Kingdom of Nepal

The Kingdom of Nepal was a Hindu monarchy in South Asia, founded in 1768 through the expansion of the Gorkha Kingdom. The kingdom was also known as the Gorkha Empire and was sometimes called Asal Hindustan. Founded by Prithvi Narayan Shah, a Gorkha monarch who claimed Thakuri ancestry from the chaubisi principalities, the kingdom endured for 240 years under the formal rule of the Shah dynasty, whose authority fluctuated over time. It lasted until 2008, when the monarchy was abolished and the country became the Federal Democratic Republic.

After the invasion of Tibet and plundering of Digarcha by Nepali forces under Prince Regent Bahadur Shah in 1792, the Dalai Lama and Chinese Ambans reported to the Chinese administration for military support. The Chinese and Tibetan forces under Fuk'anggan attacked Nepal but went for negotiations after failure at Nuwakot. ''Mulkaji'' Damodar Pande, who was the most influential among the four Kajis, was appointed after the removal of Bahadur Shah.

Chief ''Kaji'' (''Mulkaji'') Kirtiman Singh Basnyat, tried to protect king Girvan Yuddha Shah and keep former king, Rana Bahadur Shah away from Nepal. However, on 4 March 180}4, the former king came back and took over as '' Mukhtiyar'' and Damodar Pande was then beheaded in Thankot. The 1806 Bhandarkhal massacre instigated upon the death of Rana Bahadur Shah, set forth the rise of the authoritative ''Mukhtiyar'' Bhimsen Thapa, who became the ''de facto'' ruler of Nepal from 1806 to 1837. During the early nineteenth century, however, the expansion of the East India Company's rule in India led to the Anglo-Nepalese War (1814–1816), which resulted in Nepal's defeat.

Under the Treaty of Sugauli, the kingdom retained its internal independence, but in exchange for territorial concessions, marking the Mechi and Sharda rivers as the boundary of Nepalese territories. The territory of the kingdom before the Sugauli treaty is sometimes nascently referred to as '' Greater Nepal''. In the political scenario, the death of ''Mukhtiyar'' Mathbar Singh Thapa ended the Thapa hegemony and set the stage for the Kot massacre. This resulted in the ascendancy of the Rana dynasty of Khas (Chhetri) and made the office of the Prime Minister of Nepal hereditary in their family for the next century, from 1843 to 1951. Beginning with Jung Bahadur, the first Rana ruler, the Rana dynasty reduced the Shah monarch to a figurehead role. The Rana rule was marked by tyranny, debauchery, economic exploitation and religious persecution.

In July 1950, the newly independent Republic of India signed a friendship treaty in which both nations agreed to respect the other's sovereignty as well as continue to have an open border. In November of the same year, India played an important role in supporting King Tribhuvan, whom the Rana leader Mohan Shumsher Jang Bahadur Rana had attempted to depose and replace with his infant grandson who would later become King Gyanendra. With Indian support for a new government consisting largely of the Nepali Congress, King Tribhuvan ended the Rana regime in 1951.

Unsuccessful attempts were made to implement reforms and adopt a constitution during the 1960s and 1970s. An economic crisis at the end of the 1980s led to a popular movement that brought about parliamentary elections and the adoption of a constitutional monarchy in 1990. The 1990s saw the beginning of the Nepalese Civil War (1996–2006), a conflict between government forces and the insurgent forces of the Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist). The situation of the Nepalese monarchy was further destabilised by the 2001 Nepalese royal massacre.

As a result of the massacre, King Gyanendra returned to the throne. His imposition of direct rule in 2005 provoked a protest movement unifying the Maoist insurgency and pro-democracy activists. He was eventually forced to restore the House of Representatives, which in 2007 adopted an interim constitution greatly restricting the powers of the Nepalese monarchy. Following an election held the next year, the Nepalese Constituent Assembly formally abolished the kingdom in its first session on 28 May 2008, declaring the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal in its place.

Until the abolition of the monarchy, Nepal was the world's only country to have Hinduism as its state religion; since becoming a republic, the country is now formally a secular state.

History

18th century

Origins

The country was expanded from that of the Chaubise principality called the Gorkha Kingdom. In Nepal, the warrior people are not referred to as 'Gurkhas', they are called 'Gorkhalis', meaning the 'inhabitants of Gorkha.' Their famed battle cry is ''"Jai Kali, Jai Gorakhnath, Jai Manakamana"''.

