Kykeon (, ; from , ; "to stir, to mix") was an
Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek (, ; ) includes the forms of the Greek language used in ancient Greece and the classical antiquity, ancient world from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (), Greek ...
drink of varied description. Some were made of water, barley and naturally occurring substances. Others were made with
wine
Wine is an alcoholic drink made from Fermentation in winemaking, fermented fruit. Yeast in winemaking, Yeast consumes the sugar in the fruit and converts it to ethanol and carbon dioxide, releasing heat in the process. Wine is most often made f ...
and
grated cheese
Grated cheese is cheese that has been grated. Typically, aged hard cheeses are used. Cheese can be grated by hand using a hand grater, and can be bought already grated. Commercial grated cheeses are often blends of cheeses.
Shredded cheese ...
. It is widely believed that kykeon refers to a
psychoactive
A psychoactive drug, psychopharmaceutical, mind-altering drug, consciousness-altering drug, psychoactive substance, or psychotropic substance is a chemical substance that alters psychological functioning by modulating central nervous system acti ...
brew, as in the case of the
Eleusinian Mysteries
The Eleusinian Mysteries () were initiations held every year for the Cult (religious practice), cult of Demeter and Persephone based at the Panhellenic Sanctuary of Eleusis in ancient Greece. They are considered the "most famous of the secret rel ...
.
A kykeon was used at the climax of the Eleusinian Mysteries to break a sacred fast, but it is also mentioned as a favourite drink of Greek peasants.
Ancient sources and description
Kykeon is mentioned in
Homer
Homer (; , ; possibly born ) was an Ancient Greece, Ancient Greek poet who is credited as the author of the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'', two epic poems that are foundational works of ancient Greek literature. Despite doubts about his autho ...
ic texts: the
Iliad
The ''Iliad'' (; , ; ) is one of two major Ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences. As with the ''Odyssey'', the poem is divided into 24 books and ...
describes it as consisting of Pramnian
wine
Wine is an alcoholic drink made from Fermentation in winemaking, fermented fruit. Yeast in winemaking, Yeast consumes the sugar in the fruit and converts it to ethanol and carbon dioxide, releasing heat in the process. Wine is most often made f ...
,
barley
Barley (), a member of the grass family, is a major cereal grain grown in temperate climates globally. It was one of the first cultivated grains; it was domesticated in the Fertile Crescent around 9000 BC, giving it nonshattering spikele ...
, and grated
goat's cheese. In the
Odyssey
The ''Odyssey'' (; ) is one of two major epics of ancient Greek literature attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest surviving works of literature and remains popular with modern audiences. Like the ''Iliad'', the ''Odyssey'' is divi ...
,
Circe
In Greek mythology, Circe (; ) is an enchantress, sometimes considered a goddess or a nymph. In most accounts, Circe is described as the daughter of the sun god Helios and the Oceanid Perse (mythology), Perse. Circe was renowned for her vast kn ...
adds some honey and pours her magic potion into it. In the
Homeric Hymn
The ''Homeric Hymns'' () are a collection of thirty-three ancient Greek hymns and one epigram. The hymns praise deities of the Greek pantheon and retell mythological stories, often involving a deity's birth, their acceptance among the gods ...
to
Demeter
In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, Demeter (; Attic Greek, Attic: ''Dēmḗtēr'' ; Doric Greek, Doric: ''Dāmā́tēr'') is the Twelve Olympians, Olympian goddess of the harvest and agriculture, presiding over cro ...
, the goddess refuses red wine but accepts kykeon made from water, barley, and
pennyroyal.
Pennyroyal, or mint, was supposed to have digestive properties: In
Aristophanes
Aristophanes (; ; ) was an Ancient Greece, Ancient Greek Ancient Greek comedy, comic playwright from Classical Athens, Athens. He wrote in total forty plays, of which eleven survive virtually complete today. The majority of his surviving play ...
' ''
Peace
Peace is a state of harmony in the absence of hostility and violence, and everything that discusses achieving human welfare through justice and peaceful conditions. In a societal sense, peace is commonly used to mean a lack of conflict (suc ...
''
Hermes
Hermes (; ) is an Olympian deity in ancient Greek religion and mythology considered the herald of the gods. He is also widely considered the protector of human heralds, travelers, thieves, merchants, and orators. He is able to move quic ...
recommends it to the hero who ate too much dry fruit and nuts. Pennyroyal was also said to have medicinal qualities for women, acting as a contraceptive and abortifacient and in birthing and nursing the newborn.
This possibly could have linked the Eleusinian mysteries to female sexuality. However, its use as a digestive aid could have also been useful in breaking a fast.
Aristocrats shunned it as a peasant drink:
Theophrastus
Theophrastus (; ; c. 371 – c. 287 BC) was an ancient Greek Philosophy, philosopher and Natural history, naturalist. A native of Eresos in Lesbos, he was Aristotle's close colleague and successor as head of the Lyceum (classical), Lyceum, the ...
' ''Characters'' depicts a peasant who goes to the
Ecclesia
Ecclesia (Greek: ἐκκλησία ''ekklēsia'') may refer to:
Organizations
* Ecclesia (ancient Greece) or Ekklēsia, the principal assembly of ancient Greece during its Golden Age
* Ecclesia (Sparta), the citizens' assembly of Sparta, often w ...
drunk with kykeon.
