Lacquerware are objects decoratively covered with

lacquer Lacquer is a type of hard and usually shiny coating or finish applied to materials such as wood or metal. It is most often made from resin extracted from trees and waxes and has been in use since antiquity. Asian lacquerware, which may be c ...

. Lacquerware includes small or large containers, tableware, a variety of small objects carried by people, and larger objects such as furniture and even coffins painted with lacquer. Before lacquering, the surface is sometimes painted with pictures, inlaid with shell and other materials, or carved. The lacquer can be dusted with gold or silver for example

Hirameji Hirameji (Japanese: “flat dust base”) is a Japanese lacquerware technique using flakes of gold or silver. Hirmeji is believed to have been from an earlier, Heian period The is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 7 ...

and given further decorative treatments.

East Asia East Asia is a geocultural region of Asia. It includes China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan, plus two special administrative regions of China, Hong Kong and Macau. The economies of Economy of China, China, Economy of Ja ...

n countries have long traditions of lacquer work, origin of lacquer is from china. going back several thousand years in the cases of China, Japan and Korea. The best known lacquer, an

urushiol Urushiol is an oily mixture of organic compounds with Allergic contact dermatitis, allergenic properties found in plants of the Family (biology), family Anacardiaceae, especially ''Toxicodendron'' ''spp.'' (e.g., poison oak, Toxicodendron vernic ...

-based lacquer common in East Asia, is obtained from the dried sap of ''

Toxicodendron vernicifluum ''Toxicodendron vernicifluum'' (formerly ''Rhus verniciflua''), also known by the common name Chinese lacquer tree, is an Asian tree species of genus '' Toxicodendron'' native to China and the Indian subcontinent, and cultivated in regions o ...

.'' Other types of lacquers are processed from a variety of plants and insects. The traditions of lacquer work in

Southeast Asia Southeast Asia is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, southeastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent, and northwest of the Mainland Au ...

South Asia South Asia is the southern Subregion#Asia, subregion of Asia that is defined in both geographical and Ethnicity, ethnic-Culture, cultural terms. South Asia, with a population of 2.04 billion, contains a quarter (25%) of the world's populatio ...

and the

Americas The Americas, sometimes collectively called America, are a landmass comprising the totality of North America and South America.''Webster's New World College Dictionary'', 2010 by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Cleveland, Ohio. When viewed as a sing ...

are also ancient and originated independently. True lacquer is not made outside Asia, but some imitations, such as

Japanning Japanning is a type of Surface finishing, finish that originated as a European imitation of East Asian lacquerware#East Asia, lacquerwork. It was first used on furniture, but was later much used on small items in metal. The word originated in th ...

in Europe, or parallel techniques, are often loosely referred to a "lacquer."

East Asia

The oldest lacquer tree found is from the

Jōmon period In Japanese history, the is the time between , during which Japan was inhabited by the Jōmon people, a diverse hunter-gatherer and early agriculturalist population united by a common culture, which reached a considerable degree of sedentism an ...

in Japan, 12600 years ago. The oldest lacquerware in the world, burial ornaments which were created in 9th millennium B.C., were unearthed in early Jomon period tombs, at the

Kakinoshima site The is an archaeological site consisting of a series of large shell middens and the remains of an adjacent settlement from the Jōmon period. The site is in what is now part of the city of Hakodate in Oshima Subprefecture on the island of Hokkai ...

Hakodate is a Cities of Japan, city and seaports of Japan, port located in Oshima Subprefecture, Hokkaido, Japan. It is the capital city of Oshima Subprefecture. As of January 31, 2024, the city had an estimated population of 239,813 with 138,807 househol ...

Hokkaido is the list of islands of Japan by area, second-largest island of Japan and comprises the largest and northernmost prefectures of Japan, prefecture, making up its own list of regions of Japan, region. The Tsugaru Strait separates Hokkaidō fr ...

, Japan. Various prehistoric lacquerwares have been unearthed in China dating back to the

Neolithic The Neolithic or New Stone Age (from Ancient Greek, Greek 'new' and 'stone') is an archaeological period, the final division of the Stone Age in Mesopotamia, Asia, Europe and Africa (c. 10,000 BCE to c. 2,000 BCE). It saw the Neolithic Revo ...

period and objects. The earliest known lacquerware in China is thought to be a red wooden bowl, which was unearthed at a

Hemudu culture The Hemudu culture (5500 BC to 3300 BC) was a Neolithic culture that flourished on the Coastline of China, Chinese coast, just south of the Hangzhou Bay in Jiangnan in modern Yuyao, Zhejiang, China. The culture may be divided into early and la ...

() site in

Zhejiang ) , translit_lang1_type2 = , translit_lang1_info2 = ( Hangzhounese) ( Ningbonese) (Wenzhounese) , image_skyline = 玉甑峰全貌 - panoramio.jpg , image_caption = View of the Yandang Mountains , image_map = Zhejiang i ...

, China.

Chinese lacquerware

A Late Qing Dynasty Abalone Shell Lacquerware Tobacco Oil Diffuser in black

During the

Shang dynasty The Shang dynasty (), also known as the Yin dynasty (), was a Chinese royal dynasty that ruled in the Yellow River valley during the second millennium BC, traditionally succeeding the Xia dynasty and followed by the Western Zhou d ...

(ca. 1600–1046 BC) of China, sophisticated lacquer process techniques developed became a highly artistic craft. During the

Eastern Zhou The Eastern Zhou (256 BCE) is a period in Chinese history comprising the latter two-thirds of the Zhou dynasty. The period follows the Western Zhou era and is named due to the Zhou royal court relocating the capital eastward from Fenghao ...

period (771–256 BC), lacquerware began appearing in large quantity. This is the earliest era from which notable quantities of lacquerware have survived, with states, later kingdoms, of Qin and

Chu Chu or CHU may refer to: Chinese history * Chu (state) (c. 1030 BC–223 BC), a state during the Zhou dynasty * Western Chu (206 BC–202 BC), a state founded and ruled by Xiang Yu * Chu Kingdom (Han dynasty) (201 BC–70 AD), a kingdom of the H ...

producing the largest number of lacquerware. The state of Chu having the geographical advantage and warmer climates enabled dedicated mass cultivation of lacquer trees and for lacquerware to become a commercial industry. Because of this, Chu-state became famous for its lacquerware exports in the neighbouring states in the Zhou kingdom, with literary references found in books like

Zhuangzi Zhuangzi may refer to: * ''Zhuangzi'' (book) (莊子), an ancient Chinese collection of anecdotes and fables, one of the foundational texts of Taoism **Zhuang Zhou Zhuang Zhou (), commonly known as Zhuangzi (; ; literally "Master Zhuang"; als ...

and Shangshu, and providing some cultural cross-pollination between the southern culture of Chu and the culture of

Zhongyuan Zhongyuan (), the Central Plain(s), also known as Zhongtu (, lit. 'central land') and Zhongzhou (, lit. 'central region'), commonly refers to the part of the North China Plain surrounding the lower and middle reaches of the Yellow River, centere ...

. At the time of the

Han dynasty The Han dynasty was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC ...

(206 BC – 220 AD), special administrations were established to organize and divide labor for the expanding lacquer production in China. Elaborate incised decorations were used in lacquerware during the Han dynasty. In the

Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...