The etymology of the geographical name 'Gorkha' is indeed related to the Hindu mendicant-saint Gorakhnath. In the village of Gorkha, there is a temple dedicated to Gorakhnath as well as another dedicated to Gorakhkali, a corresponding female deity. The Nepali geographical encyclopedia '''Mechi dekhi Mahakali (From Mechi to Mahakali) published in B.S. 2013 (1974–75 AD) by the authoritarian Panchayat government to mark the coronation of King Birendra Shah agrees with the association of the name of the place with the saint but does not add any further detail.'Mechi-dekhi Mahakali, Vol. 3, Paschimanchal Bikas Kshetra' p. 70 The facts regarding when the temples were built and the place named after the saint are lost in the sweeping winds of time. We may guess that these developments took place in the early part of the second millennium of the Common Era following the rise of the Nath sect. In fact, the pilgrimage circuit of the sect across the northern Indian sub-continent also spans a major part of Nepal including the Kathmandu Valley. The Newars of Medieval Nepal have a couple of important temples and festivals dedicated to the major Nath teachers. Immediately before the rule of Gorkha by the Shahs, Gorkha was inhabited by both aboriginee Aryan and Tibetan Mongoloid ethnic groups Magars the largest among the ethnic groups and ruled by the Magars, Khadka Magar sub-clan of Rana-Magar and Ghale Magar sub-clan of Thapa-Magar clan, who were probably of Magar origin. At first, Dravya Shah captured Liglig-kot kingdom from Magars King Dalsur Ghale Magar. Gangaram Rana Magar also helped Drabya Shah. After captured Ligligkot, (now Gorkha) Dravya Shah defeated the King Mansingh Khadka Magar in 1559 AD and commenced Shah rule over the principality. Prithvi Narayan Shah belonged to the ninth generation of the Shahs in Gorkha. He took the reins of power in 1742 AD.

Expansion

King Prithvi Narayan Shah, the ruler of the small principality of Gorkha, initially drafted the Gorkhali Army. The Chief of the Gorkhali Army were drawn from Chhetri noble families of Gorkha such as Pande family, Basnyat family and Thapa dynasty before the rule of the Rana dynasty. However, the first civilian army chief was ''Kaji'' Kalu Pande who had significant role in the campaign of Nepal. He was considered as an army head due to the undertaking of duties and responsibilities of the army but not by the formalization of the title.

Battle of Nuwakot

The first battle by Gorkhali forces united under King Prithvi Narayan Shah was the Battle of Nuwakot. The first army commander was ''Kaji'' Kalu Pande of the Pande noble family of Gorkha and Jayant Rana Magar (former Kaji of Gorkha) was appointed General by King of Kantiur Jaya Prakash Malla to defend Nuwakot against Gorkha. Pande put up tactics to attack Nuwakot, a strategic fort of Malla king of Kathmandu, from multiple sides by surprise. On 26 September 1744, Pande with a contingent of soldiers climbed from the northern side of Nuwakot city at Mahamandal. He led the surprise attack with a Gorkhali war cry of ''"Jai Kali, Jai Gorakhnath, Jai Manakamana"''. The panicked soldiers of Nuwakot under commander Shankha Mani Rana Magar (son of Jayant Rana Magar) tried to defend but lost after their commander was killed by the 13-year-old Prince Dal Mardan Shah, brother of the king. The second contingent of Gorkhali forces led by ''Chautariya'' Mahoddam Kirti Shah (also a brother of the king) passed Dharampani and faced strong tussle but ultimately won over the defenders. The third part of the forces, led by the king himself, advanced to the fort of Nuwakotgadhi after the capture of Mahamandal. The soldiers panicked by death of their commander fled to Belkot ( Jayant Rana Magar second fort) from the Nuwakot fort and Nuwakot was annexed by Gorkha.

Battle of Kirtipur

Despite his initial resentment that the valley kings were well prepared and the Gorkhalis were not, ''Kaji'' Kalu Pande agreed for a battle against the kingdom of Kirtipur in the Kathmandu valley on being insisted by the king. The Gorkhalis had set up a base in Naikap to mount their assaults on Kirtipur. They were armed with swords, bows and arrows and muskets. The two forces fought on the plain of ''Tyangla Phant'' in the northwest of Kirtipur. Surapratap Shah, the king's brother, lost his right eye to an arrow while scaling the city wall. The Gorkhali commander ''Kaji'' Kalu Pande was surrounded and killed, and the Gorkhali king himself narrowly escaped with his life into the surrounding hills disguised as a saint. In 1767, King Prithvi Narayan Shah sent his army to attack Kirtipur for a third time under the command of Surapratap. In response, the three kings of the valley joined forces and sent their troops to the relief of Kirtipur, but they could not dislodge the Gorkhalis from their positions. A noble of Lalitpur named Danuvanta crossed over to Shah's side and treacherously let the Gorkhalis into the town.

