-first=Marko , page=213 , trans-title=The Illustrated History of the Slovenes , chapter=Ilirsko kraljestvo , trans-chapter=Kingdom of Illyria In 1821, it hosted the

Congress of Laibach The Congress of Laibach was a conference of the allied sovereigns or their representatives, held in 1821 in Ljubljana (then Laibach) as part of the Concert of Europe, Congress System which was the decided attempt of the five Great Powers to settl ...

, which fixed European political borders for that period.{{cite web , title=Introducing Ljubljana , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/en/about-ljubljana/ , access-date=31 October 2009 , archive-date=19 October 2009 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091019132704/http://www.ljubljana.si/en/about-ljubljana/ , url-status=live The first train arrived in 1849 from Vienna and in 1857 the line extended to

Trieste Trieste ( , ; ) is a city and seaport in northeastern Italy. It is the capital and largest city of the Regions of Italy#Autonomous regions with special statute, autonomous region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia, as well as of the Province of Trieste, ...

. In 1895, Ljubljana, then a city of 31,000, suffered a severe earthquake with a

moment magnitude The moment magnitude scale (MMS; denoted explicitly with or Mwg, and generally implied with use of a single M for magnitude) is a measure of an earthquake's magnitude ("size" or strength) based on its seismic moment. was defined in a 1979 paper ...

of 6.1 and a maximum EMS intensity of VIII–IX ("heavily damaging – destructive").{{cite web , url=https://potresi.arso.gov.si/doc/dokumenti/potresna_aktivnost/mocni_potresi_v_preteklosti.pdf , title=Potresna aktivnost v Sloveniji: Močni potresi v preteklosti , language=Slovenian , trans-title=Seismic Activity in Slovenia: Strong Earthquakes in the Past , work=Potresna aktivnost v Sloveniji eismic Activity in Slovenia, publisher=Environmental Agency of the Republic of Slovenia , accessdate=15 May 2012 , archive-date=22 July 2013 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722151101/http://www.arso.gov.si/potresi/potresna%20aktivnost/Mo%c4%8dni_potresi_v_preteklosti.pdf , url-status=dead 21 people died due to the earthquake and some 10% of the city's 1,400 buildings were destroyed.{{cite book , access-date=22 April 2024 , language=sl , title=Potresna aktivnost v Sloveniji: Močni potresi v preteklosti , trans-title=Seismic Activity in Slovenia: Strong Earthquakes in the Past , url=https://potresi.arso.gov.si/doc/dokumenti/potresna_aktivnost/mocni_potresi_v_preteklosti.pdf , archive-date=22 July 2013 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722151101/http://www.arso.gov.si/potresi/potresna%20aktivnost/Mo%c4%8dni_potresi_v_preteklosti.pdf , url-status=live {{cite web , title=Potresna aktivnost v Sloveniji: Močni potresi v preteklosti , trans-title=Seismic Activity in Slovenia: Strong Earthquakes in the Past , url=http://www.arso.gov.si/potresi/potresna%20aktivnost/Mo%c4%8dni_potresi_v_preteklosti.pdf , access-date=15 May 2012 , work=Potresna aktivnost v Sloveniji eismic Activity in Slovenia, publisher=Environmental Agency of the Republic of Slovenia , language=sl , archive-date=22 July 2013 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722151101/http://www.arso.gov.si/potresi/potresna%20aktivnost/Mo%c4%8dni_potresi_v_preteklosti.pdf , url-status=live During the subsequent reconstruction, some districts were rebuilt in the

Vienna Secession The Vienna Secession (; also known as the Union of Austrian Artists or ) is an art movement, closely related to Art Nouveau, that was formed in 1897 by a group of Austrian painters, graphic artists, sculptors and architects, including Josef Ho ...

style. Public

electric lighting Electric light Electric light is an artificial light source powered by electricity. Electric Light may also refer to: * Light fixture, a decorative enclosure for an electric light source * Electric Light (album), ''Electric Light'' (album), a 201 ...

arrived in 1898. The rebuilding period between 1896 and 1910 is referred to as the "revival of Ljubljana" because of architectural changes that defined the city and for reform of urban administration, health, education and tourism. The rebuilding and quick modernisation of the city were led by the mayor

Ivan Hribar Ivan Hribar (19 September 1851 – 18 April 1941) was a Slovene and Yugoslav banker, politician, diplomat and journalist. During the start of the 20th century, he was one of the leaders of the National Progressive Party, and one of the mo ...

. In 1918, following the dissolution of

Austria-Hungary Austria-Hungary, also referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Dual Monarchy or the Habsburg Monarchy, was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe#Before World War I, Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. A military ...

, the region joined the

Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was a country in Southeast and Central Europe that existed from 1918 until 1941. From 1918 to 1929, it was officially called the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, but the term "Yugoslavia" () has been its colloq ...

.{{cite web , title=The Turbulent 20th Century , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/en/about-ljubljana/history/restless-20th-century/ , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100315121957/http://www.ljubljana.si/en/about-ljubljana/history/restless-20th-century/ , archive-date=15 March 2010 , access-date=31 October 2009 In 1929, Ljubljana became the capital of the

Drava Banovina The Drava Banovina or Drava Banate (Slovene language, Slovene and Serbo-Croatian: ''Dravska banovina''), was a province (Ban (title), banovina) of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia between 1929 and 1941. This province consisted of most of present-day Slove ...

, a Yugoslav province.{{cite web , title=Dans la Yougoslavie des Karageorgévitch , url=http://www.clio.fr/CHRONOLOGIE/chronologie_slovenie_dans_la_yougoslavie_des_karageorgevitch.asp , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080412051038/http://www.clio.fr/CHRONOLOGIE/chronologie_slovenie_dans_la_yougoslavie_des_karageorgevitch.asp , archive-date=12 April 2008 , access-date=30 July 2008 , language=fr In 1941, during

Fascist Italy Fascist Italy () is a term which is used in historiography to describe the Kingdom of Italy between 1922 and 1943, when Benito Mussolini and the National Fascist Party controlled the country, transforming it into a totalitarian dictatorship. Th ...

occupied the city, and then on 3 May 1941 made ''Lubiana'' the capital of Italy's

Province of Ljubljana The Province of Ljubljana (, , ) was the central-southern area of Slovenia. In 1941, it was annexed by the Kingdom of Italy, and after 1943 occupied by Nazi Germany. Created on May 3, 1941, it was abolished on May 9, 1945, when the Slovene Parti ...

{{cite book , author= Davide Rodogno , title=Fascism's European empire: Italian occupation during the Second World War , publisher=

Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Press was the university press of the University of Cambridge. Granted a letters patent by King Henry VIII in 1534, it was the oldest university press in the world. Cambridge University Press merged with Cambridge Assessme ...

, year=2006 , isbn=978-0-521-84515-1 , page=82 with former Yugoslav general

Leon Rupnik Leon Rupnik, also known as Lav Rupnik or Lev Rupnik (August 10, 1880 – September 4, 1946) was a Slovene general in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia who collaborated with the Fascist Italian and Nazi German occupation forces during World War II. Ru ...

as mayor. After the Italian capitulation,

with SS-general

Erwin Rösener Erwin Friedrich Karl Rösener (2 February 1902 – 4 September 1946) was a German '' Schutzstaffel'' (SS) commander during the Nazi era. During World War II, he was responsible for mass executions of civilians in Slovenia. Rösener was put on tri ...

and Friedrich Rainer took control in 1943, but formally the city remained the capital of an Italian province until 9 May 1945. In Ljubljana, the Axis forces established strongholds and command centres of

Quisling ''Quisling'' (, ) is a term used in Scandinavian languages and in English to mean a citizen or politician of an occupied country who collaborates with an enemy occupying force; it may also be used more generally as a synonym for ''traitor'' or ...

organisations, the

Anti-Communist Volunteer Militia The Anti-Communist Volunteer Militia (, MVAC) were paramilitary auxiliary formations of the Royal Italian Army composed of Yugoslav anti- Partisan groups in the Italian-annexed and occupied portions of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia during the Second W ...

under Italy and the

Home Guard Home guard is a title given to various military organizations at various times, with the implication of an emergency or reserve force raised for local defense. The term "home guard" was first officially used in the American Civil War, starting ...

under German control. Starting in February 1942, the city was surrounded by barbed wire, later fortified by

bunker A bunker is a defensive military fortification designed to protect people and valued materials from falling bombs, artillery, or other attacks. Bunkers are almost always underground, in contrast to blockhouses which are mostly above ground. T ...

s, to prevent co-operation between the

resistance movements A resistance movement is an organized group of people that tries to resist or try to overthrow a government or an occupying power, causing disruption and unrest in civil order and stability. Such a movement may seek to achieve its goals through e ...

that operated inside and outside the fence.{{cite web , last1=Hudolin , first1=Gašper , last2=Kerševan , first2=Ana Nuša , year=2016 , title=Ljubljanske zgodbe: 60. obletnica Pohodov ob žici , trans-title=Ljubljana Stories: The 60th Anniversary of the Marches Along the Wire , url=http://www.mklj.si/ljubljanske-zgodbe/item/download/734_f72c43e3efd7223e45a53e9a72ae0597 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508205104/http://www.mklj.si/ljubljanske-zgodbe/item/download/734_f72c43e3efd7223e45a53e9a72ae0597 , archive-date=8 May 2016 , access-date=22 April 2016 , publisher=Ljubljana Municipal Library , language=sl Since 1985, the commemorative trail has ringed the city where this iron fence once stood.{{in lang, sl, en {{cite web , title=The Trail of Remembrance and Comradeship , url=http://www.ljubljana-tourism.si/file/559602/2006-april-POT-SPOMINOV-IN-TOVARITVA-_2.pdf , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926230004/http://www.ljubljana-tourism.si/file/559602/2006-april-POT-SPOMINOV-IN-TOVARITVA-_2.pdf , archive-date=26 September 2007 , access-date=30 July 2008 Postwar reprisals filled

mass graves A mass grave is a grave containing multiple human corpses, which may or may Unidentified decedent, not be identified prior to burial. The United Nations has defined a criminal mass grave as a burial site containing three or more victims of exec ...

.Booker, Christopher. 1997. ''A Looking-Glass Tragedy. The Controversy over the Repatriations From Austria In 1945.'' London: Gerald Duckworth & Co Ltd., p. 214.{{Cite web , title=Grahek Ravančić, Martina. 2009. "Izručenja i sudbine zarobljenika smještenih u savezničkim logorima u svibnju 1945. Journal of Contemporary History 41(2): 391–416. , url=http://hrcak.srce.hr/file/74034 , access-date=10 February 2016 , archive-date=15 May 2021 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515215331/https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/74034 , url-status=live Ferenc, Tone. 1999. "Šentvid." ''Enciklopedija Slovenije'', vol. 13 (Š–T). Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga, p. 28. After World War II, Ljubljana became the capital of the

, part of the

. It retained this status until Slovene independence in 1991.

Contemporary situation

Ljubljana is the capital of independent

, which joined the

European Union The European Union (EU) is a supranational union, supranational political union, political and economic union of Member state of the European Union, member states that are Geography of the European Union, located primarily in Europe. The u ...

in 2004.

Geography

{{maplink , frame = yes , type = point , zoom = 11 , text = Map with the city, including the motorway ring The city covers {{cvt, 163.8, km2, sqmi, sp=us. It is situated in the Ljubljana Basin in Central Slovenia, between the

Alps The Alps () are some of the highest and most extensive mountain ranges in Europe, stretching approximately across eight Alpine countries (from west to east): Monaco, France, Switzerland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Germany, Austria and Slovenia. ...

and the

Karst Karst () is a topography formed from the dissolution of soluble carbonate rocks such as limestone and Dolomite (rock), dolomite. It is characterized by features like poljes above and drainage systems with sinkholes and caves underground. Ther ...

. Ljubljana is located some {{cvt, 320, km, mi, sp=us south of

Munich Munich is the capital and most populous city of Bavaria, Germany. As of 30 November 2024, its population was 1,604,384, making it the third-largest city in Germany after Berlin and Hamburg. Munich is the largest city in Germany that is no ...

, {{cvt, 477, km, mi, sp=us east of

Zürich Zurich (; ) is the list of cities in Switzerland, largest city in Switzerland and the capital of the canton of Zurich. It is in north-central Switzerland, at the northwestern tip of Lake Zurich. , the municipality had 448,664 inhabitants. The ...

, {{cvt, 250, km, mi, sp=us east of Venice, {{cvt, 350, km, mi, sp=us southwest of

Vienna Vienna ( ; ; ) is the capital city, capital, List of largest cities in Austria, most populous city, and one of Federal states of Austria, nine federal states of Austria. It is Austria's primate city, with just over two million inhabitants. ...

, {{cvt, 124, km, mi, sp=us west of

Zagreb Zagreb ( ) is the capital (political), capital and List of cities and towns in Croatia#List of cities and towns, largest city of Croatia. It is in the Northern Croatia, north of the country, along the Sava river, at the southern slopes of the ...

and {{cvt, 400, km, mi, sp=us southwest of

Budapest Budapest is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns of Hungary, most populous city of Hungary. It is the List of cities in the European Union by population within city limits, tenth-largest city in the European Union by popul ...

. Ljubljana has grown considerably since the 1970s, mainly by merging with nearby settlements.

Geology

The city stretches out on an

alluvial Alluvium (, ) is loose clay, silt, sand, or gravel that has been deposited by running water in a stream bed, on a floodplain, in an alluvial fan or beach, or in similar settings. Alluvium is also sometimes called alluvial deposit. Alluvium is ...

plain dating to the

Quaternary The Quaternary ( ) is the current and most recent of the three periods of the Cenozoic Era in the geologic time scale of the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS), as well as the current and most recent of the twelve periods of the ...

era An era is a span of time. Era or ERA may also refer to: * Era (geology), a subdivision of geologic time * Calendar era Education * Academy of European Law (German: '), an international law school * ERA School, in Melbourne, Australia * E ...

. The mountainous regions nearby are older, dating from the

Mesozoic The Mesozoic Era is the Era (geology), era of Earth's Geologic time scale, geological history, lasting from about , comprising the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous Period (geology), Periods. It is characterized by the dominance of archosaurian r ...

(

Triassic The Triassic ( ; sometimes symbolized 🝈) is a geologic period and system which spans 50.5 million years from the end of the Permian Period 251.902 million years ago ( Mya), to the beginning of the Jurassic Period 201.4 Mya. The Triassic is t ...

) or

Paleozoic The Paleozoic ( , , ; or Palaeozoic) Era is the first of three Era (geology), geological eras of the Phanerozoic Eon. Beginning 538.8 million years ago (Ma), it succeeds the Neoproterozoic (the last era of the Proterozoic Eon) and ends 251.9 Ma a ...

.{{cite web , title=Geological Map of Slovenia , url=http://english.fossiel.net/system/geolkaart/slovenie.jpg , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080811180940/http://english.fossiel.net/system/geolkaart/slovenie.jpg , archive-date=11 August 2008 , access-date=30 July 2008 Earthquakes have repeatedly devastated Ljubljana, notably in

1511 Year 1511 ( MDXI) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. Events January–March * January 19 – The Siege of Mirandola by the Papal States, with help from the Duchy of Urbino and Spanish and Venetian t ...

and

1895 Events January * January 5 – Dreyfus affair: French officer Alfred Dreyfus is stripped of his army rank and sentenced to life imprisonment on Devil's Island (off French Guiana) on what is much later admitted to be a false charge of tr ...