(618–907), Chinese lacquerware saw a new style marked by the use of sheets of gold or silver made in various shapes, such as birds, animals, and flowers. The cut-outs were affixed onto the surface of the lacquerware, after which new layers of lacquer were applied, dried, and then ground away, so the surface could be polished to reveal the golden or silvery patterns beneath. This was done by a technique known as ''pingtuo''. Such techniques were time-consuming and costly, but these lacquerware were considered highly refined. It was also the period when the earliest practice of carving lacquerware began. The art of inlaid gold, silver, and mother-of-pearl continued from the Tang into the

Song dynasty The Song dynasty ( ) was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Fiv ...

(960–1279). Several existing decorative techniques gradually developed further after the 10th century, such as '' diaoqi'' (

carved lacquer Carved lacquer or Qidiao () is a distinctive Chinese form of decorated lacquerware. While lacquer has been used in China for at least 3,000 years, the technique of carving into very thick coatings of it appears to have been developed in the 12 ...

) which involves building up layers comprising thinly-applied coats of lacquer and carving it into a three-dimensional design; ''qiangjin'' (engraved gold) in which fine lines are incised, an adhesive of lacquer is applied, and gold foil or powder is pressed into the grooves; and ''diaotian'' or ''tianqi'' (filled-in) in which the lacquer is inlaid with lacquer of another color. A variation of ''diaotian'' or ''tianqi'' is known as ''moxian'' (polish-reveal) in which a design is built up with lacquer in certain areas, the remaining areas are filled with lacquer of a different color, and the entire surface is polished down. Especially the art of inlaying lacquer with mother-of-pearl was intensively developed during the Song dynasty. However, during the Song, the artistic craft also made use of inlaid gold in a process of which is to engrave intricate patterns in the lacquer surface and to fill the intaglio with gold powder. The knowledge of the Chinese methods of the lacquer process spread from China during the Han, Tang and Song dynasties, eventually it was introduced to Korea, Japan. In Japan, the art of lacquerware-making came along with Buddhism and other cultural artifacts from China via the Korean Peninsula during the 8th century, and carved lacquerware came to Japan from

Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...

China during the 14th century. One of the earliest Japanese techniques for decorating the lacquer surface was, besides painting simple designs, the gold and silver foil inlay of the

Nara period The of the history of Japan covers the years from 710 to 794. Empress Genmei established the capital of Heijō-kyō (present-day Nara). Except for a five-year period (740–745), when the capital was briefly moved again, it remained the capita ...

(710–784). This technique was transmitted from China during the Tang dynasty. Coromandel lacquer is a Chinese export type, so called because it was shipped to European markets via the

Coromandel coast The Coromandel Coast is a coastal region along the southeastern front of the Indian peninsula. Its delimitations are numerous, but generally admitted to be bounded by the Krishna River, Krishna river River mouth, mouth to the north, the Bay of B ...

of India.

Gallery

File:Red lacquered bowl from the Hemudu culture(Neolithic) in Zhejiang Museum.JPG, Red lacquer wood bowl from the Chinese

dated to 4000–5000 BC, the oldest such piece ever found. File:Accompanying Coffin, Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng (10166279464).jpg, Coffin from the Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng File:20230208 Painted lacquer lidded dou-bowl carved wirh dragons.jpg, Lacquer dou-vessel from the Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng File:Warring States Lacquer Box (10336758635).jpg, Lacquerware box,

Warring States period The Warring States period in history of China, Chinese history (221 BC) comprises the final two and a half centuries of the Zhou dynasty (256 BC), which were characterized by frequent warfare, bureaucratic and military reforms, and ...

File:Painted Lacquered Wood Mandarin Duck-shaped Case (10166864494).jpg, Painted Lacquered Wood Mandarin Duck-shaped Case, Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng File:Lacquered Shield, Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng (10170326594).jpg, Lacquered Shield, Tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng file:Warring States Lacquered Figure, Chu State (10162601104).jpg, Lacquered (羽人) figure on a toad stand, Chu kingdom, Warring States period. File:20230208 Painted lacquer box in the shape of two rear-to-rear pigs.jpg, Lacquer box in shape of pigs, Chu kingdom, Warring States. File:Lacquerware from State of Ch'u.jpg, Lacquerware box from the Jingmen Tomb () of the

State of Chu Chu (, Old Chinese: ''*s-r̥aʔ'') was an Ancient Chinese states, ancient Chinese state during the Zhou dynasty. Their first ruler was King Wu of Chu in the early 8th century BC. Chu was located in the south of the Zhou heartland and lasted ...

(704–223 BC) File:彩漆木雕小座屏，2014-04-06_05.jpg, Openwork lacquered screen with animal designs, Warring States period File:Lacquer painting from Ch'u State.jpg, Details on the Chu lacquerware box, depicting men wearing precursors to ''

Hanfu ''Hanfu'' (, lit. "Han Chinese, Han clothing"), also known as ''Hanzhuang'' (), are the traditional styles of clothing worn by the Han Chinese since the 2nd millennium BCE. There are several representative styles of ''hanfu'', such as the (an ...

'' (i.e. traditional

silk Silk is a natural fiber, natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be weaving, woven into textiles. The protein fiber of silk is composed mainly of fibroin and is most commonly produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoon (silk), c ...

dress) and riding in a two-horsed

chariot A chariot is a type of vehicle similar to a cart, driven by a charioteer, usually using horses to provide rapid Propulsion, motive power. The oldest known chariots have been found in burials of the Sintashta culture in modern-day Chelyabinsk O ...

File:朱雀攫蛇漆豆AM.jpg, '' Zhuque'' -vessel,

Warring States, File:20230208 Painted lacquer square hu-jar with dragon-shaped handles.jpg, Painted lacquer -jar with dragon-shaped handles, Warring States period file:Lacquer box of phoenix pattern, Warring States, Zaoyang, Hubei, Hubei Museum.jpg, Lacquer box of phoenix pattern, Warring States. File:20230208 Painted lacquer flat flask with coiled serpents.jpg, Painted lacquer flat flask with coiled serpents, Warring States. File:MET DP100674.jpg, Lacquered winged goblet ( :zh:羽觞), also known as "eared" or flanged cup (耳杯) from Warring States. Lacquer bowls of cloud design, Warring States, Jiangling, Hubei, Jingzhou Museum.jpg, Lacquered flanged cup with cloud designs from Warring States. File:Warring States Lacquer Eared Cup (10336760735).jpg, Lacquered winged cup from Warring States with geometric design. File:Warring States Lacquered Cup, Chu State (10162831913).jpg, Lacquer phoenix cup,

state of Chu Chu (, Old Chinese: ''*s-r̥aʔ'') was an Ancient Chinese states, ancient Chinese state during the Zhou dynasty. Their first ruler was King Wu of Chu in the early 8th century BC. Chu was located in the south of the Zhou heartland and lasted ...

, Warring States. File:20230208 Painted lacquer spouted cup with phoenixes.jpg, File:Qin lacquer box.JPG, Lacquer box incised with "

Panyu Panyu, formerly romanized as Punyü, is one of 11 urban districts of the prefecture-level city of Guangzhou, the capital of Guangdong Province, China. Since January 1975, Panyu County has been under Guangzhou's administration. In 1992, Panyu C ...

" in

seal script Seal script or sigillary script () is a Chinese script styles, style of writing Chinese characters that was common throughout the latter half of the 1st millennium BC. It evolved organically out of bronze script during the Zhou dynasty (1 ...

, from the

Qin dynasty The Qin dynasty ( ) was the first Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China. It is named for its progenitor state of Qin, a fief of the confederal Zhou dynasty (256 BC). Beginning in 230 BC, the Qin under King Ying Zheng enga ...