Annexation of Makwanpur & Hariharpur

King Digbardhan Sen and his minister Kanak Singh Baniya had already sent their families to safer grounds before the encirclement of their fortress. The Gorkhalis launched an attack on 21 August 1762. The battle lasted for eight hours. King Digbardhan and Kanak Singh escaped to Hariharpurgadhi. Makawanpur was thus annexed by the Gorkhali forces.

After occupying the Makawanpurgadhi fort, the Gorkhali forces started planning for an attack on Hariharpurgadhi, a strategic fort on a mountain ridge of the Mahabharat range south of Kathmandu. It controlled the route to the Kathmandu valley. At the dusk of 4 October 1762, the Gorkhalis launched an attack. The soldiers at Hariharpurgadhi fought valiantly against the Gorkhali forces but were ultimately forced to vacate the ''Gadhi'' (fort) after midnight. About 500 soldiers of Hariharpur died in the battle. Mir Qasim, the Nawab of Bengal extended his help to kings of Kathmandu valley with his forces to attack the Gorkhali forces. On 20 January 1763, Gorkhali commander Vamsharaj Pande won the battle against Mir Qasim. Similarly, Captain Kinloch of British East India Company also extended his support by sending contingents against Gorkhalis. King Prithvi Narayan sent ''Kaji'' Vamsharaj Pande, Naahar Singh Basnyat, Jeeva Shah, Ram Krishna Kunwar and others to defeat the forces of Gurgin Khan at Makwanpur.

Conquest of Kathmandu valley and Declaration of Kingdom of Nepal

The victory in the Battle of Kirtipur climaxed Shah's two-decade-long effort to take possession of the wealthy Kathmandu valley. After the fall of Kirtipur, Shah took over the cities of Kathmandu and Lalitpur in 1768 and Bhaktapur in 1769, completing his conquest of the valley. In a letter to Ram Krishna Kunwar, King Prithvi Narayan Shah expressed his unhappiness at the death of ''Kaji'' Kalu Pande in Kirtipur and thought it was impossible to conquer Kathmandu valley after the death of Kalu Pande. After the annexation of Kathmandu valley, King Prithvi Narayan Shah praised in his letter about the valour and wisdom shown by Kunwar in the annexation of Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur (collectively known as Nepal valley at the time). Vamsharaj Pande, Kalu Pande's eldest son, was the commander of the Gorkhali forces who led the attack during the Battle of Bhaktapur on 14 April 1769.

Conquest of the Kirata

King Prithvi Narayan Shah had deployed ''Sardar'' Ram Krishna Kunwar to the invasion of Kirata regional areas comprising; Pallo Kirant ( Limbuwan), Wallo Kirant and Majh Kirant (Khambuwan). On B.S. 1829 Bhadra 13 (i.e. 29 August 1772), Kunwar crossed the Dudhkoshi river to invade King Karna Sen of the Majh Kirant (Khambuwan) and Saptari region with fellow commander Abhiman Singh Basnyat. He then crossed the Arun river to reach Chainpur ( Limbuwan), where he later achieved victory over the Kiratas. King Prithvi Narayan Shah bestowed 22 pairs of ''Shirpau'' (special headgear) in appreciation to Ram Krishna Kunwar after his victory over the Kirata region.