.{{cite journal , last=Orožen Adamič , first=Milan , year=1995 , title=Earthquake Threat in Ljubljana , url=http://www.dlib.si/details/URN:NBN:SI:DOC-IG209UX5/?&language=eng , journal=Geografski Zbornik , volume=35 , pages=45–112 , issn=0373-4498 , access-date=15 May 2012 , archive-date=23 November 2020 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201123165944/http://www.dlib.si/details/URN:NBN:SI:DOC-IG209UX5/?&language=eng , url-status=live

Topography

Ljubljana has an elevation of {{cvt, 295, m, sp=us.{{cite web , year=2002 , title=Nadmorska višina naselij, kjer so sedeži občin , trans-title=Height above sea level of seats of municipalities , url=http://www.stat.si/letopis/2002/01_02/01-06-02.asp?jezik=en , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130524220943/http://www.stat.si/letopis/2002/01_02/01-06-02.asp?jezik=en , archive-date=24 May 2013 , publisher=Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia , language=sl, en , df=dmy-all The

city centre A city centre, also known as an urban core, is the Commerce, commercial, Culture, cultural and often the historical, Politics, political, and geographic heart of a city. The term "city centre" is primarily used in British English, and closely e ...

, located along the river, sits at {{cvt, 298, m, sp=us.{{cite web , date=June 2006 , title=Ljubljana, glavno mesto , trans-title=Ljubljana, the Capital , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/file/32397/ljubljana-2006.pdf , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130319063707/http://www.ljubljana.si/file/32397/ljubljana-2006.pdf , archive-date=19 March 2013 , access-date=7 February 2011 , publisher=Statistics and Analysis Service, Information Center, City Administration, City Municipality of Ljubljana , df=dmy-all

, which sits atop Castle Hill ({{lang, sl, Grajski grič) south of the city centre, has an elevation of {{cvt, 366, m, ft, sp=us. The highest point of the city, called Grmada, reaches {{cvt, 676, m, ft, sp=us, {{cvt, 3, m, ft, sp=us more than the nearby

Mount Saint Mary Mount Saint Mary (, ''Leksikon občin kraljestev in dežel zastopanih v državnem zboru,'' vol. 6: ''Kranjsko''. 1906. Vienna: C. Kr. Dvorna in Državna Tiskarna, p. 115. or ''Kallenberg''), originally known as Holm, is an inselberg in the north o ...

({{lang, sl, Šmarna gora) peak, a popular hiking destination.{{cite web , title=Settlements: Ljubljana , url=http://geopedia.si/#T105_L410_F10110084_x459056_y109604_s15_b4 , access-date=30 January 2012 , publisher=Geopedia.si , archive-date=6 February 2021 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210206010934/http://geopedia.si/#T105_L410_F10110084_x459056_y109604_s15_b4 , url-status=live These are located in the northern part of the city.{{wide image, Ljubljana Ljubljanski Grad-Ljubljana Castle - jug south.jpg, 900px, View to the south from

with the

in the back. The building density there is substantially lower due to unsuitable ground for construction.{{wide image, Ljubljana Ljubljanski Grad-Ljubljana Castle -Sever North.jpg, 900px, View to the north from

with the

Karawanks The Karawanks or Karavankas or Karavanks (; , ) are a mountain range of the Southern Limestone Alps on the border between Slovenia to the south and Austria to the north. With a total length of in an east–west direction, the Karawanks chain is o ...

(left), Mount Saint Mary (center), and

Kamnik–Savinja Alps The Kamnik–Savinja Alps () are a mountain range of the Southern Limestone Alps. They lie in northern Slovenia, except for the northernmost part, which lies in Austria. The western part of the range was named the Kamnik Alps () in 1778 by the sc ...

(right) in the background

Bodies of water

The main watercourses in Ljubljana are the

, the

Gradaščica The Gradaščica is a river in Slovenia. The river is long. It begins in Polhov Gradec at the confluence of Little Creek () and Big Božna Creek. Near Vrhovci it is joined by Horjulščica Creek (also known as Horjulka Creek). Not far past Boka ...

, the

Mali Graben Mali Graben () is a creek and a natural branch of the Gradaščica River in southwest Ljubljana. It flows south of and parallel to the Gradaščica and is the largest affluent of the Ljubljanica River. It is also known as ''Stržen'' (literally, ...

, the

Iška The Iška () is a river of central Slovenia. Part of the river valley—the Iška Gorge or Iška Canyon ()—separates Lower Carniola from Inner Carniola. The river is long. After flowing past Strahomer, the river follows an almost straight line ...

and the Iščica rivers. From the

Trnovo District The Trnovo District (), or simply Trnovo, is a district (Slovenia), district () of the City Municipality of Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. References External links *Trnovo District on Geopedia
Trnovo District, Districts of Ljub ...

to the Moste District, around Castle Hill, the Ljubljanica partly flows through the Gruber Canal, built according to plans by Gabriel Gruber from 1772 until 1780. Next to the eastern border, the rivers Ljubljanica, Sava, and

Kamnik Bistrica The Kamnik Bistrica (, ) is an Alpine river in northern Slovenia, a left tributary of the Sava River. It springs from the Kamnik Alps (part of the Southern Limestone Alps) near the border with Austria. It is long. The Kamnik Bistrica flows th ...

flow together. The confluence is the lowest point of Ljubljana, with an elevation of {{cvt, 261, m, sp=us. Through its history, Ljubljana has been struck by floods.

The latest ''The Latest'' is the sixteenth studio album by the American hard rock and power pop band Cheap Trick, released on June 23, 2009. The album was produced by Cheap Trick, Julian Raymond, and Howard Willing and was issued on CD, as well as limite ...

was in August 2023, when the

and Gradaščica rivers flooded in their upper reaches. Southern and western parts of the city are more flood-endangered than northern parts.{{Cite news , author=Dobravc, Mina , year=2007 , title=Ocena ogroženosti mestne občine Ljubljana zaradi poplav , language=sl , trans-title=Flood hazard assessment of the City Municipality of Ljubljana , page=7 , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/file/405358/ogrozenost_mol_poplave_dobravc_2007.pdf , access-date=20 September 2010 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110823135534/http://www.ljubljana.si/file/405358/ogrozenost_mol_poplave_dobravc_2007.pdf , archive-date=23 August 2011 The Gruber Canal has partly diminished the danger of floods in the

, the largest marsh in Slovenia, south of the city. The two major ponds in Ljubljana are

Koseze Pond Koseze Pond (), Martinek Pond (), Lake Koseze () or simply the Pond () is an artificial pond at the edge of Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia, between Šiška Hill to the west and the neighborhood of Mostec to the east. It is part of the Tivol ...

in the Šiška District and

Tivoli Pond Tivoli Pond (, less often or simply or ''Ribnjak'' ('pond')) is a man-made pond at the southeastern end of Tivoli City Park in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. It was created in 1880. It is part of Tivoli–Rožnik Hill–Šiška Hill Landsc ...

in the southern part of

Tivoli City Park Tivoli City Park () or simply Tivoli Park () is the largest park in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. It is located on the western outskirts of the Center District, stretching to the Šiška District to the north, the Vič District to the sout ...

. Koseze Pond has rare plant and animal species and is a place of meeting and recreation. Tivoli Pond is a shallow pond with a small volume that was originally used for boating and ice skating, but is now used for fishing.{{cite book , last=Krelj , first=Živa , url=http://www.digitalna-knjiznica.bf.uni-lj.si/dn_krelj_ziva.pdf , title=Ekološki status ribnika Tivoli , publisher=Department of Biology, Faculty of Natural Sciences and Engineering, University of Ljubljana , year=2007 , language=sl, en , trans-title=The Ecological Status of Tivoli Pond , access-date=9 February 2012 , archive-date=6 October 2020 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201006032314/http://www.digitalna-knjiznica.bf.uni-lj.si/dn_krelj_ziva.pdf , url-status=live

Climate

Ljubljana's climate is

oceanic Oceanic may refer to: *Of or relating to the ocean *Of or relating to Oceania **Oceanic climate **Oceanic languages **Oceanic person or people, also called "Pacific Islander(s)" Places * Oceanic, British Columbia, a settlement on Smith Island, ...

(

Köppen climate classification The Köppen climate classification divides Earth climates into five main climate groups, with each group being divided based on patterns of seasonal precipitation and temperature. The five main groups are ''A'' (tropical), ''B'' (arid), ''C'' (te ...

: Cfb), bordering on a

humid subtropical climate A humid subtropical climate is a subtropical -temperate climate type, characterized by long and hot summers, and cool to mild winters. These climates normally lie on the southeast side of all continents (except Antarctica), generally between ...

(

: Cfa), with

continental Continental may refer to: Places * Continental, Arizona, a small community in Pima County, Arizona, US * Continental, Ohio, a small town in Putnam County, US Arts and entertainment * ''Continental'' (album), an album by Saint Etienne * Continen ...

characteristics such as warm summers and moderately cold winters. July and August are the warmest months with daily high temperatures generally between {{cvt, 25, and, 30, C, F, and January is the coldest month with temperatures mostly around {{cvt, 0, °C, °F. The city experiences up to 90 days of frost per year, and 11 days with temperatures above {{cvt, 30, °C, °F (often even more). Precipitation is relatively evenly distributed throughout the seasons, although winter and spring tend to be somewhat drier than summer and autumn. Yearly precipitation is about {{cvt, 1400, mm, in, sp=us, making Ljubljana one of the wettest European capitals. Thunderstorms are common from May to September and can occasionally be heavy. Snow is common from December to February; on average, snow cover is recorded for 48 days a year. The city is known for its fog, appearing on average on 64 days per year, mostly in autumn and winter, and can be particularly persistent in conditions of

temperature inversion In meteorology, an inversion (or temperature inversion) is a phenomenon in which a layer of warmer air overlies cooler air. Normally, air temperature gradually decreases as altitude increases, but this relationship is reversed in an inver ...

.{{cite web , title=ARSO , url=http://www.arso.gov.si/vreme/napovedi%20in%20podatki/ljubljana.html , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130722165257/http://www.arso.gov.si/vreme/napovedi%20in%20podatki/ljubljana.html , archive-date=22 July 2013 , access-date=10 September 2009 , df=dmy-all{{Weather box , location = Ljubljana ( Bežigrad District) 1991–2020 normals, extremes 1948–present , metric first = Yes , single line = Yes , Jan record high C = 16.4 , Feb record high C = 22.3 , Mar record high C = 25.1 , Apr record high C = 29.3 , May record high C = 33.0 , Jun record high C = 36.8 , Jul record high C = 38.0 , Aug record high C = 40.2 , Sep record high C = 33.1 , Oct record high C = 27.0 , Nov record high C = 22.1 , Dec record high C = 17.4 , year record high C = 40.2 , Jan high C = 4.1 , Feb high C = 7.0 , Mar high C = 12.3 , Apr high C = 17.2 , May high C = 21.8 , Jun high C = 25.8 , Jul high C = 27.9 , Aug high C = 27.6 , Sep high C = 21.8 , Oct high C = 16.1 , Nov high C = 9.6 , Dec high C = 4.2 , year high C = 16.3 , Jan mean C = 1.0 , Feb mean C = 2.6 , Mar mean C = 7.1 , Apr mean C = 11.6 , May mean C = 16.1 , Jun mean C = 20.0 , Jul mean C = 21.8 , Aug mean C = 21.3 , Sep mean C = 16.1 , Oct mean C = 11.4 , Nov mean C = 6.4 , Dec mean C = 1.5 , year mean C = 11.4 , Jan low C = -1.7 , Feb low C = -1.2 , Mar low C = 2.4 , Apr low C = 6.3 , May low C = 10.6 , Jun low C = 14.4 , Jul low C = 16.0 , Aug low C = 15.9 , Sep low C = 11.7 , Oct low C = 7.9 , Nov low C = 3.9 , Dec low C = -0.9 , year low C = 7.1 , Jan record low C = -20.3 , Feb record low C = -22.5 , Mar record low C = -18.0 , Apr record low C = -3.3 , May record low C = -1.0 , Jun record low C = 2.9 , Jul record low C = 6.0 , Aug record low C = 4.8 , Sep record low C = -0.3 , Oct record low C = -5.2 , Nov record low C = -14.5 , Dec record low C = -16.0 , year record low C = -22.5 , precipitation colour = green , Jan precipitation mm = 67 , Feb precipitation mm = 84 , Mar precipitation mm = 83 , Apr precipitation mm = 97 , May precipitation mm = 114 , Jun precipitation mm = 125 , Jul precipitation mm = 122 , Aug precipitation mm = 124 , Sep precipitation mm = 160 , Oct precipitation mm = 150 , Nov precipitation mm = 138 , Dec precipitation mm = 104 , year precipitation mm = 1368 , Jan snow depth cm = 7 , Feb snow depth cm = 8 , Mar snow depth cm = 2 , Apr snow depth cm = 0 , May snow depth cm = 0 , Jun snow depth cm = 0 , Jul snow depth cm = 0 , Aug snow depth cm = 0 , Sep snow depth cm = 0 , Oct snow depth cm = 0 , Nov snow depth cm = 1 , Dec snow depth cm = 3 , year snow depth cm = 1.8 , unit precipitation days = 0.1 mm , Jan precipitation days = 11 , Feb precipitation days = 10 , Mar precipitation days = 11 , Apr precipitation days = 14 , May precipitation days = 14 , Jun precipitation days = 14 , Jul precipitation days = 13 , Aug precipitation days = 12 , Sep precipitation days = 13 , Oct precipitation days = 13 , Nov precipitation days = 16 , Dec precipitation days = 14 , year precipitation days = 153 , unit snow days = 0 cm , Jan snow days = 15 , Feb snow days = 14 , Mar snow days = 6 , Apr snow days = 1 , May snow days = 0 , Jun snow days = 0 , Jul snow days = 0 , Aug snow days = 0 , Sep snow days = 0 , Oct snow days = 0 , Nov snow days = 3 , Dec snow days = 11 , year snow days = 50 , time day = 14:00 , Jan humidity = 74 , Feb humidity = 62 , Mar humidity = 55 , Apr humidity = 51 , May humidity = 50 , Jun humidity = 52 , Jul humidity = 48 , Aug humidity = 50 , Sep humidity = 57 , Oct humidity = 65 , Nov humidity = 73 , Dec humidity = 79 , year humidity = 60 , Jan sun = 72.6 , Feb sun = 102.5 , Mar sun = 155.6 , Apr sun = 188.7 , May sun = 232.3 , Jun sun = 253.2 , Jul sun = 288.4 , Aug sun = 264.6 , Sep sun = 175.6 , Oct sun = 115.3 , Nov sun = 56.3 , Dec sun = 55.1 , year sun = 1960.2 , source 1 =

Slovenian Environment Agency The Slovenian Environment Agency ( Slovenian: ''Agencija Republike Slovenije za okolje'' or ''ARSO'') is the main organisation for environment of the Republic of Slovenia. It was established in 2001 with a reorganisation of the '' Hydrometeorologic ...

(humidity and snow 1981–2010),{{Cite web , archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230825164954/https://meteo.arso.gov.si/met/sl/climate/tables/statistike_1950_2020/ljubljana_bezigrad/ , archive-date = 25 August 2023 , url = https://meteo.arso.gov.si/met/sl/climate/tables/statistike_1950_2020/ljubljana_bezigrad/ , title = Ljubljana Bežigrad Podnebne statistike 1950-2020 , publisher = Slovenian Environmental Agency , language = sl , access-date = 25 August 2023 , url-status = live

NOAA The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA ) is an American scientific and regulatory agency charged with forecasting weather, monitoring oceanic and atmospheric conditions, charting the seas, conducting deep-sea exploratio ...