File:Qin-Han Lacquered Erbei (Eared Cup) (10163790226).jpg, "Eared" or flanged cup (耳杯), Qin or Han dynasty File:Qin-Han Lacquered Pot (10163478874).jpg, Lacquered flask, Qin or Han dynasty File:Qin-Han Lacquered Case (10163588574).jpg, Pig-shaped lacquered case, Qin or Han dynasty File:Mawangdui lacquerwares and tray.jpg,

lacquerware unearthed at

Mawangdui Mawangdui () is an archaeological site located in Changsha, China. The site consists of two saddle-shaped hills and contained the tombs of three people from the Changsha Kingdom during the western Han dynasty (206 BC – 9 AD): the Chancellor Li ...

, 2nd century BC file:Mawangdui Han Lacquerware (10112576245).jpg, Lacquerware box from

, Han dynasty. File:Mawangdui Han Lacquerware Screen (10112606213).jpg, Lacquerware screen, Han dynasty File:Qin-Han Lacquered Plate (10163532664).jpg, Lacquer dish,

File:Western Han Inkstone & Lacquer Case (9831993673).jpg, Inkstone and lacquer case,

Western Han dynasty The Han dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and a warring in ...

File:Lacquer flat plate with Cloud-dragon design and the words Marquis Dai's Household, Mawangdui, Changsha, Hunan, Hunan Museum, picture2.jpg, Lacquer dish with cloud-dragon design,

File:Lacquer Wine-Cup Container.jpg, Lacquer Wine-Cup Container and wine cup set, Han dynasty File:Western Han Lacquered Eared Cup of Prince Tian Chang (9979164306).jpg,

Lacquered flanged cup, known as winged goblet ( :zh:羽觞) or "eared cup"(耳杯) of Prince of Tianchang File:Han Painted Pottery Eared Cups (11867425585).jpg, Lacquered pottery flanged or eared cup, Han dynasty File:Qin-Han Lacquered Erbei (Eared Cup) (10163662184).jpg, Lacquered flanged cup, known as winged goblet ( :zh:羽觞), Han dynasty File:西漢黑地朱繪雲氣紋漆碗-Bowl with Geometric Designs MET DP355715.jpg, Western Han dynasty lacquer bowl File:Lacquer flanged cups and dishes.jpg, Lacquer flanged cups and dishes from Mawangdui, Han dynasty File:Western Han Lacquered An (Table) (9979165496).jpg, Lacquered table,

File:Kunming Oct 2007 044.jpg, Lacquerware in the shape of a man's head,

Western Han The Han dynasty was an imperial dynasty of China (202 BC9 AD, 25–220 AD) established by Liu Bang and ruled by the House of Liu. The dynasty was preceded by the short-lived Qin dynasty (221–206 BC) and a warring int ...

(202 BC – 9 AD), Yunnan Provincial Museum, Kunming File:彩绘龙纹漆奁.jpg, Lacquer dressing case painted with dragon pattern, Han dynasty File:Qin-Han Lacquered Case (10163765166).jpg, Lacquered case, Han dynasty File:Lacquer Coffin Unearthed from the 2nd-century-BC Han Tomb No.1 at Mawangdui 2011-07.JPG, Lacquerware coffin of Mawangdui, Han dynasty File:Mawangdui Han Second Coffin from Tomb -1 (10113019345).jpg, Second coffin of Mawangdui, Han dynasty File:Mawangdui Han Third Coffin from Tomb -1 (10113109063).jpg, Third coffin of Mawangdui, Han dynasty File:Lidded Cosmetic Box (Lian) with Scrolling Clouds and Supernatural Creatures LACMA AC1997.50.1.1-.2.jpg, Lidded cosmetic box,

, about 100 BC – 25 AD File:Mawangdui Han Lacquerware (10112520884).jpg, Lacquerware pot from Mawangdui Tomb. File:Small Round Lidded Cosmetic Box (Lian) with Scrolling Clouds and Birds LACMA M.2001.32.3a-b.jpg, Lacquered cosmetic box,

File:Lacquered Wooden Screen Reconstruction (9966944775).jpg, Lacquerware screen of Prince of Nanyue (reconstruction), Han dynasty File:Oval Lidded Cosmetic Box (Duoyuan He) with Scrolling Clouds, Animals, and Birds LACMA M.2001.32.1a-b.jpg, Oval Lidded Cosmetic Box (Duoyuan He) with Scrolling Clouds, Animals, and Birds,

File:Mawangdui Han Lacquerware (10112474374).jpg, Lacquered chest from Mawangdui. File:Lacquer from han dynasty mawangdui.jpg, Lacquerware flanged drinking vessels and plates from the Mawangdui Tomb. File:Basket from Lo-lang.jpg, Chinese painted artwork on the lacquered basket of Lolang, a region of the Han dynasty. File:Qin-Han Lacquered Zun (10163965493).jpg, Lacquered , Han dynasty File:Painted Iacquer dish unearthed from the tomb of Zhuran 01 2012-05.JPG, Painted lacquerware dish from the tomb of

Zhu Ran Zhu Ran (182 – March or April 249), born Shi Ran, courtesy name Yifeng, was a Chinese military general of the state of Eastern Wu during the Three Kingdoms period of China. Despite being a childhood friend of Wu's founding emperor, Sun Quan, h ...

(182–249 AD) in

Anhui province Anhui is an inland province located in East China. Its provincial capital and largest city is Hefei. The province is located across the basins of the Yangtze and Huai rivers, bordering Jiangsu and Zhejiang to the east, Jiangxi to the south, Hub ...

, showing figures wearing ''

'',

Eastern Wu Wu (Chinese language, Chinese: 吳; pinyin: ''Wú''; Middle Chinese *''ŋuo'' < Eastern Han Chinese: ''*ŋuɑ''), known in historiography as Eastern Wu or Sun Wu, was a Dynasties of China, dynastic state of China and one of the three major sta ...

Three Kingdoms period The Three Kingdoms of Cao Wei, Shu Han, and Eastern Wu dominated China from AD 220 to 280 following the end of the Han dynasty. This period was preceded by the Eastern Han dynasty and followed by the Western Jin dynasty. Academically, the ...

. File:Painted Iacquer narrow table unearthed from the tomb of Zhuran 2012-05.JPG, Painted lacquerware tray from the tomb of

. File:Geta Unearthed from the Tomb of Zhu Ran 2012-05.JPG, Black lacquered clogs from the tomb of

. File:Painted Iacquer dish unearthed from the tomb of Zhuran 02 2012-05.JPG, Painted lacquerware dish from the tomb of

. File:Mirror with phoenixes, birds, and flowers - Google Art Project.jpg, Lacquered mirror with bronze and silver inlays,

file:Tang Mirror (50616050688).jpg, Black lacquered mirror back with four phoenixes,

File:China, Tang dynasty (618-907) - Song dynasty - Inlays for a Mirror or Box - 1969.78 - Cleveland Museum of Art.tif, Lacquer mirror box with inlays for a Mirror, Tang -

file:Bowl (Wan) in the Form of a Flower Blossom LACMA AC1994.208.1.jpg, Bowl in shape of a flower blossom, Song dynasty File:Cup (Bei) with Sword-Pommel Pattern LACMA M.90.70.2.jpg, Cup with Sword-Pommel Pattern, Song dynasty File:南宋黑面剔犀劍環紋漆盒-Box with Pommel Scroll Design MET DP355771.jpg, Box with Pommel Scroll design, Song dynasty File:'Abbot' by Liu Yun, dry lacquer, dated 1099, Honolulu Museum of Art.JPG, Lacquered Buddhist abbot, Song dynasty File:南宋黑漆葵瓣盞（一對）-Pair of Plum-Blossom-Shaped Cups MET DP360355.jpg, Black lacquered plum-blossom-shaped cup, Song dynasty File:Chest (Xiang) LACMA M.78.121.2.jpg, Black lacquer on wood core with wickerwork panels, Song dynasty File:Tablescreen with Calligraphy of Sima Guang's (1019-1086) Family Instructions LACMA M.2000.191.jpg, Tablescreen with Calligraphy of

Sima Guang Sima Guang (17 November 1019 – 11 October 1086), courtesy name Junshi, was a Chinese historian, politician, and writer. He was a high-ranking Song dynasty scholar-official who authored the ''Zizhi Tongjian'', a monumental work of history. B ...