Political conflicts

In 1775, the King Prithvi Narayan Shah, who expanded the Gorkha Kingdom into the Kingdom of Nepal, died in Nuwakot. Swarup Singh Karki, a shrewd Gorkhali courtier from a Chhetri family of eastern Nepal, marched with an army to Nuwakot to confine Prince Bahadur Shah who was then mourning the death of his father. He confined Bahadur Shah and Dal Mardan Shah with the consent from newly reigning King Pratap Singh Shah who was considered to have no distinction of right and wrong. In the annual ''Pajani'' (renewal) of that year, Swarup Singh was promoted to the position of ''Kaji'' along with Abhiman Singh Basnyat, Amar Singh Thapa and Parashuram Thapa. In Falgun 1832 B.S., he succeeded in exiling Bahadur Shah, Dal Mardan Shah and ''Guru'' Gajraj Mishra on three heinous charges. The reign of Pratap Singh Shah was characterized by the constant rivalry between Swarup Singh and Vamsharaj Pande. The document dated B.S. 1833 Bhadra 3 ''Roj'' 6 (i.e. Friday, 2 August 1776), shows that he had carried the title of Dewan along with Vamsharaj Pande. King Pratap Singh Shah died on 22 November 1777 with his infant son Rana Bahadur Shah succeeding as the King of Nepal. Sarbajit Rana Magar was made a '' Kaji'' along with Balbhadra Shah and Vamsharaj Pande while Daljit Shah was chosen as Chief ''Chautariya''. Historian Dilli Raman Regmi asserts that Sarbajit Rana Magar was chosen as ''Mulkaji'' (equivalent to Prime Minister), while historian Rishikesh Shah asserts that Sarbajit Rana was the head of the Nepalese government only for a short period in 1778. Afterwards, rivalry arose between Prince Bahadur Shah and Queen Rajendra Laxmi. Sarbajit Rana led the followers of the Queen opposed to Sriharsh Pant who led the followers of Bahadur Shah. The group of ''Bharadars'' (officers) led by Sarbajit badmouthed Rajendra Laxmi against Bahadur Shah. Queen Rajendra Laxmi succeeded in the confinement of Bahadur Shah with the help of her new minister Sarbajit Rana Magar. ''Guru'' Gajraj Mishra came to the rescue of Bahadur Shah on a condition that Bahadur Shah should leave the country. Also, his rival Sriharsh Pant was branded outcast and expelled instead of being executed as execution was prohibited for Brahmins.

Prince Bahadur Shah confined his sister-in-law Queen Rajendra Laxmi on the charge of having illicit relation with Sarbajit Rana Magar on 31 August 1778. Subsequently, Sarbajit was executed inside the palace by Bahadur Shah with the help of male servants of the royal palace. Historian Bhadra Ratna Bajracharya asserts that it was actually ''Chautariya'' Daljit Shah who led the opposing group against Sarbajit Rana Magar and Queen Rajendra Rajya Laxmi Devi. The letter dated B.S. 1835 Bhadra 11 ''Roj'' 4 (1778) to Narayan Malla and Vrajabasi Pande asserts the death of Sarbajit under misconduct and the appointment of Bahadur Shah as regent. The death of Sarbajit Rana Magar is considered to have marked the initiation of court conspiracies and massacres in the newly unified Kingdom of Nepal. Historian Baburam Acharya points that the sanctions against Queen Rajendra Laxmi under moral misconduct was a mistake of Bahadur Shah. Similarly, the murder of Sarbajit Rana Magar was condemned by many historians as an act of injustice.

Vamsharaj Pande, once Dewan of Nepal and son of the popular commander Kalu Pande, was beheaded on the allegations of conspiring with Queen Rajendra Laxmi. In a special tribunal meeting at Bhandarkhal garden east of Kathmandu Durbar, Swaroop Singh held Vamsharaj liable for letting the King of Parbat, Kirtibam Malla, run away in the battle a year ago. He had a fiery conversation with Vamsharaj before Vamsharaj was declared guilty and was subsequently executed by beheading on the tribunal. Historian Rishikesh Shah and Ganga Karmacharya claim that he was executed in March 1785, whereas Bhadra Ratna Bajracharya and Tulsi Ram Vaidya claim that he was executed on 21 April 1785. On 2 July 1785, Swaroop Singh's opponent Prince Regent Bahadur Shah was arrested, but on the eleventh day of imprisonment, on 13 July, Singh's only supporter Queen Rajendra Laxmi died. Then onwards, Bahadur Shah took over the regency of his nephew King Rana Bahadur Shah and as one of his first orders as the regent, he ordered Swaroop Singh, who was then in Pokhara, to be beheaded there on the charges of treason. Singh had gone to Kaski to join Daljit Shah's military campaign of Kaski fearing retaliation of the old courtiers due to his conspiracy against Vamsharaj. He was executed on B.S. 1842 Shrawan 24.

Tibetan conflict

After the death of Prithvi Narayan Shah, the Shah dynasty began to expand their kingdom into what is present-day North India. Between 1788 and 1791, Nepal invaded Tibet and robbed Tashi Lhunpo Monastery of Shigatse. Tibet sought Chinese help and the Qianlong Emperor of the Chinese Qing Dynasty appointed Fuk'anggan commander-in-chief of the Tibetan campaign. Heavy damages were inflicted on both sides. The Nepali forces retreated step by step back to Nuwakot to stretch Sino-Tibetan forces uncomfortably. Chinese launched an uphill attack during the daylight and failed to succeed due to a strong counterattack with khukuri at Nuwakot. The Chinese army suffered a major setback when they tried to cross a monsoon-flooded Betrawati, close to the Gorkhali palace in Nuwakot. A stalemate ensued when Fuk'anggan was keen to protect his troops and wanted to negotiate at Nuwakot.