(sun 1991–2020){{cite web , archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230825165454/https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/1.1/data/0-data/Region-6-WMO-Normals-9120/Slovenia/CSV/LjubljanaBezigrad_14015.csv , archive-date = 25 August 2023 , url = https://www.nodc.noaa.gov/archive/arc0216/0253808/1.1/data/0-data/Region-6-WMO-Normals-9120/Slovenia/CSV/LjubljanaBezigrad_14015.csv , title = Ljubljana Bežigrad Climate Normals 1991–2020 , work = World Meteorological Organization Climatological Standard Normals (1991–2020) , publisher = National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration , access-date = 25 August 2023 , url-status = live , source 2 = OGIMET (some extreme values for 1948–present) {{Weather box , location =

Ljubljana Airport Ljubljana Jože Pučnik Airport () , also known by its previous name ''Brnik Airport'' (), is the international airport serving Ljubljana and the largest airport in Slovenia. It is located near Zgornji Brnik, Brnik, northwest of Ljubljana and ...

, elevation 362 m (1188ft) (1991–2020 normals, extremes 1951-2020, snowy days 1981-2010) , metric first = Yes , single line = Yes , collapsed = Yes , Jan record high C = 19.1 , Feb record high C = 21.8 , Mar record high C = 24.2 , Apr record high C = 28.0 , May record high C = 32.6 , Jun record high C = 34.3 , Jul record high C = 36.1 , Aug record high C = 38.1 , Sep record high C = 31.1 , Oct record high C = 26.7 , Nov record high C = 21.9 , Dec record high C = 15.7 , year record high C = 38.1 , Jan high C = 3.5 , Feb high C = 6.3 , Mar high C = 11.4 , Apr high C = 16.3 , May high C = 20.9 , Jun high C = 24.7 , Jul high C = 26.7 , Aug high C = 26.5 , Sep high C = 20.9 , Oct high C = 15.5 , Nov high C = 8.9 , Dec high C = 3.5 , year high C = 15.4 , Jan mean C = -1.1 , Feb mean C = 0.3 , Mar mean C = 4.6 , Apr mean C = 9.5 , May mean C = 14.3 , Jun mean C = 18.3 , Jul mean C = 19.7 , Aug mean C = 19.2 , Sep mean C = 14.1 , Oct mean C = 9.5 , Nov mean C = 4.6 , Dec mean C = -0.5 , year mean C = 9.4 , Jan low C = -5.0 , Feb low C = -4.6 , Mar low C = -1.2 , Apr low C = 3.1 , May low C = 7.6 , Jun low C = 11.7 , Jul low C = 13.1 , Aug low C = 13.1 , Sep low C = 9.0 , Oct low C = 5.2 , Nov low C = 1.3 , Dec low C = -3.7 , year low C = 4.1 , Jan record low C = -27.3 , Feb record low C = -29.1 , Mar record low C = -24.7 , Apr record low C = -9.7 , May record low C = -5.3 , Jun record low C = -0.7 , Jul record low C = 2.2 , Aug record low C = 1.2 , Sep record low C = -3.0 , Oct record low C = -9.4 , Nov record low C = -16.7 , Dec record low C = -22.1 , year record low C = -29.1 , precipitation colour = green , Jan precipitation mm = 62 , Feb precipitation mm = 77 , Mar precipitation mm = 83 , Apr precipitation mm = 90 , May precipitation mm = 107 , Jun precipitation mm = 129 , Jul precipitation mm = 122 , Aug precipitation mm = 129 , Sep precipitation mm = 152 , Oct precipitation mm = 137 , Nov precipitation mm = 144 , Dec precipitation mm = 109 , year precipitation mm = 1339 , Jan snow depth cm = 9 , Feb snow depth cm = 10 , Mar snow depth cm = 4 , Apr snow depth cm = 0 , May snow depth cm = 0 , Jun snow depth cm = 0 , Jul snow depth cm = 0 , Aug snow depth cm = 0 , Sep snow depth cm = 0 , Oct snow depth cm = 0 , Nov snow depth cm = 1 , Dec snow depth cm = 4 , year snow depth cm = 2.3 , unit precipitation days = 0.1 mm , Jan precipitation days = 10 , Feb precipitation days = 9 , Mar precipitation days = 10 , Apr precipitation days = 13 , May precipitation days = 14 , Jun precipitation days = 14 , Jul precipitation days = 12 , Aug precipitation days = 12 , Sep precipitation days = 12 , Oct precipitation days = 12 , Nov precipitation days = 14 , Dec precipitation days = 12 , year precipitation days = 144 , unit snow days = 0 cm , Jan snow days = 16 , Feb snow days = 14 , Mar snow days = 8 , Apr snow days = 1 , May snow days = 0 , Jun snow days = 0 , Jul snow days = 0 , Aug snow days = 0 , Sep snow days = 0 , Oct snow days = 0 , Nov snow days = 3 , Dec snow days = 12 , year snow days = 54 , time day = 14:00 , Jan humidity = 76 , Feb humidity = 64 , Mar humidity = 57 , Apr humidity = 54 , May humidity = 52 , Jun humidity = 54 , Jul humidity = 52 , Aug humidity = 53 , Sep humidity = 60 , Oct humidity = 67 , Nov humidity = 76 , Dec humidity = 81 , year humidity = 62 , Jan sun = 78 , Feb sun = 116 , Mar sun = 139 , Apr sun = 163 , May sun = 215 , Jun sun = 225 , Jul sun = 265 , Aug sun = 249 , Sep sun = 175 , Oct sun = 122 , Nov sun = 69 , Dec sun = 59 , year sun = 1874 , source = Slovenian Environment Agency {{cite web , url=https://meteo.arso.gov.si/met/sl/climate/tables/statistike_1950_2020/letalisce_ljubljana/ , title=METEO.SI , publisher=meteo.si , access-date=12 May 2024 , archive-date=12 May 2024 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240512124702/https://meteo.arso.gov.si/met/sl/climate/tables/statistike_1950_2020/letalisce_ljubljana/ , url-status=live

Cityscape

{{wide image, View on Ljubljana from Nebotičnik Tower (38458386985).jpg, 900px, View of Ljubljana from Nebotičnik; Ljubljana Castle is on the left.The city's architecture is a mix of styles. Large buildings have appeared around the city's edges, while Ljubljana's historic centre remains intact. Some of the oldest architecture dates to the Roman period, while Ljubljana's downtown got its outline in the Middle Ages. After the 1511 earthquake, it was rebuilt in the

Baroque style The Baroque ( , , ) is a Western style of architecture, music, dance, painting, sculpture, poetry, and other arts that flourished from the early 17th century until the 1750s. It followed Renaissance art and Mannerism and preceded the Rococo (i ...

following Italian, particularly Venetian, models. After the earthquake in 1895, it was again rebuilt, this time in the

style, which is juxtaposed against the earlier Baroque style buildings that remain. Large sectors built in the inter-war period often include a personal touch by the architects

Jože Plečnik Jože Plečnik () (23 January 1872 – 7 January 1957) was a Slovenian architect who had a major impact on the modern architecture of Vienna, Prague and of Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia, most notably by designing the iconic Triple Bridge a ...

{{cite web , date=31 May 2006 , title=Kamniti dokumenti ljubljanske zgodovine , trans-title=Stone Documents of the History of Ljubljana , url=http://www.rtvslo.si/tureavanture/podobe-slovenije/kamniti-dokumenti-ljubljanske-zgodovine/199703 , work=MMC RTV Slovenija , publisher=RTV Slovenija , language=sl , access-date=15 May 2012 , archive-date=1 June 2015 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150601051458/http://www.rtvslo.si/tureavanture/podobe-slovenije/kamniti-dokumenti-ljubljanske-zgodovine/199703 , url-status=live and

Ivan Vurnik Ivan Vurnik (1 June 1884 – 8 April 1971) was a Slovene architect that helped found the Ljubljana School of Architecture. His early style in the 1920s is associated with the search for Slovene "National Style", inspired by Slovene folk art an ...

. In the second half of the 20th century, parts of Ljubljana were redesigned by

Edvard Ravnikar Edvard Ravnikar (4 December 1907 – 23 August 1993) was a Slovenian architect. Ravnikar was born in Novo Mesto and was a student of architect Jože Plečnik. Later, he led the new generation of Slovene architects, notable for developing ...

Central

The central square in Ljubljana is

Prešeren Square Prešeren Square () is the central square in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. It is part of the old town's pedestrian zone and a major meeting point where festivals (like the annual Ljubljana Dragon Carnival), concerts, sports, political events ...

({{lang, sl, Prešernov trg) home to the Franciscan Church of the Annunciation ({{lang, sl, Frančiškanska cerkev). Built between 1646 and 1660 (the bell towers followed), it replaced an older Gothic church. It offers an early-Baroque basilica with one nave and two rows of lateral chapels. The Baroque main altar was executed by sculptor Italian Francesco Robba. Much of the original frescos were ruined by ceiling cracks caused by the Ljubljana earthquake in 1895. The new frescos were painted by the Slovene

impressionist Impressionism was a 19th-century art movement characterized by visible brush strokes, open Composition (visual arts), composition, emphasis on accurate depiction of light in its changing qualities (often accentuating the effects of the passage ...

painter Matej Sternen.

(''Ljubljanski grad'') is a medieval castle with Romanesque, Gothic, and

architectural elements, located on the summit of Castle Hill, which dominates the city centre. The area surrounding the castle has been continuously inhabited since 1200 BC.{{cite web , title=Ljubljanski grad / Ljubljana Castle , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/en/sights/castle/default.html , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080502132830/http://www.ljubljana.si/en/sights/castle/default.html , archive-date=2 May 2008 , access-date=30 July 2008 The castle was built in the 12th century and was a residence of the

Margrave Margrave was originally the Middle Ages, medieval title for the military commander assigned to maintain the defence of one of the border provinces of the Holy Roman Empire or a monarchy, kingdom. That position became hereditary in certain Feudal ...

s, later the

Dukes of Carniola Duke is a male title either of a monarch ruling over a duchy, or of a member of royalty, or nobility. As rulers, dukes are ranked below emperors, kings, grand princes, grand dukes, and above sovereign princes. As royalty or nobility, they a ...

. Its Viewing Tower dates to 1848; it was manned by a guard whose duty it was to fire cannons announcing fire or important visitors or events, a function the castle still holds. Cultural events and weddings also take place there.{{cite web , title=Festival Ljubljana , url=http://www.ljubljanafestival.si/en/ljubljana_castle/history/ , access-date=30 July 2008 , archive-date=5 November 2013 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105190436/http://www.ljubljanafestival.si/en/ljubljana_castle/history/ , url-status=live In 2006, a

funicular A funicular ( ) is a type of cable railway system that connects points along a railway track laid on a steep grade (slope), slope. The system is characterized by two counterbalanced carriages (also called cars or trains) permanently attached to ...

linked the city centre to the castle. StNicholas-Ljubljana

({{lang, sl, Mestna hiša, {{lang, sl, Magistrat), located at

Town Square A town square (or public square, urban square, city square or simply square), also called a plaza or piazza, is an open public space commonly found in the heart of a traditional town or city, and which is used for community gatherings. Relat ...

, is the seat of

city government A city is a human settlement of a substantial size. The term "city" has different meanings around the world and in some places the settlement can be very small. Even where the term is limited to larger settlements, there is no universally agree ...

. The original, Gothic building was completed in 1484. Between 1717 and 1719, the building underwent a Baroque renovation with a Venetian inspiration by architect Gregor Maček Sr. Near Town Hall, at

, stands a replica of the Baroque Robba Fountain. The original was moved into the

National Gallery The National Gallery is an art museum in Trafalgar Square in the City of Westminster, in Central London, England. Founded in 1824, it houses a collection of more than 2,300 paintings dating from the mid-13th century to 1900. The current di ...

in 2006. The fountain is decorated with an obelisk; at the foot are three figures in white marble symbolising the three chief rivers of Carniola. It is work of Francesco Robba, who designed other Baroque statues there.{{cite web , title=Baroque Ljubljana , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/en/sights/baroque_ljubljana/default.html , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080627191346/http://www.ljubljana.si/en/sights/baroque_ljubljana/default.html , archive-date=27 June 2008 , access-date=30 July 2008

({{lang, sl, ljubljanska stolnica), or St. Nicholas's Cathedral ({{lang, sl, stolnica sv. Nikolaja), serves the

Archdiocese of Ljubljana The Metropolitan Archdiocese of Ljubljana (, ) is a Latin ecclesiastical territory or diocese of the Catholic Church in Slovenia.Saints Cyril and Methodius Cyril (; born Constantine, 826–869) and Methodius (; born Michael, 815–885) were brothers, Byzantine Christian theologians and missionaries. For their work evangelizing the Slavs, they are known as the "Apostles to the Slavs". They are ...

).{{cite web , title=Stolnica (Cerkev sv. Nikolaja) / The Cathedral (Church of St. Nicholas) , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/en/sights/baroque_ljubljana/cathedral/default.html , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080412030506/http://www.ljubljana.si/en/sights/baroque_ljubljana/cathedral/default.html , archive-date=12 April 2008 , access-date=30 July 2008 The Diocese was set up in 1461. Between 1701 and 1706, Jesuit architect

Andrea Pozzo Andrea Pozzo (; Latinized version: ''Andreas Puteus''; 30 November 1642 – 31 August 1709) was an Italian Jesuit brother, Baroque painter, architect, decorator, stage designer, and art theoretician. Pozzo was best known for his grandiose fresc ...

designed the Baroque church with two side chapels shaped in the form of a Latin cross. The dome was built in the centre in 1841. The interior is decorated with Baroque frescos painted by Giulio Quaglio between 1703–1706 and 1721–1723.

Nebotičnik (; ) is a prominent high-rise located in the centre of Ljubljana, Slovenia, and is one of the city's most recognisable landmarks.Neoclassical and Art-Deco architecture. Predominantly a place of business, Nebotičnik is home to shops on the ground floor and first story, and offices are located on floors two to five. The sixth to ninth floors are private residences. The top three floors host a café, bar and observation deck.
Ljubljana.si – Skyscraper
'. Retrieved 3 December 2007. {{webarchive , url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080606070329/http://www.ljubljana.si/en/sights/20th_century_ljubljana/skyscraper , date=6 June 2008 It was designed by Slovenian architect

Vladimir Šubic Vladimir Šubic (23 May 1894 – 16 September 1946)Bernik, Stane. 1999. "Vladimir Šubic." ''Enciklopedija Slovenije'', vol. 13. Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga, p. 163. was a Slovene architect. He designed several moderate functionalist buildings ...

. The building opened on 21 February 1933.
Government Communication Office – Ljubljana's Neboticnik Is 70 Years Old
'. Retrieved 3 December 2007. {{webarchive , url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080305171128/http://www.ukom.gov.si/eng/slovenia/background-information/neboticnik , date=5 March 2008 It was once the tallest residential building in Europe. File:Ljubljana Prešeren Square.jpg, Prešeren Square in downtown Ljubljana File:Río Ljubljanica, Liubliana, Eslovenia, 2017-04-14, DD 06.jpg, Ljubljanica River, downtown Ljubljana File:Ljubljana BW 2014-10-09 11-34-41.jpg,

File:Ljubljana (262) (3897601036).jpg, {{nowrap, Robba Fountain at

File:Ljubljana (36048969485).jpg, University of Ljubljana File:Ljubljana, Slovenia (52195357165).jpg, {{nowrap, Urbanc House at

File:Ljubljana Central Pharmacy.jpg, {{nowrap, Pharmacy at

File:Ljubljana BW 2014-10-09 13-57-30.jpg, Slovenian Philharmonic Building File:Ljubljana - Grand Hotel Union.jpg, Grand Hotel Union File:LJ post office.JPG, Post Office File:National Gallery of Slovenia building.jpg, National Gallery File:Presidential Palace. Ljubljana.jpg, Presidential Palace File:Palača Kazina.jpg, Kazina Palace File:Ljubljana Tivoli Castle (54094482111).jpg, Tivoli Castle File:Cerkev-MarijinoObiskanje-Ljubljana-Roznik.JPG, Visitation of Mary Church File:Neboticnik Tower 1.jpg,

Nebotičnik (; ) is a prominent high-rise located in the centre of Ljubljana, Slovenia, and is one of the city's most recognisable landmarks.Tivoli City Park Tivoli City Park () or simply Tivoli Park () is the largest park in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. It is located on the western outskirts of the Center District, stretching to the Šiška District to the north, the Vič District to the sout ...