's Family Instructions, Song dynasty file:Tray (Pan) in the Form of a Plum Blossom with Birds and Flowers LACMA M.86.330 (1 of 2).jpg, Pan in the Form of a Plum Blossom with Birds and Flowers, Late

File:黑漆嵌螺钿人物图盒.jpg, Black lacquered box with painted figures, Late

File:WLA haa Table Yuan Dynasty.jpg, A lacquered table of the

Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty ( ; zh, c=元朝, p=Yuáncháo), officially the Great Yuan (; Mongolian language, Mongolian: , , literally 'Great Yuan State'), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after Div ...

, 14th century, with an inlaid mother-of-pearl decoration of a tree File:Rectangular Box (Changfang He) with Sword-Pommel Pattern LACMA M.84.121.1a-b.jpg,

Carved lacquer Carved lacquer or Qidiao () is a distinctive Chinese form of decorated lacquerware. While lacquer has been used in China for at least 3,000 years, the technique of carving into very thick coatings of it appears to have been developed in the 12 ...

box with the "Sword-Pommel Pattern",

(1279–1368) File:MET DP135209.jpg, Black lacquer box with pearl inlays, late Yuan to early Ming dynasty. file:明初剔紅庭園高士圖漆盤-Dish with garden scene MET DP256068 (cropped).jpg, Lacquer Dish with garden scene, Early Ming dynasty File:Box with two phoenix birds and chrysanthemums, China, Ming dynasty, Yongle period, 1403-1424 AD, lacquer - Östasiatiska museet, Stockholm - DSC09540.JPG, Box,

, Yongle era (1403–1424) File:明中期剔犀劍環紋漆盒-Box with pommel scroll design MET DP704136.jpg, Lacquer Box with pommel scroll design, Ming dynasty File:MET DP704124.jpg, Octagonal food box with pommel scrolls, Ming dynasty File:Stemmed Cup (Gaozu Bei) with Sword-Pommel Pattern LACMA M.79.89.1.jpg,

stem cup with the "Sword-Pommel Pattern", mid-

file:龙纹花瓣形雕漆盒 1520.jpg, Lacquer box with dragon motifs and inlays, Ming dynasty File:Covered box with dragon, China, Ming dynasty, Jiajing era, 1522-1566 AD, carved lacquer - Tokyo National Museum - Tokyo, Japan - DSC08303.jpg, Covered box with dragon motif, Ming dynassty, Jiajing era, 1522-1566 AD File:Seal Paste Box (Yinnihe) with Litchi Stems LACMA M.87.205a-b (1 of 2).jpg, Carved red lacquer on wood core, Ming dynasty File:朱漆描金百宝嵌庭院人物故事顶箱柜07587.jpg, Red Lacquer Wardrobes Inlaid with Various Treasures, Ming dynasty File:万历款填漆戗金云龙纹立柜.jpg, Lacquer cabinet with dragon and cloud motifs, from Wanli era,

File:Dragon on 万历款填漆戗金云龙纹立柜.jpg, Detail of lacquer cabinet with dragon and cloud motifs,

File:黑漆描金龙纹方角药柜07566.jpg, Black lacquered medicine cabinet with dragon patterns from Wanli era,

. File:Rectangular tray with dragons and pearl, China, Ming dynasty, dated 1623 AD, wood with lacquer - Linden-Museum - Stuttgart, Germany - DSC03517.jpg, Tray with dragons, Ming dynasty. File:明晚期_嵌螺鈿漆花鳥紋座屏-Table_screen_MET_DP-14362-001.jpg, Lacquer table-screen file:Late Ming-Early Qing Lacquered Case (9979458956).jpg, Late Ming - Early Qing dynasty lacquered Case File:Square Dish (Die) with Figure on Horse LACMA M.39.2.569.1.jpg, Square dish,

Qing dynasty The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...

, Kangxi era (1662–1722) File:Cup with a poem composed by the Emperor Qianlong, China, Qing dynasty, 1736-1795, wood base, red and green lacquer - Royal Ontario Museum - DSC03964.JPG,

cup with a poem composed by the

Qianlong Emperor The Qianlong Emperor (25 September 17117 February 1799), also known by his temple name Emperor Gaozong of Qing, personal name Hongli, was the fifth Emperor of China, emperor of the Qing dynasty and the fourth Qing emperor to rule over China pr ...

(1735–1796),

File:Dinastia qing, vaso a doppia zucca in lacca intagliata, con otto emblemi buddisti, 1800-50 ca.jpg, Carved lacquer

calabash Calabash (; ''Lagenaria siceraria''), also known as bottle gourd, white-flowered gourd, long melon, birdhouse gourd, New Guinea bean, New Guinea butter bean, Tasmania bean, and opo squash, is a vine grown for its fruit. It can be either harvest ...

-bottle, Qing dynasty File:Qing Lacquered Scripture Box (10152135216).jpg, Lacquered Scripture Box, Qing dynasty File:Cina, paravento in stile coromandel, lacca, madreperla, tartaruga e oro, 1750-1800 ca. 01.jpg, Coromandel lacquer

folding screen A folding screen, also known as pingfeng (), is a type of free-standing furniture consisting of several frames or panels, which are often connected by hinges or by other means. They have practical and decorative uses, and can be made in a variet ...

with a courtly progress in lacquer,

mother of pearl Nacre ( , ), also known as mother-of-pearl, is an organicinorganic composite material produced by some molluscs as an inner shell layer. It is also the material of which pearls are composed. It is strong, resilient, and iridescent. Nacre is ...

, tortoiseshell and gold,

, 1750–1800 File:Qing Ruyi.jpg, Carved lacquer ruyi, Qing dynasty File:Bruxelles Lit Qing 02 10 2011.jpg, Lacquer canopy bed, Qing dynasty File:MBAM_2009.84,_Chinese_canopy_bed.JPG, Lacquer canopy bed, Qing dynasty File:Qing_Red_Lacquer_Furniture.jpg, Lacquer table and chairs, Qing dynasty File:Lacquered armor of the Dali Kingdom.jpg, Lacquered armor of the

Dali Kingdom The Dali Kingdom, also known as the Dali State (; Bai language, Bai: Dablit Guaif), was a Bai people, Bai dynastic state situated in modern Yunnan province, China, from 937 to 1253. In 1253, it was Mongol conquest of China, conquered by the Mo ...

File:Qing Lacquered Box.jpg,

Lacquered Box File:Qing Woven Bamboo Lacquer Fruit Case (9979373444).jpg, Woven Bamboo Lacquer Fruit Case,

File:Qing Lacquered Box - 1.jpg,

Lacquered Box File:Snuff bottle, 19th century, carved lacquer, Dayton Art Institute.JPG, Qing dynasty carved lacquer snuff bottle. File:Lacquered Furniture (10114201366).jpg, Carved lacquer chair, Qing dynasty File:Yi lacquerware.jpg, Lacquerware set by the

Yi people The Yi or Nuosu people (Nuosu language, Nuosu: , ; see also #Names and subgroups, § Names and subgroups) are an ethnic group in South China, southern China. Numbering nine million people, they are the seventh largest of the 55 Ethnic minorit ...