Eleusinian Mysteries
In an attempt to solve the mystery of how so many people over the span of two millennia could have consistently experienced revelatory states during the culminating ceremony of the
Eleusinian Mysteries
The Eleusinian Mysteries () were initiations held every year for the Cult (religious practice), cult of Demeter and Persephone based at the Panhellenic Sanctuary of Eleusis in ancient Greece. They are considered the "most famous of the secret rel ...
, it has been posited that the barley used in the Eleusinian kykeon was parasitized by
ergot
Ergot ( ) or ergot fungi refers to a group of fungi of the genus ''Claviceps''.
The most prominent member of this group is '' Claviceps purpurea'' ("rye ergot fungus"). This fungus grows on rye and related plants, and produces alkaloids that c ...
, and that the psychoactive properties of that fungus triggered the intense experiences alluded to by the participants at Eleusis.
[ Ergot is a common fungus that can infect cereal grains such as barley, a main ingredient in the kykeon.
Albert Hoffmann has confirmed that the ergot of barley would contain two psychoactive alkaloids, ]ergonovine
Ergonovine, also known as ergometrine and lysergic acid propanolamide, is a medication used to cause contractions of the uterus to treat heavy vaginal bleeding after childbirth. It can be used either by mouth, by injection into a muscle, or i ...
and lysergic acid amide
Ergine, also known as lysergic acid amide (LSA or LAA) as well as LA-111, is a psychoactive compound of the ergoline and lysergamide families related to lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). Ergine is an ergoline alkaloid found in fungi such as ''Cl ...
. Both of these alkaloids are soluble in water, meaning that it would have been relatively easy to prepare a hallucinogenic solution. However, there was a lack of evidence that the kykeon would have contained ergot until the excavations at a site in Girona
Girona (; ) is the capital city of the Province of Girona in the autonomous community of Catalonia, Spain, at the confluence of the Ter, Onyar, Galligants, and Güell rivers. The city had an official population of 106,476 in 2024, but the p ...
, Spain, Mas Castellar de Pontós. According to Dr. Denise Demetriou, this site would have been multi-ethnic and contained open access sanctuaries, one of which being a part of the Eleusinian mysteries. During the excavations at the Girona site, Dr. Enriqueta Pons discovered a main chapel that happened to contain krater
A krater or crater (, ; , ) was a large two-handled type of vase in Pottery of ancient Greece, Ancient Greek pottery and metalwork, mostly used for the mixing of wine with water.
Form and function
At a Greek symposium, kraters were placed in ...
s depicting scenes of the Eleusinian rites. This discovery confirmed the link between the site and the Eleusinian mysteries. Two artifacts found in the chapel were found to contain traces of ergot sclerotia, a chalice linked to the kykeon and between the teeth of a human jawbone. The presence of ergot found in items that are connected to the Eleusinian mysteries has compelled some historians to believe that this evidence confirms the use of entheogenic substances, primarily ergot which grew on barley. These proponents argue that while not every Eleusinian cult used ergot, it is more than likely that the use of ergot was not uncommon in the mysteries and was prevalent in helping the initiates find divinity. Others, such as Walter Burkert
Walter Burkert (; 2 February 1931 – 11 March 2015) was a German scholar of Greek mythology and cult.
A professor of classics at the University of Zurich, Switzerland, he taught in the UK and the US. He has influenced generations of student ...
, have rejected the idea of ergot being used, but acknowledge the possibility of other entheogenic substances in the mysteries. Another possibility could be opium, as the poppy, alongside the grain of wheat, was a common attribution to Demeter
In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, Demeter (; Attic Greek, Attic: ''Dēmḗtēr'' ; Doric Greek, Doric: ''Dāmā́tēr'') is the Twelve Olympians, Olympian goddess of the harvest and agriculture, presiding over cro ...
. However, this theory lacks evidence to support the importation of opium to Eleusis to support thousands. Burkert argues against the use of entheogenic substances in the mysteries, and believes that the process of fasting before the initiation followed by a sacrificial meal would have been sufficient to create “communal bliss”. Because of the simplicity of this process, it would have allowed for mass religion to be easily accessible, he argues.
See also
* Ancient Greece and wine
The influence of wine in ancient Greece helped ancient Greece trade with neighboring countries and regions. Many mannerisms and cultural aspects were associated with wine. It led to great change in Ancient Greece as well.
The ancient Greeks p ...
* Ancient Greek cuisine
Ancient Greek cuisine was characterized by its frugality for most, reflecting agricultural hardship, but a great diversity of ingredients was known, and wealthy Greeks were known to celebrate with elaborate meals and feasts.
The cuisine was found ...
References
Bibliography
* — author A. Hofmann is the inventor of LSD
Lysergic acid diethylamide, commonly known as LSD (from German ; often referred to as acid or lucy), is a semisynthetic, hallucinogenic compound derived from ergot, known for its powerful psychological effects and serotonergic activity. I ...
*
External links
*
{{Greek religion, state=collapsed
Entheogens
Ancient Greek religion
Herbal and fungal hallucinogens
Eleusinian Mysteries
Historical foods
Historical drinks
Ancient Greek cuisine