({{lang, sl, Mestni park Tivoli) is the largest park.{{cite web , last=Slovenia.Info , year=2011 , title=Ljubljana, Park Tivoli, Rožnik and Šišenski hill – Cultural and Historical Heritage – Slovenia – Official Travel Guide – , url=http://www.slovenia.info/?kul_zgod_znamenitosti=6296&lng=2 , access-date=5 July 2011 , work=slovenia.info , archive-date=24 September 2015 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924102934/http://www.slovenia.info/?kul_zgod_znamenitosti=6296&lng=2 , url-status=live {{cite web , last=LjubljanaLife.com , year=2011 , title=Tivoli Park Ljubljana | Slovenia – Ljubljana Life , url=http://www.ljubljana-life.com/culture/culture_details/49-Tivoli_Park , access-date=5 July 2011 , work=ljubljana-life.com , archive-date=7 September 2012 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120907082839/http://www.ljubljana-life.com/culture/culture_details/49-Tivoli_Park , url-status=live It was designed in 1813 by French engineer Jean Blanchard and now covers approximately {{cvt, 5, km2, sp=us. The park was laid out during the French imperial administration of Ljubljana in 1813 and named after the

Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...

ian Jardins de Tivoli. Between 1921 and 1939, it was renovated by Slovene architect

, who unveiled his statue of Napoleon in 1929 in Republic Square and designed a broad central promenade, called the Jakopič Promenade ({{lang, sl, Jakopičevo sprehajališče) after the leading Slovene

painter

Rihard Jakopič Rihard Jakopič (12 April 1869 – 21 April 1943) was a Slovenes, Slovene painter. He was the leading Slovenes, Slovene Impressionist painter, patron of arts and theoretician. Together with Matej Sternen, Matija Jama and Ivan Grohar, he is conside ...

. Within the park, there are trees, flower gardens, several statues, and fountains. Several notable buildings stand in the park, among them Tivoli Castle, the National Museum of Contemporary History and the Tivoli Sports Hall. Tivoli–Rožnik Hill–Šiška Hill Landscape Park is located in the western part of the city.{{cite book , last=Lešnik , first=Aleksandra , url=http://www.ckff.si/dokumenti/inventarizacija_dvozivk_tivoli.pdf , title=Poročilo: Inventarizacija dvoživk (Amphibia) v Krajinskem parku Tivoli, Rožnik in Šišenski hrib , date=23 September 2003 , publisher=Center for Cartography of Fauna and Flora , pages=8–9 , language=sl , trans-title=A Report: The Inventarisation of Amphibians (Amphibia) in Tivoli–Rožnik–Šiška Hill Landscape Park , access-date=9 February 2012 , archive-date=25 August 2012 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120825080435/http://www.ckff.si/dokumenti/inventarizacija_dvozivk_tivoli.pdf , url-status=live The Ljubljana Botanical Garden ({{lang, sl, Ljubljanski botanični vrt) covers {{cvt, 2.40, ha next to the junction of the Gruber Canal and the Ljubljanica, south of the Old Town. It is the central Slovenian

botanical garden A botanical garden or botanic gardenThe terms ''botanic'' and ''botanical'' and ''garden'' or ''gardens'' are used more-or-less interchangeably, although the word ''botanic'' is generally reserved for the earlier, more traditional gardens. is ...

and the oldest cultural, scientific, and educational organisation in the country. It started operating under the leadership of Franc Hladnik in 1810. Of over 4,500 plant

species A species () is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. It is the basic unit of Taxonomy (biology), ...

and

subspecies In Taxonomy (biology), biological classification, subspecies (: subspecies) is a rank below species, used for populations that live in different areas and vary in size, shape, or other physical characteristics (Morphology (biology), morpholog ...

, roughly a third is

endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found only in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also foun ...

to Slovenia, whereas the rest originate from other European places and other continents. The institution is a member of the international network

Botanic Gardens Conservation International Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) is a plant conservation biology, conservation Charitable organization, charity based in Kew, Surrey, England. It is a membership organisation, working with 800 botanic gardens in 118 countries, wh ...

and cooperates with more than 270 botanical gardens all across the world. In 2014, Ljubljana won the European Green Capital Award for 2016 for their environmental achievements.

Bridges, streets and squares

Ljubljana's best-known bridges, listed from northern to southern ones, include the Dragon Bridge ({{lang, sl, Zmajski most), the

({{lang, sl, Mesarski most), the

({{lang, sl, Tromostovje), the Fish Footbridge ({{langx, sl, Ribja brv), the Cobblers' Bridge ({{langx, sl, Šuštarski most), the

Hradecky Bridge The Hradecky Bridge () is a footbridge spanning the Ljubljanica River in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. It connects Hrenova Street in the Trnovo District with the Prule neighbourhood of the Center District. One of the first hinged arch ...

({{langx, sl, Hradeckega most), and the

Trnovo Bridge The Trnovo Bridge () is a bridge crossing the Gradaščica River in Ljubljana, the capital of Slovenia. It is located in front of Trnovo Church at the end of Karun Street () to the south of the city centre and is a continuation of Emona Street ...

({{lang, sl, Trnovski most). The last mentioned crosses the

, whereas all other bridges cross the Ljubljanica River.

The Dragon Bridge

The 1901 Dragon Bridge, decorated with dragon statues on pedestals at four corners of the bridgeDragon Bridge
{{webarchive , url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111003134331/https://www.eccenet.org/News/2001/2001Supp2.htm , date=3 October 2011 ''Eccenet.org''{{cite book , url=https://archive.org/details/sloveniabradttra0000mcke/page/75 , title=Slovenia: The Bradt Travel Guide , publisher=Bradt Travel Guides , year=2008 , isbn=978-1-84162-119-7 , pag
75
, chapter=What To See , chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h_d3xtr7rDEC&pg=PA75 , author=McKelvie, Robin , author2=McKelvie, Jenny has become a symbol of the city{{Cite web , title= Ljubljana - Dragon bridge - Zmajski most / Dragon Bridge, url=https://www.ljubljana.si/en/page-not-found/ , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081211082312/http://www.ljubljana.si/en/sights/ljubljanica_bridges/dragon_bridge/default.html , archive-date=11 December 2008 , website=www.ljubljana.si and is regarded as one of the most beautiful examples of a bridge made in

style.{{cite book , last=Fallon , first=Steve , title=Slovenia , publisher=Lonely Planet , year=2004 , isbn=978-1-74104-161-3 , page=65Ljubljana – A lively city, safe under the wings of a dragon
{{webarchive , url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410061126/http://europe.iabc.com/eli2007/eli2007_welcome.pdf , date=10 April 2008 ''International Associations of Business Communicators (IABC)'' It has a span of {{cvt, 33.34, m, ftin, sp=us and its arch was at the time the third largest in Europe. It is protected as a technical monument.{{cite conference , last=Humar , first=Gorazd , date=September 2001 , title=World Famous Arch Bridges in Slovenia: The Dragon Bridge in Ljubljana (1901) , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E7ywmb24EQMC&pg=PA124 , location=Paris , publisher=Presses des Ponts , pages=124–125 , isbn=2-85978-347-4 , book-title=Arch'01: troisième Conférence internationale sur les ponts en arc Paris , editor=Charles Abdunur , access-date=29 October 2015 , archive-date=29 April 2021 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429111320/https://books.google.com/books?id=E7ywmb24EQMC&pg=PA124 , url-status=live

The Butchers' Bridge

Decorated with mythological bronze sculptures, created by Jakov Brdar, from Ancient Greek mythology and Biblical stories, the Butchers' Bridge connects the Ljubljana Open Market area and the restaurants-filled Petkovšek Embankment ({{lang, sl, Petkovškovo nabrežje). It is also known as the love padlocks-decorated bridge in Ljubljana.

The Triple Bridge

The

is decorated with stone

baluster A baluster () is an upright support, often a vertical moulded shaft, square, or lathe-turned form found in stairways, parapets, and other architectural features. In furniture construction it is known as a spindle. Common materials used in its ...

s and stone lamps on all of the three bridges and leads to the terraces looking on the river and poplar trees. It occupies a central point on the east–west axis, connecting the

with Rožnik Hill, on one side, and the

on the other, and the north–south axis through the city, represented by the river. It was enlarged in order to prevent the historically single bridge from being a

bottleneck Bottleneck may refer to: * the narrowed portion (neck) of a bottle Science and technology * Bottleneck (engineering), where the performance of an entire system is limited by a single component * Bottleneck (network), in a communication network * ...

by adding two side

pedestrian A pedestrian is a person traveling on foot, by wheelchair or with other mobility aids. Streets and roads often have a designated footpath for pedestrian traffic, called the '' sidewalk'' in North American English, the ''pavement'' in British En ...

bridges to the middle one.

The Fish Footbridge

The Fish Footbridge offers a view of the neighbouring Triple Bridge to the north and the Cobbler's Bridge to the South. It is a transparent glass-made bridge, illuminated at night by in-built LEDs. From 1991 to 2014 the bridge was a wooden one and decorated with flowers, while since its reconstruction in 2014, it is made of glass. It was planned already in 1895 by

Max Fabiani Maximilian Fabiani, commonly known as Max Fabiani (, ) (29 April 1865 – 12 August 1962) was an Italians, Italian architect, born in the village of Kobdilj near Štanjel on the Karst Plateau, County of Gorizia and Gradisca, in present-day Sl ...

to build a bridge on the location, in 1913

Alfred Keller Biography Alfred Keller (19 September 1882 – 11 February 1974) was a general in the German Luftwaffe during the Second World War. Born in Bochum, Province of Westphalia, his career in the Imperial German Armed Forces began in 1897, when ...

planned a staircase, later

incorporated both into his own plans which, however, were not realised.

The Cobbler's Bridge

The 1930 'Cobblers' Bridge' ({{lang, sl, Šuštarski, from German {{lang, de, Schuster – Shoemaker) is another Plečnik's creation, connecting two major areas of medieval Ljubljana. It is decorated by two kinds of pillars, the Corinthian pillars which delineate the shape of the bridge itself and the Ionic pillars as lamp-bearers.

The Trnovo Bridge

The Trnovo Bridge is the most prominent object of Plečnik's renovation of the banks of the Gradaščica. It is located in the front of the Trnovo Church to the south of the city centre. It connects the neighbourhoods of Krakovo and Trnovo, the oldest Ljubljana suburbs, known for their market gardens and cultural events. It was built between 1929 and 1932. It is distinguished by its width and two rows of

birch A birch is a thin-leaved deciduous hardwood tree of the genus ''Betula'' (), in the family Betulaceae, which also includes alders, hazels, and hornbeams. It is closely related to the beech- oak family Fagaceae. The genus ''Betula'' contains 3 ...

es that it bears, because it was meant to serve as a public space in front of the church. Each corner of the bridge is capped with a small pyramid, a signature motif of Plečnik's, whereas the mid-span features a pair of Art-Deco male sculptures. There is also a statue of

Saint John the Baptist John the Baptist ( – ) was a Jewish preacher active in the area of the Jordan River in the early first century AD. He is also known as Saint John the Forerunner in Eastern Orthodoxy and Oriental Orthodoxy, John the Immerser in some Baptist ...

on the bridge, the patron of the Trnovo Church. It was designed by {{nowrap, Nikolaj Pirnat.

The Hradecky Bridge

] The

is one of the first hinged bridges in the world,{{cite conference , last=Humar , first=Gorazd , date=September 2001 , title=World Famous Arch Bridges in Slovenia: 6. Cast Iron Single-Hinged Arch Bridge in Ljubljana (1867) , url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E7ywmb24EQMC&pg=PA126 , location=Paris , publisher=Presses des Ponts , page=126 , isbn=2-85978-347-4 , book-title=Arch'01: troisième Conférence internationale sur les ponts en arc Paris , editor=Charles Abdunur , access-date=29 October 2015 , archive-date=10 February 2017 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170210111736/https://books.google.com/books?id=E7ywmb24EQMC&pg=PA126 , url-status=live the first{{cite journal , last=Slivnik , first=Lara , year=2010 , title=Zgradbe z železno oziroma jekleno konstrukcijo v Sloveniji , trans-title=Buildings with iron and steel structures in Slovenia , url=http://www.fa.uni-lj.si/filelib/9_ar/2010/ar_2010_1_clanki_lara_slivnik.pdf , journal=AR: Arhitektura, raziskave rchitecture, Research, language=sl, en , issue=1 , pages=38–39 , issn=1581-6974 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130730145753/https://www.fa.uni-lj.si/filelib/9_ar/2010/ar_2010_1_clanki_lara_slivnik.pdf , archive-date=30 July 2013 , editor=Juvanec, Borut and the only preserved

cast iron Cast iron is a class of iron–carbon alloys with a carbon content of more than 2% and silicon content around 1–3%. Its usefulness derives from its relatively low melting temperature. The alloying elements determine the form in which its car ...

bridge in Slovenia, and one of its most highly valued technical achievements.{{cite web , date=12 May 2011 , title=Hradecki Bridge , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/en/municipality/news/72280/detail.html , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130319065715/http://www.ljubljana.si/en/municipality/news/72280/detail.html , archive-date=19 March 2013 , work=Ljubljana.si , publisher=Municipality of Ljubljana , df=dmy-all{{cite news , last=Trbižan , first=Milan , date=12 May 2011 , title=Tretje življenje mostu Hradeckega čez Ljubljanico , language=sl , trans-title=The Third Life of the Hradecky Bridge over the Ljubljanica , newspaper=Delo.si , url=http://www.delo.si/druzba/znanost/tretje-zivljenje-mostu-hradeckega-cez-ljubljanico.html , issn=1854-6544 , id={{COBISS, ID=256579584 , access-date=15 May 2012 , archive-date=17 May 2011 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110517003951/http://delo.si/druzba/znanost/tretje-zivljenje-mostu-hradeckega-cez-ljubljanico.html , url-status=live It has been situated on an extension of Hren Street ({{lang, sl, Hrenova ulica), between the Krakovo Embankment ({{lang, sl, Krakovski nasip) and the Gruden Embankment ({{lang, sl, Grudnovo nabrežje), connecting the

and the Prule neighbourhood in the Center District.{{cite web , title=365: Ljubljana – Hradeckega most , trans-title=365: Ljubljana – The Hradecky Bridge , url=http://giskd2s.situla.org/rkd/Opis.asp?Esd=365 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130319064442/https://giskd2s.situla.org/rkd/Opis.asp?Esd=365 , archive-date=19 March 2013 , access-date=13 March 2012 , work=Registry of the Immovable Cultural Heritage , publisher=Ministry of Culture, Slovenia , language=sl The Hradecky Bridge was manufactured according to the plans of the senior engineer

Johann Hermann Johann, or Jean-Frederic, Hermann, or Herrmann, (31 December 1738 in Barr, Alsace – 4 October 1800 in Strasbourg) was a French physician and naturalist Natural history is a domain of inquiry involving organisms, including animals, fungi ...

from Vienna in the Auersperg iron foundry in Dvor near Žužemberk, and installed in Ljubljana in 1867, at the location of today's Cobblers' Bridge.{{cite book , last=Habič , first=Marko , url=http://www.geopedia.si/?params=T105_L7452_F1330#T105_L7452_F1330_x462113_y100591_s17_b4 , chapter=Prestolnica Ljubljana nekoč in danes: Čevljarski most , title=Geopedia.si , publisher=National Publishing House of Slovenia. Sinergise, d. o. o. , year=1997 , isbn=978-86-341-2007-3 , trans-title=A pictorial chronicle of a capital city: Shoemaker's Bridge , access-date=15 May 2012 , archive-date=3 December 2013 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203025958/http://www.geopedia.si/?params=T105_L7452_F1330#T105_L7452_F1330_x462113_y100591_s17_b4 , url-status=live

Streets and squares

Having already existed in the 18th century, Ljubljana's central square,

's modern appearance has developed since the end of the 19th century. After the 1895 earthquake,

designed the square as the hub of four streets and four banks, and in the 1980s

proposed the circular design and the granite block pavement. A statue of the Slovene

national poet A national poet or national bard is a poet held by tradition and popular acclaim to represent the identity, beliefs and principles of a particular national culture. The national poet as culture hero is a long-standing symbol, to be distinguished ...