Korean lacquerware

The very term 'Najeonchilgi' is a combination of two particular words: 'najeon'– mother-of-pearl and ‘chilgi’ which refers to lacquerware. ‘najeon’ refers to the composite material which forms the inner shiny shell layer. The Three Kingdom period (57 B.C. – 668 A.D.) witnessed the introduction of the first method and the second one was introduced during the Shilla period (668–935 A.D.). The Goryeo dynasty (918–1392), considered the golden period of this craft, was influenced by Buddhism.

Japanese lacquerware

The term for lacquer is ''urushi'' (漆), source of the English hybrid word "

". Etymologically, ''urushi'' may be related to the words ''uruwashii'' ("beautiful") or ''uruoi'' ("watered", "profitable", "favored"), due speculatively to their value or shiny appearance, or perhaps the humidifying rooms used in production of lacquered wares. The term "

" in the 17th century is a term for the technique used by Europe to emulate Asian lacquer, derived from the then famous Japanese lacquer. The general characteristic of Japanese lacquerware is the widespread use of various ''

Maki-e is a Japanese lacquerware, Japanese lacquer decoration technique in which pictures, patterns, and letters are drawn with lacquer on the surface of lacquerware, and then metal powder such as gold or silver is sprinkled and fixed on the surface ...

'' techniques compared to other countries. As a result, there are many works in which relatively vivid gold and silver patterns and pictures shine on the black base of lacquerware, and the entire lacquerware is covered with shiny gold and silver grains.

History and regional production

Primitive lacquer was used in Japan as early as 12,600 BC, during the

.1万2千年前のウルシ木片世界最古、福井で出土

The Nikkei ''The Nikkei'', also known as , is the flagship publication of Nikkei, Inc. (based in Tokyo) and the world's largest financial newspaper, with a daily circulation exceeding 1.73 million copies. The Nikkei 225, a stock market index for the Tokyo ...

, November 6, 2011 Lacquer was used in Japan as early as 7000 BCE, during the

. Evidence for the earliest lacquerware was discovered at the Kakinoshima "B" Excavation Site in

. These objects were discovered in a pit grave dating from the first half of the Initial Jōmon period (approx. 9,000 years ago)Kakinoshima Excavation Site
Hokkaido Government Japanese lacquering technology may have been invented by the Jōmon. They learned to refine ''urushi'' (poison oak sap) – the process taking several months. Iron oxide (colcothar) and

cinnabar Cinnabar (; ), or cinnabarite (), also known as ''mercurblende'' is the bright scarlet to brick-red form of Mercury sulfide, mercury(II) sulfide (HgS). It is the most common source ore for refining mercury (element), elemental mercury and is t ...

(mercury sulfide) were used for producing red lacquer.Jomon crafts and what they were for
heritageofjapan.wordpress.com Lacquer was used both on pottery, and on different types of wooden items. In some cases, burial clothes for the dead were also lacquered. Many lacquered objects have turned up during the Early Jōmon period; this indicates that this was an established part of Jōmon culture. Experts are divided on whether Jōmon lacquer was derived from Chinese techniques, or invented independently. For example, Mark Hudson believes that “Jomon lacquer technology was developed independently in Japan rather than being introduced from China as once believed”. During the Asuka and

s, between the 7th and 8th centuries, Chinese lacquer art forms were imported to Japan. In the

Heian period The is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. It followed the Nara period, beginning when the 50th emperor, Emperor Kammu, moved the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto). means in Japanese. It is a ...

(794–1185), various ''Maki-e'' techniques characteristic of Japanese lacquerware were developed. While the method of drawing designs with a brush by dissolving gold powder in lacquer is a common technique in other countries, the method of drawing designs with lacquer and then sprinkling gold, silver, or copper powder of various sizes and shapes on top to polish them was developed in Japan. This made it possible to make the gold and silver of lacquerware brighter than before.Masayuki Murata. ''明治工芸入門'' p. 24. Me no Me, 2017 In the

Kamakura period The is a period of History of Japan, Japanese history that marks the governance by the Kamakura shogunate, officially established in 1192 in Kamakura, Kanagawa, Kamakura by the first ''shōgun'' Minamoto no Yoritomo after the conclusion of the G ...

(1185–1333), carved lacquer from the Song dynasty of China was imported to Japan. However, many Japanese lacquer craftsmen did not adopt the Chinese method of depositing lacquer and then carving it; instead, they created Kamakurabori, a method of carving wood and then coating lacquer. Japanese lacquerware was abundantly exported to China where the Ming and

Qing The Qing dynasty ( ), officially the Great Qing, was a Manchu-led Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China and an early modern empire in East Asia. The last imperial dynasty in Chinese history, the Qing dynasty was preceded by the ...

rulers generally described Japanese lacquerwares as " foreign lacquer " ( yangqi ). Yang Ming, and famous lacquer man

, made annotations for A Record of Decoration with Lacquer, ... People of the Ming dynasty once recorded: “The decoration art with lacquer coated with gold originated (maki-e) from Japan". Yang in the reign of

Xuande The Xuande Emperor (16 March 1399 31 January 1435), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Xuanzong of Ming, personal name Zhu Zhanji, was the fifth emperor of the Ming dynasty, reigning from 1425 to 1435. He was the son and successor of ...

of the Ming dynasty made a trip to Japan to study Japanese techniques, and a Japanese visited a Chinese imperial workshop in

Beijing Beijing, Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Peking, is the capital city of China. With more than 22 million residents, it is the world's List of national capitals by population, most populous national capital city as well as ...

during the Ming dynasty. It is well documented that the

Yongzheng Emperor The Yongzheng Emperor (13 December 1678 – 8 October 1735), also known by his temple name Emperor Shizong of Qing, personal name Yinzhen, was the fourth List of emperors of the Qing dynasty, emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the third Qing em ...

had a formidable interest in Japanese lacquer, ''yangqi'', and this was reflected in many of the works produced in the Imperial workshops during his reign. In the Azuchi-Momoyama period (1568–1600) also made its way into

Colonial Mexico Colonial or The Colonial may refer to: * Colonial, of, relating to, or characteristic of a colony or colony (biology) Architecture * American colonial architecture * French colonial architecture * Spanish colonial architecture Automobiles * C ...

(

Manila Galleons The Manila galleon (; ) refers to the Spanish trading ships that linked the Philippines in the Spanish East Indies to Mexico (New Spain), across the Pacific Ocean. The ships made one or two round-trip voyages per year between the ports of Man ...

) and Europe by

Nanban trade or the was a period in the history of Japan from the arrival of Europeans in 1543 to the first ''Sakoku'' Seclusion Edicts of isolationism in 1614. is a Japanese word borrowed from Chinese ''Nanman'', which had been used to designate people fr ...

. Japanese lacquerware attracted European aristocrats and missionaries from Europe, and western style chests and church furniture were exported in response to their requests. The

Edo period The , also known as the , is the period between 1600 or 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when the country was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and some 300 regional ''daimyo'', or feudal lords. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengok ...

(1603–1868) saw an increase in the focused cultivation of lacquer trees and the development of the techniques used. In the 18th century colored lacquers came into wider use. With the development of economy and culture, the artistic quality of lacquered furniture has improved. Hon'ami Kōetsu and Ogata Kōrin brought the designs of the Rinpa school of painting into lacquerware. From the middle of the Edo period, ''

inro An is a traditional Japanese case for holding small objects, suspended from the (sash) worn around the waist when wearing a kimono. They are often highly decorated with various materials such as lacquer and various techniques such as , and are ...

'' became popular as men's accessories, and wealthy merchants of the ''

chōnin was a social class that emerged in Japan during the early years of the Tokugawa period. In the social hierarchy, it was considered subordinate to the samurai warrior class. Social class The ''chōnin'' emerged in ''joka-machi'' or castle t ...

'' class and

samurai The samurai () were members of the warrior class in Japan. They were originally provincial warriors who came from wealthy landowning families who could afford to train their men to be mounted archers. In the 8th century AD, the imperial court d ...

class collected ''inro'' of high aesthetic value, precisely designed with lacquer.Masayuki Murata. ''明治工芸入門'' p. 104. Me no Me, 2017 Yūji Yamashita. ''明治の細密工芸'' p. 80. Heibonsha, 2014

Marie Antoinette Marie Antoinette (; ; Maria Antonia Josefa Johanna; 2 November 1755 – 16 October 1793) was the last List of French royal consorts, queen of France before the French Revolution and the establishment of the French First Republic. She was the ...

and

Maria Theresa Maria Theresa (Maria Theresia Walburga Amalia Christina; 13 May 1717 – 29 November 1780) was the ruler of the Habsburg monarchy from 1740 until her death in 1780, and the only woman to hold the position suo jure, in her own right. She was the ...

are known collectors of Japanese lacquerware and their collections are now often exhibited in the

Louvre The Louvre ( ), or the Louvre Museum ( ), is a national art museum in Paris, France, and one of the most famous museums in the world. It is located on the Rive Droite, Right Bank of the Seine in the city's 1st arrondissement of Paris, 1st arron ...

and the

Palace of Versailles The Palace of Versailles ( ; ) is a former royal residence commissioned by King Louis XIV located in Versailles, Yvelines, Versailles, about west of Paris, in the Yvelines, Yvelines Department of Île-de-France, Île-de-France region in Franc ...

. In the

Meiji period The was an era of Japanese history that extended from October 23, 1868, to July 30, 1912. The Meiji era was the first half of the Empire of Japan, when the Japanese people moved from being an isolated feudal society at risk of colonizatio ...

(1868–1912), Richly-decorated lacquerwares in original designs were popular domestically, and even more so with Western buyers during this period of European and American fascination with Japanese art.

Shibata Zeshin was a Japanese lacquer Japanese painting, painter and print artist of the Edo period, late Edo period and early Meiji era. He has been called "Japan's greatest lacquerer", but his reputation as painter and print artist is more complex: In Japa ...

's lacquer work was especially popular. In addition, lacquerware called ''Shibayama'', which was created in the Edo period, became popular for its showy style, inlaid with gold, silver, shellfish, ivory, coral, tortoise shell and ceramics, and reached its peak during this period. Lacquerware called ''Somada'', which was created in the Edo period and characterized by regular patterns of finely cut seashells,

gold leaf upA gold nugget of 5 mm (0.2 in) in diameter (bottom) can be expanded through hammering into a gold foil of about 0.5 m2 (5.4 sq ft). The Japan.html" ;"title="Toi gold mine museum, Japan">Toi gold mine museum, Japan. Gold leaf is gold that has ...

and silver leaf, also became popular during this period.Yūji Yamashita. ''明治の細密工芸'' pp. 60–61. Heibonsha, 2014 The government took an active interest in the art export market, promoting Japan's lacquers and other decorative arts at a succession of

world's fair A world's fair, also known as a universal exhibition, is a large global exhibition designed to showcase the achievements of nations. These exhibitions vary in character and are held in different parts of the world at a specific site for a perio ...

s. Lacquer from Japanese workshops was recognised as technically superior to what could be produced anywhere else in the world. Today, the

Japanese government The Government of Japan is the central government of Japan. It consists of legislative, executive and judiciary branches and functions under the framework established by the Constitution of Japan. Japan is a unitary state, containing forty- ...

has designated excellent lacquer artists as Living National Treasures and is encouraging them to make lacquerware. Lacquerware is produced throughout the Japanese archipelago, with many regional techniques and variations. Besides the very old Kamakura tradition mentioned above (and still alive today), the port town of Wajima provides a good example of regional lacquerware. '' Wajima-nuri'', dating back to the 16th century, is characterized by use of the elm-like Japanese zelkova ('' keyaki'' 欅), powdered earth, and delicate features formed from cloth. (See the Japanese article, 輪島塗. A more complete list of regional lacquer traditions is available in the Japanese article.) File:Tiered Stand with Designs Alluding to The Tale of Genji.jpg, Tiered Stand with Designs Alluding to ''

The Tale of Genji is a classic work of Japanese literature written by the noblewoman, poet, and lady-in-waiting Murasaki Shikibu around the peak of the Heian period, in the early 11th century. It is one of history's first novels, the first by a woman to have wo ...

'', by Hon'ami Kōetsu, 17th century File:Reading Stand with Mount Yoshino.jpg, Reading Stand with

Mount Yoshino is the general name for the mountain ridge that stretches from the south bank of the Yoshino River in the town of Yoshino central Nara Prefecture, Japan, to the Ōmine Mountains, stretching for about eight kilometers from north-to-south, or the ...

, Edo period, 18th century File:Blade and Mounting for a Short Sword (Wakizashi).jpg, Lacquered exterior of ''

wakizashi The is one of the traditionally made Japanese swords ('' nihontō'') worn by the samurai in feudal Japan. Its name refers to the practice of wearing it inserted through one's ''obi'' or sash at one's side, whereas the larger '' tachi'' sword wa ...

'' Fusamune, Edo period, 18th century File:'Fuji Tagonoura', 'maki-e' picture by Shibata Zeshin, 1872.jpg, ''Maki-e'' '' Fuji Tagonoura'', by

, 1872 File:Khalili Collection Japanese Meiji Art L160.jpg, ''Maki-e'' Writing-table, by Shirayama Shosai, Meiji period, 19th century, Khalili Collection of Japanese Art File:松田権六蒔絵螺鈿有職文飾箱.jpg, by Living National Treasure Gonroku Matsuda, Showa period, 1960

Ryukyuan lacquerware

Ryukyuan lacquerware is one of the chief artistic products of the

Ryukyu Islands The , also known as the or the , are a chain of Japanese islands that stretch southwest from Kyushu to Geography of Taiwan, Taiwan: the Ryukyu Islands are divided into the Satsunan Islands (Ōsumi Islands, Ōsumi, Tokara Islands, Tokara and A ...

(today

Okinawa Prefecture is the southernmost and westernmost prefecture of Japan. It consists of three main island groups—the Okinawa Islands, the Sakishima Islands, and the Daitō Islands—spread across a maritime zone approximately 1,000 kilometers east to west an ...

Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...

); it is quite distinct from the lacquerware found among the surrounding cultures. Nevertheless, Chinese and Japanese influences are present.

Southeast Asia

Burmese lacquerware

''Yun-de'' is lacquerware in Burmese, and the art is called ''Pan yun'' (). The lacquer is the sap tapped from the varnish tree or ''Thitsee'' ('' Gluta usitata'', syn. ''Melanorrhoea usitata'') that grows wild in the forests of

Myanmar Myanmar, officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar; and also referred to as Burma (the official English name until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia. It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and has ...