France Prešeren France Prešeren () (3 December 1800 – 8 February 1849) was a 19th-century Romantic Slovene poet whose poems have been translated into many languages.

with a

muse In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, the Muses (, ) were the Artistic inspiration, inspirational goddesses of literature, science, and the arts. They were considered the source of the knowledge embodied in the poetry, lyric p ...

stands in the middle of the square. The Prešeren Monument was created by

Ivan Zajec Ivan Zajec (15 July 1869 – 30 July 1952) was a Slovenian sculptor. His work was part of the sculpture event in the art competition at the 1924 Summer Olympics. He also designed a monument designated to France Prešeren together with Max ...

in 1905, whereas the pedestal was designed by Max Fabiani. The square and surroundings have been closed to traffic since 1 September 2007.{{cite book , author=Nina Caf , url=http://geo2.ff.uni-lj.si/pisnadela/pdfs/dipl_200801_nina_caf.pdf , archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://geo2.ff.uni-lj.si/pisnadela/pdfs/dipl_200801_nina_caf.pdf , archive-date=2022-10-09 , url-status=live , title=Turizem kot del revitalizacije mestnega jedra Ljubljana , year=2008 , access-date=12 December 2011{{dead link, date=January 2018, bot=InternetArchiveBot, fix-attempted=yes Only a tourist train leaves Prešeren Square every day, transporting tourists to

. Republic Square, originally named Revolution Square, is the largest square in Ljubljana.{{cite encyclopedia , title=Trg republike , encyclopedia=Enciklopedija naravne in kulturne dediščine na Slovenskem – DEDI ncyclopedia of Natural and Cultural Heritage in Slovenia, url=http://www.dedi.si/dediscina/210-trg-republike , access-date=23 May 2012 , editor1-last=Šmid Hribar , editor1-first=Mateja , language=sl , trans-title=Republic Square , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120723092303/http://www.dedi.si/dediscina/210-trg-republike , archive-date=23 July 2012 , first1=Alenka , last1=Bartulovič , editor2-first=Gregor , editor2-last=Golež , editor3-first=Dan , editor3-last=Podjed , editor4-first=Drago , editor4-last=Kladnik , editor5-first=Bojan , editor5-last=Erhartič , editor6-first=Primož , editor6-last=Pavlin , editor7-first=Jerele , editor7-last=Ines It was designed in the second half of the 20th century by Edvard Ravnikar. On 26 June 1991, the independence of Slovenia was declared here. The National Assembly Building stands at its northern side, and Cankar Hall, the largest Slovenian cultural and congress centre, at the southern side. At its eastern side stands the two-storey building of Maximarket, also the work of Ravnikar. It houses one of the oldest department stores in Ljubljana and a cafe, which is a popular meeting place and a place for political talks and negotiations.{{cite encyclopedia , title=Veleblagovnica Maximarket , encyclopedia=Enciklopedija naravne in kulturne dediščine na Slovenskem – DEDI ncyclopedia of Natural and Cultural Heritage in Slovenia, url=http://www.dedi.si/dediscina/211-veleblagovnica-maximarket , access-date=23 May 2012 , editor1-last=Šmid Hribar , editor1-first=Mateja , language=sl , trans-title=Maximarket Department Store , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120723092308/http://www.dedi.si/dediscina/211-veleblagovnica-maximarket , archive-date=23 July 2012 , first1=Alenka , last1=Bartulovič , editor2-first=Gregor , editor2-last=Golež , editor3-first=Dan , editor3-last=Podjed , editor4-first=Drago , editor4-last=Kladnik , editor5-first=Bojan , editor5-last=Erhartič , editor6-first=Primož , editor6-last=Pavlin , editor7-first=Jerele , editor7-last=Ines

({{lang, sl, Kongresni trg) is one of the important centres of the city. It was built in 1821 for ceremonial purposes such as Congress of Ljubljana after which it was named. Since then it has been a centre for political ceremonies, demonstrations, and protests, such as the ceremony for the creation of the

Kingdom of Yugoslavia The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was a country in Southeast Europe, Southeast and Central Europe that existed from 1918 until 1941. From 1918 to 1929, it was officially called the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes, but the term "Yugoslavia" () h ...

, ceremony of the liberation of

Belgrade Belgrade is the Capital city, capital and List of cities in Serbia, largest city of Serbia. It is located at the confluence of the Sava and Danube rivers and at the crossroads of the Pannonian Basin, Pannonian Plain and the Balkan Peninsula. T ...

, and protests against Yugoslav authority in 1988. The square also houses several important buildings, such as the University of Ljubljana Palace, Philharmonic Hall, Ursuline Church of the Holy Trinity, and the Slovene Society Building. Star Park ({{lang, sl, Park Zvezda) is located in the centre of the square. In 2010 and 2011, the square was renovated and is now mostly closed to road traffic on ground area, however, there are five floors for commercial purposes and a parking lot located underground.

Čop Street Čop Street () is a major pedestrian thoroughfare in the center of Ljubljana, Slovenia and regarded as the capital's central promenade. Location The street leads from the Main Post Office () at Slovene Street () to Prešeren Square (). Histor ...

({{lang, sl, Čopova ulica) is a major thoroughfare in the centre of Ljubljana. The street is named after

Matija Čop Matija Čop (; 26 January 1797 – 6 July 1835), also known in German as Matthias Tschop, was a Slovene linguist, polyglot, literary historian and critic. Biography Čop was born in the small northern Carniolan town of Žirovnica, in what ...

, an early 19th-century literary figure and close friend of the Slovene

Romantic poet Romantic poetry is the poetry of the Romantic era, an artistic, literary, musical and intellectual movement that originated in Europe towards the end of the 18th century. It involved a reaction against prevailing Neoclassical ideas of the 18th c ...

France Prešeren France Prešeren () (3 December 1800 – 8 February 1849) was a 19th-century Romantic Slovene poet whose poems have been translated into many languages.

. It leads from the Main Post Office ({{lang, sl, Glavna pošta) at Slovene Street ({{lang, sl, Slovenska cesta) downward to Prešeren Square and is lined with bars and stores, including the oldest McDonald's restaurant in Slovenia. It is a pedestrian zone and regarded as the capital's central

promenade An esplanade or promenade is a long, open, level area, usually next to a river or large body of water, where people may walk. The historical definition of ''esplanade'' was a large, open, level area outside fortification, fortress or city walls ...

Culture

Accent

The Ljubljana accent and/or dialect ({{langx, sl, ljubljanščina {{IPA, sl, luːblɑːŋʃnɑː, , lublansna.ogg) is considered a border dialect, since Ljubljana is situated where the Upper dialect and

Lower Carniolan dialect group The Lower Carniolan dialect group (''dolenjska narečna skupina''Smole, Vera. 1998. "Slovenska narečja." ''Enciklopedija Slovenije'' vol. 12, pp. 1–5. Ljubljana: Mladinska knjiga, p. 2.) is a group of closely related dialects of Slovene. The ...

meet. Historically,{{cite journal , last1=Rigler , first1=Jakob , date=1965 , title=Osnove Trubarjevega jezika , journal=Jezik in slovstvo , volume=10 , issue=6–7 the Ljubljana dialect in the past displayed features more similar with the Lower Carniolan dialect group, but it gradually grew closer to the Upper dialect group, as a direct consequence of mass migration from Upper Carniola into Ljubljana in the 19th and 20th century. Ljubljana as a city grew mostly to the north, and gradually incorporated many villages that were historically part of

Upper Carniola Upper Carniola ( ; ; ) is a traditional region of Slovenia, the northern mountainous part of the larger Carniola region. The largest town in the region is Kranj, and other urban centers include Kamnik, Jesenice, Jesenice, Jesenice, Domžale and ...

and so its dialect shifted away and closer to the Upper dialects. The Ljubljana dialect has also been used as a literary means in novels, such as in the novel ''Nekdo drug'' by Branko Gradišnik,{{cite web , title=Velemir Gjurin: Beseda avtorju. In: Nekdo drug , url=http://www.cobiss.si/scripts/cobiss?command=DISPLAY&base=cobib&lani=en&rid=16904448 , access-date=25 July 2012 , archive-date=1 June 2015 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150601045546/http://www.cobiss.si/scripts/cobiss?command=DISPLAY&base=cobib&lani=en&rid=16904448 , url-status=live or in poems, such as ''Pika Nogavička'' (Slovene for

Pippi Longstocking Pippi Longstocking () is the fictional main character in a series of children's books by Swedish author Astrid Lindgren. Pippi was named by Lindgren's daughter Karin, who asked her mother for a get-well story when she was off school. Pippi is ...

) by Andrej Rozman - Roza.{{cite web , title=Ljubljanščina in druga stilna sredstva v besedilih Andreja Rozmana Roze na primeru Pike Nogavičke. In: Slovenska narečja med sistemom in rabo , url=http://www.cobiss.si/scripts/cobiss?command=DISPLAY&base=cobib&lani=en&rid=37473378 , access-date=25 July 2012 , publisher=Znanstvena založba Filozofske fakultete , archive-date=1 June 2015 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150601050124/http://www.cobiss.si/scripts/cobiss?command=DISPLAY&base=cobib&lani=en&rid=37473378 , url-status=live The central position of Ljubljana and its dialect had crucial impact on the development of the Slovenian language. It was the speech of 16th century Ljubljana that

Primož Trubar Primož Trubar or Primus Truber () (1508 – 28 June 1586) was a Slovene Protestant Reformer of the Lutheran tradition, mostly known as the author of the first Slovene language printed book, the founder and the first superintendent of the Prot ...

a Slovenian Protestant Reformer took as a foundation of what later became standard

Slovenian language Slovene ( or ) or Slovenian ( ; ) is a South Slavic language of the Balto-Slavic branch of the Indo-European language family. Most of its 2.5 million speakers are the inhabitants of Slovenia, the majority of them ethnic Slovenes. As Slo ...

, with a small addition of his native speech, the Lower Carniolan dialect. While in Ljubljana, he lived in a house, on today's Ribji trg, in the oldest part of the city. Living in Ljubljana had a profound impact on his work; he considered Ljubljana the capital of all

, not only because of its central position in the heart of the

Slovene lands The Slovene lands or Slovenian lands ( or in short ) is the historical denomination for the territories in Central and Southern Europe where people primarily spoke Slovene. The Slovene lands were part of the Illyrian provinces, the Austrian Empi ...

, but also because it always had an essentially Slovene character. Most of its inhabitants spoke Slovene as their mother tongue, unlike other cites in today's

. It is estimated that in Trubar's time around 70% of Ljubljana's 4000 inhabitants attended mass in Slovene. Trubar considered Ljubljana's speech most suitable, since it sounded much more noble than his own simple dialect of his hometown Rašica. Trubar's choice was later adopted also by other Protestant writers in the 16th century, and ultimately led to a formation of a more standard language.

In literary fiction

Ljubljana appears in the 2005 ''

The Historian ''The Historian'' is the 2005 debut novel of American author Elizabeth Kostova. The plot blends the history and folklore of Vlad Țepeș and his fictional equivalent Count Dracula. Kostova's father told her stories about Dracula when she was ...

'', written by Elisabeth Kostova, and is called by its Roman name (Emona). Ljubljana is also the setting of Paulo Coelho's 1998 novel ''Veronika Decides to Die''. During 2010, Ljubljana was designated as the World Book Capital by UNESCO.

Festivals

Each year, over 10,000 cultural events take place in the city, including ten international theatre, music, and art festivals. The Ljubljana Festival is one of the two oldest festivals in former Yugoslavia (the Dubrovnik Summer Festival was established in 1950, and the Ljubljana Festival one in 1953). Guests have included Dubravka Tomšič, Marjana Lipovšek, Tomaž Pandur, Katia Ricciarelli, Grace Bumbry, Yehudi Menuhin, Mstislav Rostropovich, José Carreras, Slide Hampton, Zubin Mehta, Vadim Repin, Valery Gergiev, Andrew Davis (conductor), Sir Andrew Davis, Danjulo Ishizaka, Midori (violinist), Yuri Bashmet, Ennio Morricone, and The Manhattan Transfer, Manhattan Transfer. Orchestras have included the New York Philharmonic, Israel Philharmonic, Royal Philharmonic Orchestra, Orchestras of the Bolshoi Theatre from Moscow, La Scala from Milan, and Mariinsky Theatre from Saint Petersburg. In recent years there have been 80 kinds of events and some 80,000 visitors from Slovenia and abroad.{{citation needed, date=May 2013 Other cultural venues include Križanke, Cankar Hall and the Exhibition and Convention Centre (Ljubljana), Exhibition and Convention Centre. During Book Week, starting each year on World Book Day, events and book sales take place at

. A flea market is held every Sunday in the old city.{{cite web , title=Museums , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/en/tourism/ljubljana/points_of_interest/museums/default.html , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071231040254/http://www.ljubljana.si/en/tourism/ljubljana/points_of_interest/museums/default.html , archive-date=31 December 2007 , access-date=31 July 2008 On the evening of International Workers' Day, a celebration with a bonfire takes place on Rožnik Hill.

Museums and art galleries

Ljubljana has numerous Art museum, art galleries and museums. The first purpose-built art gallery in Ljubljana was the Jakopič Pavilion, which was in the first half of the 20th century the central exhibition venue of Slovene artists. In the early 1960s, it was succeeded by Ljubljana City Art Gallery, which has presented a number of modern Slovene and foreign artists. In 2010, there were 14 museums and 56 art galleries in Ljubljana.{{cite web , title=Ljubljana in Figures , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/en/about-ljubljana/ljubljana-in-numbers/ , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419120715/http://www.ljubljana.si/en/about-ljubljana/ljubljana-in-numbers , archive-date=19 April 2012 , access-date=23 April 2012 , publisher=City Municipality of Ljubljana , df=dmy-all There is for example an architecture museum, Slovenian Railway Museum, a railway museum, a school museum, a sports museum, a museum of modern art, a museum of contemporary art, a Pivovarna Union, brewery museum, the Slovenian Museum of Natural History and the Slovene Ethnographic Museum. The

({{lang, sl, Narodna galerija), founded in 1918, and the Museum of Modern Art (Ljubljana), Museum of Modern Art ({{lang, sl, Moderna galerija) exhibit the List of Slovenian artists, most influential Slovenian artists. In 2006, the museums received 264,470 visitors, the galleries 403,890 and the theatres 396,440. The Metelkova Museum of Contemporary Art ({{lang, sl, Muzej sodobne umetnosti Metelkova), opened in 2011, hosts simultaneous exhibitions, a research library, archives, and a bookshop. The Škuc Gallery is a contemporary art gallery that opened in 1978.