(formerly Burma). It is straw-colored but turns black on exposure to air. When brushed in or coated on, it forms a hard glossy smooth surface resistant to a degree from the effects of exposure to moisture or heat.

History

The earliest fragments of lacquerware basketry found in

Bagan Bagan ( ; ; formerly Pagan) is an ancient city and a UNESCO World Heritage Site in the Mandalay Region of Myanmar. From the 9th to 13th centuries, the city was the capital of the Pagan Kingdom, the first kingdom that unified the regions that w ...

dates back to the 13th century. Evidence for older lacquerware in Bagan remains inconclusive.

Bayinnaung , title = King of Toungoo , image = Bayinnaung.JPG , caption = Statue of Bayinnaung in front of the National Museum of Myanmar , reign = 30 April 1550 – 10 October 1581 , coronation = 11 January 1551 at Taungoo, ...

's conquest and subjugation in 1555–1562 of

Manipur Manipur () is a state in northeastern India with Imphal as its capital. It borders the Indian states of Assam to the west, Mizoram to the south, and Nagaland to the north and shares the international border with Myanmar, specifically t ...

, Bhamo, Zinme (

Chiang Mai Chiang Mai, sometimes written as Chiengmai or Chiangmai, is the largest city in northern Thailand, the capital of Chiang Mai province and the List of municipalities in Thailand#Largest cities by urban population, second largest city in Thailan ...

), Linzin (

Lan Xang Lan Xang () or Lancang was a Lao people, Lao kingdom that held the area of present-day Laos from 1353 to 1707. For three and a half centuries, Lan Xang was one of the largest kingdoms in Southeast Asia. The kingdom is the basis for Laos's nat ...

), and up the Taping and Shweli rivers in the direction of

Yunnan Yunnan; is an inland Provinces of China, province in Southwestern China. The province spans approximately and has a population of 47.2 million (as of 2020). The capital of the province is Kunming. The province borders the Chinese provinces ...

brought back large numbers of skilled craftsmen into Burma. It is thought that the finer sort of Burmese lacquerware, called Yun, was introduced during this period by imported artisans belonging to the Yun or Northern Thai people of the Chiang Mai region.

Manufacture and design

Lacquer vessels, boxes and trays have a coiled or woven bamboo-strip base often mixed with horsehair. The thitsee may be mixed with ashes or sawdust to form a putty-like substance called ''thayo'' which can be sculpted. The object is coated layer upon layer with thitsee and thayo to make a smooth surface, polished and engraved with intricate designs, commonly using red, green and yellow colors on a red or black background. ''Shwezawa'' is a distinctive form in its use of gold leaf to fill in the designs on a black background. Palace scenes, scenes from the

Jataka The ''Jātaka'' (Sanskrit for "Birth-Related" or "Birth Stories") are a voluminous body of literature native to the Indian subcontinent which mainly concern the previous births of Gautama Buddha in both human and animal form. Jataka stories we ...

tales, and the signs of the Burmese

Zodiac The zodiac is a belt-shaped region of the sky that extends approximately 8° north and south celestial latitude of the ecliptic – the apparent path of the Sun across the celestial sphere over the course of the year. Within this zodiac ...

are popular designs and some vessels may be encrusted with glass mosaic or semi-precious stones in gold relief. The objects are all handmade and the designs and engraving done free-hand. It may take three to four months to finish a small vessel but perhaps over a year for a larger piece. The finished product is a result of teamwork and not crafted by a single person.

Forms

The most distinctive vessel is probably a rice bowl on a stem with a spired lid for monks called ''hsun ok''. ''Lahpet ok'' is a shallow dish with a lid and has a number of compartments for serving ''

lahpet Lahpet, also spelled laphet, laphat, lephet, leppet, or letpet in English (, ), is Burmese for fermented or pickled tea. Myanmar is one of the few countries where tea is consumed both as a drink and as an eaten delicacy, in the form of pickled ...

'' (pickled tea) with its various accompaniments. Stackable

tiffin carrier Tiffin carriers or dabbas are a kind of lunch box used widely in Asia and the Caribbean for tiffin meals. From India, they spread to Malaysia and Singapore and to Trinidad and Tobago. In the Indian city of Mumbai, there is a complex and efficie ...

s fastened with a single handle or ''hsun gyaink'' are usually plain red or black. ''

Daunglan Daunglan (; ) is a circular pedestal tray used to serve meals in Myanmar (Burma), especially in Upper Myanmar. Commonly made of lacquered bamboo, teak or beechwood, the ''daunglan'' is served with small bowls consisting of various dishes and sou ...

'' are low tables for meals and may be simple broad based or have three curved feet in animal or floral designs with a lid. Water carafes or ''yeidagaung'' with a cup doubling as a lid, and vases are also among lacquerware still in use in many monasteries. Various round boxes with lids, small and large, are known as ''yun-it'' including ones for

paan Betel nut chewing, also called betel quid chewing or areca nut chewing, is a practice in which areca nuts (also called "betel nuts") are chewed together with slaked lime and betel leaves for their stimulant and narcotic effects, the prima ...

called ''kun-it'' (; betel boxes). ''Yun titta'' are rectangular boxes for storing various articles including ''peisa'' or palm leaf manuscripts when they are called ''sadaik titta''. Pedestal dishes or small trays with a stem with or without a lid are known as ''kalat'' for serving delicacies or offering flowers to royalty or the

Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha (),* * * was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist legends, he was ...

. Theatrical troupes and musicians have their lacquerware in costumes, masks, head-dresses, and musical instruments, some of them stored and carried in lacquer trunks. Boxes in the shape of a pumpkin or a bird such as the owl, which is believed to bring luck, or the '' hintha'' ( Brahminy duck) are common too. Screens and small polygonal tables are also made for the tourist trade today.

Industry

is the major centre for the lacquerware industry where the handicraft has been established for nearly two centuries, and still practiced in the traditional manner. Here a government school of lacquerware was founded in the 1920s. Since plastics, porcelain and metal have superseded lacquer in most everyday utensils, it is today manufactured in large workshops mainly for tourists who come to see the ancient temples of Bagan. At the village of Kyaukka near

Monywa Monywa (; ) is the largest city and capital city of Sagaing Region, Myanmar, located north-west of Mandalay on the eastern bank of the River Chindwin. Monywa is one of the largest economic cities in Myanmar. It is also known as 'Neem City' beca ...

in the

Chindwin The Chindwin River (), also known as the Ningthi River (), is a river in Myanmar and is the largest tributary of the Irrawaddy River. Sources The Chindwin originates in the broad Hukawng Valley of Kachin State of Burma, roughly , where the Tanai ...

valley, however, sturdy lacquer utensils are still produced for everyday use mainly in plain black. A decline in the number of visitors combined with the cost of resin, which has seen a 40-fold rise in 15 years, has led to the closure of over two-thirds of more than 200 lacquerware workshops in Bagan.

Vietnamese lacquer painting and lacquerware

''Sơn mài'' is a painting technique in

Vietnam Vietnam, officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV), is a country at the eastern edge of mainland Southeast Asia, with an area of about and a population of over 100 million, making it the world's List of countries and depende ...

. It developed from the painters of the Hanoi EBAI in the 1930s and today is counted a national painting style with many famous painters. In 1924 the Ecole des Beaux Arts was established in

Hanoi Hanoi ( ; ; ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities in Vietnam, second-most populous city of Vietnam. The name "Hanoi" translates to "inside the river" (Hanoi is bordered by the Red River (Asia), Red and Black River (Asia), Black Riv ...

. This institution was to be the birthplace of the revitalised art of lacquer painting. In 1934 the school opened its lacquer department and it was from here that well known contributors to the art including; Bui Trang Chuoc, Nguyen Van Binh, Nguyen Khang, Nguyen Duc Nung, Nguyen Tien Chung, and Pham Van Don would emerge. It was the first generation of Vietnamese students of the Indochina School of Fine Art during the 1930s, who elevated the craft of lacquer painting to a truly fine art. Less interested in decor than their craftsmen predecessors, it was also these men who would begin a series of artistic innovations from which craftsmen producing purely utilitarian or decorative pieces would also benefit. Creating images with crushed eggshell, painting pigment over gold and tin foil and adding sand to lacquer were all techniques developed by those first students. The metallic color lacquerware for which Vietnamese craftsmen are rightly famous, was first developed by artists experimenting with many innovative techniques. After the reunification, the art of lacquerware was slowly dying out in Vietnam. But since the 1980s, the government has recognized it as a vital cultural and economic force and has encouraged the business community to invest in the craft. As a result, we see a resurgence of lacquerware and a proliferation of lacquerware products from Vietnam.

South Asia

In India, the insect

lac Lac may refer to: Places Africa * Lac Region, a district in Chad * Lac Prefecture, a district in Chad America * Rivière du Lac, a tributary of the Montmorency River, in Capitale-Nationale, Quebec, Canada Europe * Laç, a city in Albania * Lac ...

shellac Shellac () is a resin secreted by the female Kerria lacca, lac bug on trees in the forests of India and Thailand. Chemically, it is mainly composed of aleuritic acid, jalaric acid, shellolic acid, and other natural waxes. It is processed and s ...

was used since ancient times. Shellac is the secretion of the lac bug (''Tachardia lacca'' Kerr. or ''Laccifer lacca''). It is used for wood finish, lacquerware, skin cosmetic, ornaments, dye for textiles, production of different grades of shellac for surface coating. The

Atharvaveda The Atharvaveda or Atharva Veda (, , from ''wikt:अथर्वन्, अथर्वन्'', "priest" and ''wikt:वेद, वेद'', "knowledge") or is the "knowledge storehouse of ''wikt:अथर्वन्, atharvans'', the proced ...

text 1200 BCE – 1000 BCE devotes a chapter to 'lākshā' and its various uses.

Americas

Barniz de Pasto technique

Barniz de Pasto ( es) is a lacquer-like varnish technique originating in the

Pre-Columbian era In the history of the Americas, the pre-Columbian era, also known as the pre-contact era, or as the pre-Cabraline era specifically in Brazil, spans from the initial peopling of the Americas in the Upper Paleolithic to the onset of European col ...

that is a specialty of

Pasto, Colombia Pasto, officially San Juan de Pasto (; "Saint John of Pasto"), is the capital of the department of Nariño, in southern Colombia. Pasto was founded in 1537 and named after indigenous people of the area. In the 2018 census, the municipality ...

. It is made by chewing the resin of the Andean mopa-mopa shrub ('' Elaeagia pastoensis'') into thin layers, and then painting it and applying it to a wood, metal, clay or glass surface using heated stones. Historically, the technique was applied to wooden '' keros'', drinking vessels.

Mexican lacquerware

Known in

Mexican Spanish Mexican Spanish () is the variety of dialects and sociolects of the Spanish language spoken in Mexico and its bordering regions. Mexico has the largest number of Spanish speakers, more than double any other country in the world. Spanish is spo ...

as ''laca'' or ''maque'' (from Japanese ''

maki-e is a Japanese lacquerware, Japanese lacquer decoration technique in which pictures, patterns, and letters are drawn with lacquer on the surface of lacquerware, and then metal powder such as gold or silver is sprinkled and fixed on the surface ...

''), Mexican lacquer has independent origins from Asian lacquer. In the pre-Hispanic period, a substance from the larvae of aje scale insects and/or oil from the

chia seed Chia seeds ( ) are the edible seeds of ''Salvia hispanica'', a flowering plant in the Mentha, mint family (Lamiaceae) native to central and southern Mexico, or of the related ''Salvia columbariae'', ''Salvia polystachia'', or ''Salvia tiliifolia' ...

were mixed with powdered minerals to create protective coatings and decorative designs. During this period, the process was almost always applied to dried gourds, especially to make the cups that

Mesoamerica Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area that begins in the southern part of North America and extends to the Pacific coast of Central America, thus comprising the lands of central and southern Mexico, all of Belize, Guatemala, El S ...

n nobility drank chocolate from. After the

Conquest Conquest involves the annexation or control of another entity's territory through war or Coercion (international relations), coercion. Historically, conquests occurred frequently in the international system, and there were limited normative or ...

, the Spanish had indigenous craftsmen apply the technique to European style furniture and other items, changing the decorative motifs and color schemes, but the process and materials remained mostly the same. Asian lacquerware and artisans brought by the ''

Nao de China The Manila galleon (; ) refers to the Spanish trading ships that linked the Philippines in the Spanish East Indies to Mexico (New Spain), across the Pacific Ocean. The ships made one or two round-trip voyages per year between the ports of Mani ...

'' also had an influence on the style and motifs of colonial Mexican lacquerware. Today, workshops creating lacquerware are limited to

Olinalá Olinalá is a city and seat of the municipality of Olinalá, in the Mexican state of Guerrero.Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía. Principales resultados por localidad 2005 (ITER). Retrieved on December 23, 2008 It is well known th ...

, Temalacatzingo and Acapetlahuaya in the state of Guerrero,

Uruapan Uruapan () is the second largest city in the Mexico, Mexican state of Michoacán. It is located at the western edge of the Tarascan Plateau, Purépecha highlands, just to the east of the Tierra Caliente (Mexico), Tierra Caliente region. Since the c ...

and

Pátzcuaro Pátzcuaro () is a city and municipality located in the state of Michoacán, Mexico. The town was founded sometime in the 1320s, at first becoming the capital of the Purépecha Empire and later its ceremonial center. After the Spanish took over, V ...

in Michoacán and Chiapa de Corzo in Chiapas. The most popular modern lacquerware are small boxes, sometimes known as ''cajitas de Olinalá''.

References

External links

"Lacquerware Stories"
at the

Kyoto National Museum The is one of the major art museums in Japan. Located in Kyoto's Higashiyama ward, the museum focuses on pre-modern Japanese and Asian art. History The Kyoto National Museum, then the Imperial Museum of Kyoto, was proposed, along with the Imp ...

.
Museum of Lacquer Art Münster
Museum für Lackkunst in Germany
The Craft and Care of East Asian Lacquer
by

Denver Art Museum The Denver Art Museum (DAM) is an art museum located in the Civic Center of Denver, Colorado. With an encyclopedic collection of more than 70,000 diverse works from across the centuries and world, the DAM is one of the largest art museums betwe ...

Bone, Flesh, Skin: the making of Japanese Lacquer
YouTube video by

Getty Museum The J. Paul Getty Museum, commonly referred to as the Getty, is an art museum in Los Angeles, California, United States, housed on two campuses: the Getty Center and Getty Villa. It is operated by the J. Paul Getty Trust, the world's wealthies ...

Intro to Urushi
YouTube video by Dr.Kenji Toki at FabLabKamakura

essay at the

MET Museum The Metropolitan Museum of Art, colloquially referred to as the Met, is an Encyclopedic museum, encyclopedic art museum in New York City. By floor area, it is the List of largest museums, third-largest museum in the world and the List of larg ...

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