Entertainment and performing arts

Cankar Hall is the largest Slovenian cultural and congress center with multiple halls and a large foyer in which art film festivals, artistic performances, book fairs, and other cultural events are held.

Cinema

The cinema in Ljubljana appeared for the first time at the turn of the 20th century, and quickly gained popularity among the residents. After World War II, the Cinema Company Ljubljana, later named ''Ljubljana Cinematographers'', was established and managed a number of already functioning movie theatres in Ljubljana, including the only Yugoslav children's theatre. Cinema festivals took place in the 1960s, and a cinematheque opened its doors in 1963. With the advent of television, video, and recently the Internet, most cinema theatres in Ljubljana closed, and the cinema mainly moved to Kolosej, a Multiplex (movie theater), multiplex in the BTC City. It features twelve screens, including an IMAX 3D screen. The remaining theatres are Kino Komuna, Kinodvor, where art movies are accompanied by events, and the Slovenian Cinematheque. The Slovenian Cinematheque hosts the international Ljubljana LGBT Film Festival which showcases LGBT-themed films. Founded in 1984, it is the oldest film festival of its sort in Europe (with oldest ex SFRY LGBT+ march in Ljubljana Pride).

Classical music, opera and ballet

The Slovenian Philharmonics is the central music institution in Ljubljana and Slovenia. It holds classical music concerts of domestic and foreign performers as well as educates youth. It was established in 1701 as part of Academia operosorum Labacensis and is among the oldest such institutions in Europe. The Slovene National Opera and Ballet Theatre also resides in Ljubljana, presenting a wide variety of domestic and foreign, modern and classic, opera, ballet and concert works. It serves as the national opera and ballet house. Music festivals are held in Ljubljana, chiefly in Classical music, European classical music and jazz, for instance the Ljubljana Summer Festival ({{lang, sl, Ljubljanski poletni festival), and Trnfest.

Theatre

In addition to the main houses, with the Slovene National Theatre, Ljubljana, SNT Drama Ljubljana as the most important among them, a number of small producers are active in Ljubljana, involved primarily in physical theatre (e.g. Betontanc), street theatre (e.g. Ana Monró Theatre), theatresports championship Impro League, and improvisational theatre (e.g. IGLU Theatre). A popular form is puppetry, mainly performed in the Ljubljana Puppet Theatre. Theatre has a rich tradition in Ljubljana, starting with the 1867 first ever Slovene-language drama performance.

Modern dance

The modern dance was presented in Ljubljana for the first time at the end of the 19th century and developed rapidly since the end of the 1920s. Since the 1930s when in Ljubljana was founded a Mary Wigman dance school, the first one for modern dance in Slovenia, the field has been intimately linked to the development in Europe and the United States. Ljubljana Dance Theatre is today the only venue in Ljubljana dedicated to contemporary dance. Despite this, there's a vivid happening in the field.

Folk dance

Several folk dance groups are active in Ljubljana.

Jazz

In July 2015, the 56th Ljubljana Jazz Festival was held. A participant event in the European Jazz Network, the festival took place over four days and included 19 concerts with artists from 19 countries, including a celebration of the 75th birthday of James "Blood" Ulmer.

Popular urban culture and alternative scene

In the 1980s with the emergence of subcultures in Ljubljana, an alternative culture began to develop in Ljubljana organised around two student organisations. This caused an influx of young people to the city centre, caused political and social changes, and led to the establishment of alternative art centres. ; Metelkova and Rog A Ljubljana equivalent of Copenhagen's Freetown Christiania, a self-proclaimed autonomous Metelkova neighbourhood, was set up in a former Austro-Hungarian barracks that was built in 1882.{{cite web , title=Metelkova , url=http://www.ljubljana-life.com/ljubljana/metelkova , access-date=7 August 2012 , publisher=ljubljana-life.com , archive-date=19 July 2012 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120719081859/http://www.ljubljana-life.com/ljubljana/metelkova , url-status=live {{cite web , title=Metelkova mesto , url=https://www.culture.si/en/Metelkova_mesto_Autonomous_Cultural_Zone , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923124352/https://www.culture.si/en/Metelkova_mesto_Autonomous_Cultural_Zone , archive-date=23 September 2018 , access-date=23 September 2018 , publisher=culture.si In 1993, the seven buildings and {{Convert, 12500, m2 of space were turned into art galleries, artist studios, and seven nightclubs, including two LGBTQ+ venues, playing host to music from hardcore to jazz to dub to techno. Celica Hostel is adjacent to Metelkova{{cite web , title=Celica Hostel , url=http://www.ljubljana-life.com/sleep/hotels_details/9-Celica_Hostel , access-date=7 August 2012 , archive-date=31 March 2024 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331161821/https://www.local-life.com/ljubljana/hotels/9-Celica_Hostel , url-status=live with rooms artistically decorated by Metelkova artists. A new part of the Museum of Modern Art is the nearby Museum of Contemporary Art.{{cite news , date=21 July 2012 , title=Lovely Ljubljana; Its name is hard to pronounce, but the city's easy to love and explore , newspaper=The Calgary Herald , url=https://theprovince.com/travel/Ljubljana+easy+love+explore/6912326/story.html , access-date=7 August 2012{{dead link, date=June 2016, bot=medic{{cbignore, bot=medic Another alternative culture centre is located in the former Rog (factory), Rog factory. Both Metelkova and the Rog (factory), Rog factory complex are near the city centre. In 2023, the Rog factory underwent a complete renovation and rebranding, and it is now known as Center Rog. Center Rog has nineteen project studios and five residential apartments in addition to a new branch of the Ljubljana City Library (Rog Library), a large exhibition and event hall, a café, bistro, and restaurant, and several shops with local products. ; Šiška Cultural Quarter Šiška Cultural Quarter hosts art groups and cultural organisations dedicated to contemporary and avant-garde arts. Kino Šiška Centre for Urban Culture is there, a venue offering concerts of indie, punk, and rock bands as well as exhibitions take place. The Museum of Transitory Art (MoTA) is a museum without a permanent collection or a fixed space. Its programs are realised in temporary physical and virtual spaces dedicated to advancing the research, production and presentation of transitory, experimental, and live art forms. Yearly MoTA organises the Sonica Festival. Ljudmila (since 1994), which strives to connect research practices, technologies, science, and art.

Sports

Clubs

Tension between German and Slovene residents dominated the development of sport in Ljubljana in the 19th century. The first sports club in Ljubljana was the South Sokol Gymnastic Club ({{lang, sl, Gimnastično društvo Južni Sokol), established in 1863 and succeeded in 1868 by the Ljubljana Sokol ({{lang, sl, Ljubljanski Sokol). It was the parent club of all Slovene Sokol movement, Slovene Sokol clubs as well as an encouragement for the establishment of the Croatian Sokol movement, Croatian Sokol club in Zagreb. Members were also active in culture and politics, striving for greater integration of the Slovenes from different Crown lands of

and for their cultural, political, and economic independence. In 1885, German residents established one of the first sports clubs in the territory of nowadays Slovenia, {{lang, de, Laibacher Bicycle-Club (''Ljubljana Cycling Club''). In 1887, Slovene cyclists established the Slovene Cyclists Club Ljubljana ({{lang, sl, Klub slovenskih biciklistov Ljubljana, ''KSBL''). In 1893 followed the first Slovene Alpine club, named Slovene Alpine Club ({{lang, sl, Slovensko planinsko društvo), later succeeded by the Alpine Association of Slovenia ({{lang, sl, Planinska zveza Slovenije). Several of its branches operate in Ljubljana, the largest of them being the Ljubljana Matica Alpine Club ({{lang, sl, Planinsko društvo Ljubljana-Matica). In 1900, the sports club {{lang, de, Laibacher Sportverein (English: ''Ljubljana Sports Club'') was established by the city's German residents and functioned until 1909. In 1906, Slovenes organised themselves in its Slovene counterpart, the Ljubljana Sports Club ({{lang, sl, Ljubljanski športni klub). Its members were primarily interested in Rowing (sport), rowing, but also swimming and football. In 1911, the first Slovenian football club, ND Ilirija, Ilirija, started operating in the city. Winter sports already started to develop in the area of the nowadays Ljubljana before World War II.{{cite web , title=Zgodovina , date=13 October 2011 , trans-title=History , url=http://www.sddolomiti.si/?page_id=172 , access-date=5 January 2012 , publisher=Sports Club Dolomiti , archive-date=7 May 2013 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130507095503/http://www.sddolomiti.si/?page_id=172 , url-status=live In 1929, the first ice hockey club in Slovenia (then Yugoslavia), HDD Olimpija Ljubljana, SK Ilirija, was established. Nowadays, the Football in Ljubljana, city's football teams which play in the Slovenian PrvaLiga are NK Olimpija Ljubljana and NK Bravo. ND Ilirija 1911 currently competes in Slovenian Second League. Ljubljana's ice hockey clubs are HK Slavija Ljubljana, HK Slavija and HK Olimpija. They both compete in the Slovenian Ice Hockey League, Slovenian Hockey League. The basketball teams are KD Slovan, KD Ilirija and KK Cedevita Olimpija. The latter, which has a green dragon as its mascot, hosts its matches at the 12,480-seat Arena Stožice. ŽKD Ježica, Ježica is women's basketball that competes in Slovenian Women's Basketball League, Slovenian League. The Ljubljana Silverhawks represented the city in American football. Handball is popular in the female section. RK Krim is one of the best women's handball teams in Europe. They won the EHF Champions League twice, in 2001 and 2003. RD Slovan is male handball club from Ljubljana that currently competes in Slovenian First League (men's handball), Slovenian First League. AMTK Ljubljana is the most successful Motorcycle speedway, speedway club in Slovenia. The Ljubljana Sports Club has been succeeded by the Livada Canoe and Kayak Club.{{cite book , last=Habič , first=Marko , title=Prestolnica Ljubljana nekoč in danes , publisher=National Publishing House of Slovenia , year=1997 , isbn=978-86-341-2007-3 , trans-title=A Pictorial Chronicle of a Capital City , chapter=Ljubljanica se leno vije proti mestu , trans-chapter=The Ljubljanica River, as It Winds Lazily Towards the Town , chapter-url=http://www.geopedia.si/?params=T105_L7452_F1327#T105_L7452_F1327_x462354_y99219_s17_b4 , access-date=26 May 2012 , archive-date=3 March 2016 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230048/http://www.geopedia.si/?params=T105_L7452_F1327#T105_L7452_F1327_x462354_y99219_s17_b4 , url-status=live

Mass sport activities

Each year since 1957, on 8–10 May, the recreational ''Trail of Remembrance and Comradeship, Walk Along the Wire'' has taken place to mark the liberation of Ljubljana on 9 May 1945. At the same occasion, a triples competition is run on the trail, and a few days later, a student-run from Prešeren Square to Ljubljana Castle is held. The last Sunday in October, the Ljubljana Marathon and a few minor competition runs take place on the city streets. The event attracts several thousand runners each year.

Sport venues

The Stožice Stadium, opened in August 2010 and located in Stožice Sports Park in the Bežigrad District, is the biggest football stadium in the country and the home of the NK Olimpija Ljubljana. It is one of the two main venues of the Slovenia national football team. The park also has an indoor arena, used for indoor sports such as basketball, Team handball, handball and volleyball and is the home venue of KK Olimpija, RK Krim and ACH Volley Bled among others. Besides football, the stadium is designed to host cultural events as well. Another stadium in the Bežigrad district, Bežigrad Stadium, is closed since 2008 and is deteriorating. It was built according to the plans of

and was the home of the NK Olimpija Ljubljana (1911–2004), NK Olimpija Ljubljana, dissolved in 2004. Joc Pečečnik, a Slovenian multimillionaire, plans to renovate it. Šiška Sports Park is located in Spodnja Šiška, part of the Šiška District. It has a football stadium with five courts, an athletic hall, outdoor athletic areas, tennis courts, a Boules court, and a sand volleyball court. The majority of competitions are in Athletics (sport), athletics. Another sports park in Spodnja Šiška is Ilirija Sports Park, known primarily for its stadium with a speedway track. At the northern end of Tivoli Park stands the Ilirija Swimming Pool Complex, which was built as part of a swimming and athletics venue following plans by Bloudek in the 1930s and has been nearly abandoned since then, but there are plans to renovate it. A number of sport venues are located in Tivoli Park. An outdoor swimming pool in Tivoli, constructed by Bloudek in 1929, was the first Olympic-size swimming pool in Yugoslavia. The Tivoli Recreational Centre in Tivoli is Ljubljana's largest recreational centre and has three swimming pools, saunas, a Boules court, a health club, and other facilities. There are two skating rinks, a basketball court, a winter ice rink, and ten tennis courts in its outdoor area. The Tivoli Hall consists of two halls. The smaller one accepts 4,050 spectators and is used for basketball matches. The larger one can accommodate 6,000 spectators and is primarily used for hockey, but also for basketball matches. The halls are also used for concerts and other cultural events. The Slovenian Olympic Committee has its office in the building. The Tacen Whitewater Course, located on a course on the Sava, {{cvt, 8, km, 0, abbr=off, sp=us northwest of the city centre, hosts a major international canoe/kayak slalom competition almost every year, examples being the ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships in 1955 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships, 1955, 1991 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships, 1991, and 2010 ICF Canoe Slalom World Championships, 2010. Since the 1940s, a ski slope has been in use in Gunclje,{{cite web , title=Osnovni podatki smučišča , trans-title=Basic Data About the Ski Slope , url=http://ski.element.si/default.asp?mID=menu_smucisce&pID={f14f886f-6700-451c-998f-9a599266a7a3} , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510092317/http://ski.element.si/default.asp?mID=menu_smucisce&pID=%7Bf14f886f-6700-451c-998f-9a599266a7a3%7D , archive-date=10 May 2013 , access-date=5 February 2012 , work=Alpski poligon Gunclje , language=sl , df=dmy-all in the northwestern part of the city. It is {{cvt, 600, m, sp=us long and has two ski lifts, its maximum incline is 60° and the difference in height from the top to the bottom is {{cvt, 155, m, sp=us. Five ski jumping hills stand near the ski slope. Several Slovenian Olympic and World Cup medalists trained and competed there. In addition, the Arena Triglav complex of six jumping hills is located in the Šiška District. A ski jumping hill, built in 1954 to plans by Stanko Bloudek, was located in Šiška near Vodnik Street ({{lang, sl, Vodnikova cesta) until 1976. International competitions for the Kongsberg Cup were held there, attended by thousands of spectators. The ice rinks in Ljubljana include

and Tivoli Hall. In addition, in the 19th century and the early 20th century,

and a marshy meadow in Trnovo, named Kern, were used for ice skating.

Economy

Industry is the most important employer, notably in the Pharmaceutical industry, pharmaceuticals, petrochemicals and Food industry, food processing. Other fields include banking, finance, transport, construction, skilled trades and services and tourism. The public sector provides jobs in education, culture, health care and local administration. The Ljubljana Stock Exchange ({{lang, sl, Ljubljanska borza), purchased in 2008 by the Wiener Börse, Vienna Stock Exchange{{cite web , title=Austrians Buy Ljubljana Stock Exchange , url=http://www.sloveniatimes.com/en/inside.cp2?uid=DCC97754-19B6-64BF-BC26-9760B7F88908&linkid=news&cid=ED4C6575-3589-840B-A072-1B6760015E2E , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090111114616/http://www.sloveniatimes.com/en/inside.cp2?uid=DCC97754-19B6-64BF-BC26-9760B7F88908&linkid=news&cid=ED4C6575-3589-840B-A072-1B6760015E2E , archive-date=11 January 2009 , access-date=31 July 2008 and later by the Zagreb Stock Exchange, deals with large Slovenian companies. Some of these have their headquarters in the capital: for example, the Chain store, retail chain Mercator (retail), Mercator, the Petroleum industry, oil company Petrol d.d. and the telecommunications concern Telekom Slovenije.{{cite web , title=Ljubljanska borza d.d. , url=http://www.ljse.si/cgi-bin/jve.cgi?doc=%208373&sid=qaKUUjazRohwRuAP , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090418064605/http://www.ljse.si/cgi-bin/jve.cgi?doc=%208373&sid=qaKUUjazRohwRuAP , archive-date=18 April 2009 , access-date=31 July 2008 Over 15,000 enterprises operate in the city, most of them in the Tertiary sector of the economy, tertiary sector.{{cite web , title=Ljubljana: economic center of Slovenia , url=http://www.wieninternational.at/en/node/4997 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080608140330/http://www.wieninternational.at/en/node/4997 , archive-date=8 June 2008 , access-date=31 July 2008 , df=dmy-all Numerous companies and over 450 shops are located in the BTC City, the largest business, shopping, recreational, entertainment and cultural centre in Slovenia. It is visited each year by 21 million people. It occupies an area of {{cvt, 475000, m2, sp=us in the Moste, Ljubljana, Moste District in the eastern part of Ljubljana. About 74% of Ljubljana households use district heating from the Ljubljana Power Station.

Government

The city of Ljubljana is governed by the

({{langx, sl, Mestna občina Ljubljana; MOL), which is led by the city council. The president of the city council is called the mayor. Members of the city council and the mayor are elected in the local election, held every four years. Among other roles, the city council drafts the municipal budget, and is assisted by various boards active in the fields of health, sports, finances, education, Environmental movement, environmental protection and tourism.{{cite web , title=Boards of the City Council , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/en/municipality/council/boards/default.html , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080110131314/http://www.ljubljana.si/en/municipality/council/boards/default.html , archive-date=10 January 2008 , access-date=31 July 2008 The municipality is subdivided into 17 districts represented by district councils. They work with the municipality council to make known residents' suggestions and prepare activities in their territories.{{cite web , title=District authorities , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/en/municipality/districts/default.html , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080412032307/http://www.ljubljana.si/en/municipality/districts/default.html , archive-date=12 April 2008 , access-date=31 July 2008 Between 2002 and 2006, Danica Simšič was mayor of the municipality. Since the municipal elections of 22 October 2006 until his confirmation as a deputy in the National Assembly (Slovenia), National Assembly of Slovenian in December 2011, Zoran Janković, previously the managing director of the Mercator (retail), Mercator retail chain, was the mayor of Ljubljana. In 2006, he won 62.99% of the popular vote.{{cite web , title=The Mayor of the City of Ljubljana , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/en/municipality/mayor/default.html , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918215935/http://www.ljubljana.si/en/municipality/mayor/default.html , archive-date=18 September 2008 , access-date=31 July 2008 , df=dmy-all On 10 October 2010, Janković was re-elected for another four-year term with 64.79% of the vote. From 2006 until October 2010, the majority on the city council (the

) held 23 of 45 seats. On 10 October 2010, Janković's list won 25 out of 45 seats in the city council. From December 2011 onwards, when Janković's list won the Slovenian parliamentary election, 2011, early parliamentary election, the deputy mayor Aleš Čerin was decided by him to lead the municipality. Čerin did not hold the post of mayor.{{cite news , date=1 February 2012 , title=Čerin ljubljansko občino trenutno vodi v neskladju s statutom , language=sl , trans-title=Čerin is Currently Leading the Ljubljana Municipality in Discrepancy with its Statute , newspaper=Dnevnik.si , url=http://www.dnevnik.si/novice/slovenija/1042506738 , access-date=1 February 2012 , archive-date=1 February 2012 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120201212300/http://www.dnevnik.si/novice/slovenija/1042506738 , url-status=live After Janković had failed to be elected as the Prime Minister in the National Assembly (Slovenia), National Assembly, he participated at the mayoral by-election on 25 March 2012 and was elected for the third time with 61% of the vote. He retook the leadership of the city council on 11 April 2012. Public order in Ljubljana is enforced by the Ljubljana Police Directorate ({{lang, sl, Policijska uprava Ljubljana).{{cite web , title=Police directorate Ljubljana , url=http://www.policija.si/portal_en/organiziranost/pu/lj/index.php , archive-url=https://archive.today/20080620143121/http://www.policija.si/portal_en/organiziranost/pu/lj/index.php , archive-date=20 June 2008 , access-date=1 February 2012 There are five areal police stations and four sectoral police stations in Ljubljana.{{cite web , date=March 2011 , title=Varnostne razmere na območju Mestne občine Ljubljana v obdobju 2005 – 2010 , trans-title=Safety Situation in the Area of the City Municipality of Ljubljana in the 2005–2010 Period , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/file/954611/9.-toka---predstavitev-varnostnih-razmer.pdf , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130319065629/http://www.ljubljana.si/file/954611/9.-toka---predstavitev-varnostnih-razmer.pdf , archive-date=19 March 2013 , publisher=Police Directorate of Ljubljana, Ministry of the Interior, Republic of Slovenia , language=sl , df=dmy-all Public order and municipal traffic regulations are also supervised by the Traffic wardens (Ljubljana), city traffic wardens ({{lang, sl, Mestno redarstvo). Ljubljana has a quiet and secure reputation.{{cite web , title=Precautions to take , url=http://www.var.fr/dispatch.do?sectionId=site/page_d_accueil_10772717277503/le_var_10772717703904/les_varois_dans_le_monde_1191224486801284/conseils___bons_plans_1191224797342285/slov_nie_1191225455611299&showSection=site/page_d_accueil_10772717277503/le_var_10772717703904/les_varois_dans_le_monde_1191224486801284/conseils___bons_plans_1191224797342285/slov_nie_1191225455611299 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081118052528/http://www.var.fr/dispatch.do?sectionId=site%2Fpage_d_accueil_10772717277503%2Fle_var_10772717703904%2Fles_varois_dans_le_monde_1191224486801284%2Fconseils___bons_plans_1191224797342285%2Fslov_nie_1191225455611299&showSection=site%2Fpage_d_accueil_10772717277503%2Fle_var_10772717703904%2Fles_varois_dans_le_monde_1191224486801284%2Fconseils___bons_plans_1191224797342285%2Fslov_nie_1191225455611299 , archive-date=18 November 2008 , access-date=31 July 2008 , language=fr

Demographics

Ljubljana has about 300,000 inhabitants as of 2024. {{historical populations , 1600, 6000 , 1700, 7500 , 1754, 9400 , 1800, 10000 , 1846, 18000 , 1869, 22593 , 1880, 26284 , 1890, 30505 , 1900, 36547 , 1910, 41727 , 1921, 53294 , 1931, 59768 , 1948, 98599 , 1953, 113340 , 1961, 135366 , 1971, 173853 , 1981, 224817 , 1991, 267008, 2002, 258873, 2011, 272220, 2021, 285604, source=For 1948-2021: SURS In 1869, Ljubljana had about 22,600 inhabitants,{{Cite journal , last=Pipp , first=Lojze , year=1935 , title=Razvoj števila prebivalstva Ljubljane in bivše vojvodine Kranjske , trans-title=The Development of the Number of Population of Ljubljana and the Former Duchy of Carniola , url=http://www.dlib.si/stream/URN:NBN:SI:DOC-0GBMI71V/7473cdee-a0c0-405b-aed2-39786b347805/PDF , journal=Kronika Slovenskih Mest , language=sl , volume=2 , number=1 , access-date=1 February 2012 , archive-date=11 May 2019 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190511210501/http://www.dlib.si/stream/URN:NBN:SI:DOC-0GBMI71V/7473cdee-a0c0-405b-aed2-39786b347805/PDF , url-status=live a figure that grew to almost 60,000 by 1931. As of the 2022 census, Ljubljana had a population of 293,218 in the city proper. At the 2002 census, 39% of Ljubljana inhabitants were Catholic; 30% had no religion, an unknown religion or did not reply; 19% atheist; 6% Eastern Orthodox; 5% Islam, Muslim; and the remaining 0.7% Protestant or another religion.{{cite web , title=Population by religion, municipalities, Slovenia, Census 2002 , url=http://www.stat.si/popis2002/en/rezultati/rezultati_red.asp?ter=OBC&st=6 , access-date=5 August 2008 , archive-date=7 June 2011 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110607171653/http://www.stat.si/popis2002/en/rezultati/rezultati_red.asp?ter=OBC&st=6 , url-status=live Approximately 91% of the population speaks Slovene as their primary native language. The second most-spoken language is Bosnian language, Bosnian, with Serbo-Croatian being the third most-spoken language.

Education

Primary education

In Ljubljana today there are over 50 public elementary schools with over 20,000 pupils.{{cite web , last=University of Ljubljana , year=2011 , title=University of Ljubljana , url=http://www.uni-lj.si/en/about_university_of_ljubljana/university_of_ljubljana.aspx , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110923195525/http://www.uni-lj.si/en/about_university_of_ljubljana/university_of_ljubljana.aspx , archive-date=23 September 2011 , access-date=5 July 2011 , work=uni-lj.si This also includes an International school, international elementary school for foreign pupils. There are two private elementary schools: a Waldorf education, Waldorf elementary school and a Catholic school, Catholic elementary school. In addition, there are several elementary music schools. Historically the first school in Ljubljana belonged to

and was established in the 13th century. It originally accepted only boys; girls were accepted from the beginning of the 16th century. Parochial schools are attested in the 13th century, at St. Peter's Church and at Saint Nicholas's Church, the later Ljubljana Cathedral. Since 1291, there were also trade-oriented private schools in Ljubljana. At the beginning of the 17th century, there were six schools in Ljubljana and later three. A girls' school was established by Poor Clares, followed in 1703 by the

. Their school was for about 170 years the only public girls' school in

. These schools were mainly private or established by the city. In 1775, the Austrian Empress Maria Theresa proclaimed elementary education obligatory and Ljubljana got its Normal school#Europe, normal school, intended as a learning place for teachers. In 1805, the first state music school was established in Ljubljana. In the time of

, "''école primaire''", a unified four-year elementary school program with a greater emphasis on Slovene, was introduced. The first public schools, unrelated to religious education, appeared in 1868.

Secondary education

In Ljubljana, there are ten public and three private grammar schools. The public schools are divided into general Gymnasium (school), gymnasiums and Classical gymnasium, classical gymnasiums, the latter offering Latin and Greek as foreign languages. Some general schools offer internationally oriented European departments, and some offer sports departments, allowing students to more easily adjust their sport and school obligations. All state schools are free, but the number of students they can accept is limited. The private secondary schools include a Catholic grammar school and a Waldorf grammar school. There are also professional grammar schools in Ljubljana, offering economical, technical, or artistic subjects (visual arts, music). All grammar schools last four years and conclude with the ''matura'' exam. Historically, upon a proposal by

, the Carniolan Estates' School (1563–1598) was established in 1563 in the period of Slovene Reformation. Its teaching languages were mainly

and Greek language, Greek, but also German language, German and Slovene, and it was open for both sexes and all social strata. In 1597, Jesuits established the Laibach Jesuit College, Jesuit College (1597–1773), intended to transmit general education. In 1773, secondary education came under the control of the state. A number of reforms were implemented in the 19th century; there was more emphasis on general knowledge and religious education was removed from state secondary schools. In 1910, there were 29 secondary schools in Ljubljana, among them classical and real gymnasiums and Realschules (technical secondary schools).

Tertiary education

In 2011, the University had 23 faculties and three academies, located around Ljubljana. They offer Slovene-language courses in medicine, applied sciences, arts, law, administration, natural sciences, and other subjects.{{cite web , title=Statutes of UL , url=http://www.uni-lj.si/en/about_university_of_ljubljana/statues_of_ul.aspx , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223021942/http://www.uni-lj.si/en/about_university_of_ljubljana/statues_of_ul.aspx , archive-date=23 February 2009 , access-date=31 July 2008 The university has more than 63,000 students and some 4,000 teaching faculty. Students make up one-seventh of Ljubljana's population, giving the city a youthful character.{{cite web , title=UL history , url=http://www.uni-lj.si/en/about_university_of_ljubljana/ul_history.aspx , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090223021942/http://www.uni-lj.si/en/about_university_of_ljubljana/ul_history.aspx , archive-date=23 February 2009 , access-date=31 July 2008 Historically, higher schools offering the study of general medicine, surgery, architecture, law and theology, started to operate in Ljubljana under the Illyrian Provinces, French annexation of Slovene territory, in 1810–1811. The Austro-Hungarian Empire never allowed Slovenes to establish their own university in Ljubljana, and the

, Slovenia's most important university, was founded in 1919 after Slovenes joined the first Yugoslavia. When it was founded, the university comprised five faculties: law, philosophy, technology, theology and medicine. From the beginning, the seat of the university has been at

in a building that served as the State Mansion of Carniola from 1902 to 1918.

Libraries

; National and University Library of Slovenia The National and University Library of Slovenia is the Slovene National library, national and university library. In 2011, it held about 1,307,000 books, 8,700 manuscripts, and numerous other textual, visual and multimedia resources, altogether 2,657,000 volumes.{{cite book , url=http://www.nuk.uni-lj.si/nuk1.asp?id=181487672 , title=Poslovno poročilo 2011 , date=28 February 2012 , publisher=National and University Library of Slovenia , page=23 , language=sl , trans-title=Business Report 2011 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120524233120/http://www.nuk.uni-lj.si/nuk1.asp?id=181487672 , archive-date=24 May 2012 ; Central Technological Library The second largest university library in Ljubljana is the Central Technological Library, the national library and information hub for natural sciences and technology. ; Municipal Library and other libraries The Municipal City Library of Ljubljana, established in 2008, is the central regional library and the largest Slovenian general public library. In 2011, it held 1,657,000 volumes, among these 1,432,000 books and a multitude of other resources in 36 branches. Altogether, there are 5 general public libraries and over 140 specialised libraries in Ljubljana. Besides the two largest university libraries there are libraries at individual faculties, departments and institutes of the

. The largest among them are the Central Humanist Library of the Faculty of Arts, Central Humanist Library in the field of humanities, the Central Social Sciences Library of the Faculty of Social Sciences, Ljubljana, Central Social Sciences Library, the Central Economic Library in the field of economics, the Central Medical Library in the field of medical sciences, and the Libraries of the Biotechnical Faculty in the field of biology and biotechnology. ; History The first libraries in Ljubljana were located in Monastery, monasteries. The first public library was the Carniolan Estates' Library, established in 1569 by Primož Trubar. In the 17th century, the Jesuit library, Ljubljana, Jesuit Library collected numerous works, particularly about mathematics. In 1707, the Seminary Library, Ljubljana, Seminary Library was established; it is the first and oldest public scientific library in Slovenia. Around 1774, after the dissolution of the Jesuits, the Lyceum Library, Ljubljana, Lyceum Library was formed from the remains of the Jesuit Library as well as several monastery libraries.

Science

The first society of the leading scientists and public workers in Carniola was the Dismas Fraternity (Latin: {{lang, la, Societas Unitorum), formed in Ljubljana in 1688. In 1693, the ''Academia Operosorum Labacensium'' was founded and lasted with an interruption until the end of the 18th century. The next academy in Ljubljana, the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts, was not established until 1938.

Transport

Air transport

Ljubljana Jože Pučnik Airport (ICAO airport code, ICAO code LJLJ; IATA code LJU), located {{cvt, 26, km, mi, sp=us northwest of the city, has flights to numerous European destinations. Among the companies that fly from there are Air France, Air Serbia, Brussels Airlines, easyJet, Finnair, Lufthansa, Swiss International Air Lines, Swiss, Wizz Air, Transavia and Turkish Airlines. The destinations are mainly European.{{cite web , title=Aerodrom Ljubljana, d.d. , url=http://www.lju-airport.si/eng/airliner.asp?IDD=12&IDM=209 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916003831/http://www.lju-airport.si/eng/airliner.asp?IDM=209&IDD=12 , archive-date=16 September 2008 , access-date=31 July 2008 This airport has superseded the Polje Airport, original Ljubljana airport, in operation from 1933 until 1963.{{cite web , title=Staro Ljubljansko letališče: Zgodovina , trans-title=The Old Ljubljana Airport: History , url=https://sites.google.com/site/staroljubljanskoletalisce/home , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140412130124/https://sites.google.com/site/staroljubljanskoletalisce/home , archive-date=12 April 2014 , access-date=16 January 2012 , language=sl It was located in the Municipality of Polje (nowadays the Moste, Ljubljana, Moste District), on a plain between Ljubljanica and Sava next to the railroad in Moste. There was a military airport in Šiška from 1918 until 1929.{{cite book , last=Zajec , first=Anja , url=http://www.bb.si/doc/diplome/Zajec_Anja-Sprejem_in_odprava_potnikov_na_Letaliscu_Jozeta_Pucnika_Ljubljana.pdf , title=Sprejem in odprava potnikov na Letališču Jožeta Pučnika Ljubljana , date=May 2010 , publisher=B&B education and training , pages=8–9 , access-date=16 January 2012 , archive-date=28 March 2014 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328011607/http://www.bb.si/doc/diplome/Zajec_Anja-Sprejem_in_odprava_potnikov_na_Letaliscu_Jozeta_Pucnika_Ljubljana.pdf , url-status=live

Rail transport

In the Ljubljana Rail Hub, the Pan-European corridors, Pan-European railway corridors Pan-European Corridor V, V (the fastest link between the North Adriatic, and Central and Eastern Europe) and Pan-European Corridor X, X (linking Central Europe with the Balkans) and the Main line (railway), main European lines (E 65, E 69, E 70) intersect. All international transit trains in Slovenia drive through the Ljubljana hub, and all international passenger trains stop there.{{cite book , author=LUZ, d. d. , url=http://arhiv.mm.gov.si/mop/javno/zeleznisko_vozlisce_ljubljana/1_tekstualni_del/12_uredba/oDPN_Zeleznica_100323.pdf , title=Državni prostorski načrt za Ljubljansko železniško vozlišče , date=March 2010 , language=sl , trans-title=The National Space Plan for the Ljubljana Rail Hub: Draft , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120708094000/http://arhiv.mm.gov.si/mop/javno/zeleznisko_vozlisce_ljubljana/1_tekstualni_del/12_uredba/oDPN_Zeleznica_100323.pdf , archive-date=8 July 2012 , df=dmy-all The area of Ljubljana has six passenger Railway station, stations and nine stops. For passengers, the Slovenian Railways company offers the possibility to buy a daily or monthly city pass that can be used to travel between them. The Ljubljana railway station is the central station of the hub. The Ljubljana Moste Railway Station is the largest Slovenian railway dispatch. The Ljubljana Zalog Railway Station is the central Slovenian rail yard. There are a number of Industrial railway, industrial rails in Ljubljana. At the end of 2006,{{cite web , author=Urban Rail , date=30 January 2007 , title=Ljubljana's funicular tram , url=http://ljubljana-slovenia.blogspot.com/2007/01/ljubljanas-funicular-tram.html , access-date=13 September 2009 , archive-date=8 July 2011 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708051528/http://ljubljana-slovenia.blogspot.com/2007/01/ljubljanas-funicular-tram.html , url-status=live the Ljubljana Castle funicular started to operate. The rail goes from Krek Square (''Krekov trg'') near the Ljubljana Central Market to

. It is especially popular among tourists. The full trip lasts 60 seconds.

Roads

Ljubljana is located where Slovenia's two main motorways intersect, connecting the motorway route from east to west, in line with Pan-European Corridor V, and the motorway in the north–south direction, in line with Pan-European Corridor X.{{cite conference , author=Oplotnik, Žan , author2=Križanič, France , date=November 2004 , title=National motorway construction program (NMCP) in Slovenia (financing, impact on national economy and realisation) , url=http://dinamico2.unibg.it/highways/paper/oplotnik.pdf , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121120161909/https://dinamico2.unibg.it/highways/paper/oplotnik.pdf , archive-date=20 November 2012 , book-title=Highways: cost and regulation in Europe The city is linked to the southwest by European route E70, A1-E70 to the Italian cities of

and Venice and the Croatian port of Rijeka.Michelin, ''Slovénie, Croatie, Bosnie-Herzégovine, Serbie, Monténégro, Macédoine'', Cartes et guides n°736, Michelin, Zellik, Belgium, 2007, {{ISBN, 978-2-06-712627-5 To the north, European route E57, A1-E57 leads to Maribor, Graz and

. To the east, European route E70, A2-E70 links it with the Croatian capital

, from where one can go to Hungary or important cities of the former Yugoslavia, such as

. To the northwest, European route E61, A2-E61 goes to the Austrian towns of Klagenfurt and Salzburg, making it an important entry point for northern European tourists. A Vignette (road tax), toll sticker system has been in use on the Ljubljana Ring Road since 1 July 2008. The centre of the city is more difficult to access especially in the peak hours due to long arteries with traffic lights and a large number of daily commuters. The core city centre has been closed for motor traffic since September 2007 (except for residents with permissions), creating a pedestrian zone around

Public transport

The historical Ljubljana tram system was completed in 1901 and was replaced by buses in 1928,{{cite web , date=6 September 2011 , title=110 let mestnega potniškega prometa , trans-title=110 Years of the City Passenger Traffic , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/si/zivljenje-v-ljubljani/v-srediscu/73744/detail.html , publisher=Municipality of Ljubljana , language=sl , access-date=16 January 2012 , archive-date=26 September 2011 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110926211729/http://www.ljubljana.si/si/zivljenje-v-ljubljani/v-srediscu/73744/detail.html , url-status=live which were in turn abolished and replaced by trams in 1931 with its final length of {{cvt, 18.5, km, sp=us in 1940. In 1959, it was abolished in favor of automobiles;{{cite book , last=Nebec , first=Damjan , url=http://www.bb-kranj.si/doc/diplome/Nebec_Damjan-Analiza_placilnega_sistema_v_LPP.pdf , title=Analiza plačilnega sistema v LPP , date=March 2010 , publisher=B&B education and training , pages=10–11 , language=sl, de , trans-title=An Analysis of the Payment System in the LPP , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120803073742/http://www.bb-kranj.si/doc/diplome/Nebec_Damjan-Analiza_placilnega_sistema_v_LPP.pdf , archive-date=3 August 2012 , df=dmy-all the tracks were dismantled and tram cars were transferred to Osijek#Transport, Osijek and Subotica. Reintroduction of an actual tram system to Ljubljana has been proposed repeatedly in the 2000s. There are numerous taxi companies in the city. Mercedes-Benz_O405GN2_LPP_206

The Ljubljana Bus Station, the Ljubljana central bus hub, is located next to the Ljubljana railway station. The city bus network, run by the Ljubljana Passenger Transport (''LPP'') company, is Ljubljana's most widely used means of public transport. The fleet is relatively modern. The number of dedicated bus lanes is limited, which can cause problems in peak hours when traffic becomes congested.{{cite book , title=Study on Strategic Evaluation on Transport Investment Priorities under Structural and Cohesion funds for the Programming Period 2007–2013 , date=August 2006 , publisher=ECORYS Nederland BV , chapter=Situation per mode of transport , chapter-url=http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/evaluation/pdf/evasltrat_tran/slovenia.pdf , access-date=7 February 2012 , archive-date=10 May 2012 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510063003/http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/sources/docgener/evaluation/pdf/evasltrat_tran/slovenia.pdf , url-status=live Bus rides may be paid with the Urbana (payment card), Urbana payment card (also used for the funicular) or with a Mobile payment, mobile phone. Sometimes the buses are called ''trole'' (referring to trolley poles), harking back to the 1951–1971 days when Ljubljana had trolleybus (''trolejbus'') service.{{cite news , last=Pataky , first=Nenad , date=17 November 2010 , title=Izgubljena Ljubljana , language=sl , trans-title=Lost Ljubljana , newspaper=Dnevnik , url=http://www.dnevnik.si/tiskane_izdaje/dnevnik/1042403604 , access-date=16 January 2012 , archive-date=14 September 2016 , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160914223528/http://www.dnevnik.si/tiskane_izdaje/dnevnik/1042403604 , url-status=live There were five Ljubljana trolleybus system, trolleybus lines in Ljubljana, until 1958 alongside the tram. Another means of public road transport in the city centre is the Cavalier ({{lang, sl, Kavalir), an electric shuttle bus vehicle operated by LPP since May 2009. There are three such vehicles in Ljubljana. The ride is free and there are no stations because it can be stopped anywhere. It can carry up to five passengers; most of them are elderly people and tourists. The Cavalier drives in the car-free zone in the Ljubljana downtown. The first line links

, Wolf Street and the Hribar Embankment, whereas the second links

, Upper Square (Ljubljana), Upper Square, and Old Square (Ljubljana), Old Square. There is also a trackless train (tractor with wagons decorated to look like a train) for tourists in Ljubljana, linking Cyril and Methodius Square in the city centre with Ljubljana Castle.

Bicycles

There is a considerable amount of bicycle traffic in Ljubljana, especially in the warmer months of the year. It is also possible to rent a bike. Since May 2011, the BicikeLJ, a self-service Bicycle sharing system, bicycle rental system offers the residents and visitors of Ljubljana 600 bicycles and more than 600 parking spots at 60 stations in the wider city centre area. The daily number of rentals is around 2,500. There was an option to rent a bike even before the establishment of BicikeLJ.{{cite web , title=Ljubljana Bike , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/en/tourist_services/lj-bike/default.html , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071009205059/http://www.ljubljana.si/en/tourist_services/lj-bike/default.html , archive-date=9 October 2007 , access-date=31 July 2008 There are still some conditions for cyclists in Ljubljana that have been criticised, including cycle lanes in poor condition and constructed in a way that motorised traffic is privileged. There are also many one-way streets which therefore cannot be used as alternate routes so it is difficult to legally travel by bicycle through the city centre. Through years, some prohibitions have been partially abolished by marking cycle lanes on the pavement. Nevertheless, the situation has been steadily improving; in 2015, Ljubljana placed 13th in a ranking of the world's most bicycle-friendly cities. In 2016, Ljubljana was 8th on the Copenhagenize list.

Water transport

The river transport on the Ljubljanica and the Sava was the main means of cargo transport to and from the city until the mid-19th century, when railroads were built. Today, the Ljubljanica is used by a number of tourist boats, with wharves under the

, at Fish Square, Ljubljana, Fish Square, at Court Square, Ljubljana, Court Square, at Breg, Ljubljana, Breg, at the Poljane Embankment, and elsewhere.

Healthcare

Ljubljana has a rich history of discoveries in medicine and innovations in medical technology. The majority of Secondary care, secondary and tertiary care in Slovenia takes place in Ljubljana. The Ljubljana University Medical Centre is the largest hospital centre in Slovenia. The Faculty of Medicine, Ljubljana, Faculty of Medicine (University of Ljubljana) and the Ljubljana Institute of Oncology are the other two central medical institutions in Slovenia. The Ljubljana Community Health Centre is the largest health centre in Slovenia. It has seven units at 11 locations. Since 1986, Ljubljana is part of the Healthy city, WHO European Healthy Cities Network.{{cite web , year=2009 , title=Organizacijske enote v sestavi: Odsek za zdravje , trans-title=Organisational Units of the Department of Health and Social Protection , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/si/mol/mestna-uprava/oddelki/zdravje-socialno-varstvo/organizacijske-enote-v-sestavi/ , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111206073938/http://www.ljubljana.si/si/mol/mestna-uprava/oddelki/zdravje-socialno-varstvo/organizacijske-enote-v-sestavi , archive-date=6 December 2011 , access-date=8 December 2011 , publisher=City Municipality of Ljubljana , language=sl , df=dmy-all

International relations

{{See also, List of twin towns and sister cities in Slovenia

Twin towns and sister cities

Ljubljana is Twin towns and sister cities, twinned with:{{cite web , title=Ljubljana's twin cities , url=http://www.ljubljana.si/en/about-ljubljana/twin_cities_association_-memberships/ , archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611224540/http://www.ljubljana.si/en/about-ljubljana/twin_cities_association_-memberships/ , archive-date=11 June 2016 , access-date=27 July 2013 , work=Mestna občina Ljubljana (Ljubljana City) , df=dmy-all {, class="wikitable" , *{{flagicon, TUR Ankara, Turkey (since 2015) *{{flagicon, GRC Athens, Greece (since 2000) *{{flagicon, AZE Baku, Azerbaijan (since 2013) *{{flagicon, SRB

, Serbia (since 2010) *{{flagicon, SVK Bratislava, Slovakia (since 1967) *{{flagicon, BEL Brussels, Belgium (since 2004) *{{flagicon, GER Chemnitz, Germany (since 1966) *{{flagicon, PRC Chengdu, China (since 1981) , *{{flagicon, USA Cleveland, United States (since 1975) *{{flagicon, GER Leverkusen, Germany (since 1979) *{{flagicon, UAE Fujairah, United Arab Emirates (since 2014) *{{flagicon, AUT Graz, Austria (since 2001) *{{flagicon, GBR Nottingham, United Kingdom (since 1963) *{{flagicon, ITA Parma, Italy (since 1964) *{{flagicon, ITA Pesaro, Italy (since 1964) , *{{flagicon, CRO Ploče, Croatia (since 1982) *{{flagicon, CRO Rijeka, Croatia (since 1979) *{{flagicon, BIH Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina (since 2002) *{{flagicon, NMK Skopje, North Macedonia (since 2007) *{{flagicon, TUN Sousse, Tunisia (since 1969) *{{flagicon, GEO Tbilisi, Georgia (since 1977) *{{flagicon, GER Wiesbaden, Germany (since 1977) *{{flagicon, CRO

, Croatia (since 2001)

Notes

{{Notelist

References

{{Reflist, 30em

Bibliography

{{See also, Timeline of Ljubljana#Bibliography, l1=Bibliography of the history of Ljubljana *{{cite book , last=Jarrett , first=Mark , title=The Congress of Vienna and its Legacy: War and Great Power Diplomacy after Napoleon , publisher=I. B. Tauris & Company, Limited , year=2013 , isbn=978-1-78076-116-9 , location=London *{{Cite EB1911 , wstitle=Laibach , volume=16 , first=Walter Alison , last=Phillips , author-link=Walter Alison Phillips , pages=82–83, short=1 *{{cite book , author=Jörg Stabenow , title=Capital Cities in the Aftermath of Empires: Planning in Central and Southeastern Europe , publisher=Routledge , year=2009 , isbn=978-1-135-16725-7 , editor1=Emily Gunzburger Makas , pages=223–240 , chapter=Ljubljana , ref={{harvid, Stabenow, 2009 , editor2=Tanja Damljanovic Conley , chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=M_aMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA223 *Velušček, Anton (ed.) (2009)
''Stare Gmajne Pile-Dwelling Settlement and its Era''
(bilingual English and Slovenian edition). Založba ZRC. {{ISBN, 978-961-254-155-2.

External links

{{Sister project links, Ljubljana, voy=Ljubljana
Ljubljana
on Geopedia
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