19th century

Dominance of Damodar Pande

Damodar Pande was appointed as one of the four Kajis by King Rana Bahadur Shah after the removal of ''Chautariya'' Bahadur Shah in 1794. Pande was the most influential and dominant amongst the court factions in spite of the post of ''Mulkaji'' being held by Kirtiman Singh Basnyat. Pandes were the most dominant noble family. Later due to the continuous irrational behaviour of King Rana Bahadur Shah, a situation of civil war arose where Damodar was the main opposition to the King. He was forced to flee to the British-controlled city of Varanasi in May 1800 after the military parted with influential ''Kaji'' Damodar Pande. After Queen Rajrajeshwari finally managed to assume the regency on 17 December 1802, later in February she appointed Damodar Pande as the ''Mulkaji''.

After Rana Bahadur's reinstatement to power, he ordered Damodar Pande, along with his two eldest sons, who were completely innocent, to be executed on 13 March 1804; similarly, some members of his faction were tortured and executed without any due trial, while many others managed to escape to India. Among those who managed to escape to India were Damodar Pande's sons Karbir Pande and Rana Jang Pande. After Damodar Pande's execution, Ranajit Pande who was his paternal cousin, was appointed ''Mulkaji'' along with Bhimsen Thapa as second ''Kaji'', Sher Bahadur Shah as ''Mul Chautariya'' and Ranganath Paudel as ''Raj Guru'' (Royal Preceptor).

Thapa Regime

Thapa courtiers, who were Kshatriya, rose to power when the King Rana Bahadur Shah was murdered by his half brother Sher Bahadur Shah in 1806. Bhimsen Thapa (1775–1839), the leading Thapa Kaji, taking opportunity of the occasion massacred nearly 55 military and civil officers and catapulting the Thapas into the power. He took the title of ''Mukhtiyar'' succeeding Rana Bahadur as the chief authority and his niece Queen Tripurasundari as Queen Regent of junior King Girvan Yuddha Bikram Shah.

Anglo-Nepalese War

Rivalry between Nepal and the East India Company—over the princely states bordering Nepal and India—eventually led to the Anglo-Nepalese War (1814–16). The Treaty of Sugauli was signed in 1816, ceding large parts of the Nepali territories of the Terai and Sikkim, which accounted to nearly one-third of the country, to the East India Company in exchange for Nepalese autonomy. As the territories were not restored to Nepal by the British government when India became independent from British rule, most of these lands later became a part of the Republic of India. Sikkim remained independent until annexed into India in 1975 when it becomes the 22nd state of the Republic of India. However, in 1860 the British returned the authority over some of Nepal's land in the Terai back to Nepal (known as '' Naya Muluk'', new country) as an act of gratitude for Nepalese support to Britain during the Indian Rebellion of 1857.

Rana Regime

Factionalism among the royal family led to a period of instability after the war. In 1846, Queen Rajya Lakshmi Devi plotted to overthrow Jang Bahadur Rana, a fast-rising military leader who was presenting a threat to her power. The plot was uncovered and the queen had several hundred princes and chieftains executed after an armed clash between military personnel and administrators loyal to the queen. This came to be known as the Kot Massacre. However, Jung Bahadur emerged victorious eventually and founded the Rana dynasty; the monarch was made a titular figure, and the post of Prime Minister was made powerful and hereditary, held by the Ranas.

Third Nepalese Tibet War

Jung Bahadur Rana sent forces under his brothers Bam Bahadur Kunwar and Dhir Shamsher Rana to attack Tibet again to achieve complete victory. His forces succeeded in defeating Tibetan forces on two sides. The Tibetan team arrived in January 1856 to sign a treaty. After a month, the Treaty of Thapathali was signed which was more favourable to Nepal.

20th century

Nepal and the British

The Rana regime, a tightly centralized autocracy, pursued a policy of isolating Nepal from external influences. This policy helped Nepal maintain its national independence during the British colonial era, but it also impeded the country's economic development and modernisation. The Ranas were staunchly pro-British and assisted the British during the Indian Rebellion of 1857 and later in both World Wars. At the same time, despite Chinese claims, the British supported Nepalese independence at the beginning of the twentieth century.

In December 1923, Britain and Nepal formally signed a treaty of perpetual peace and friendship superseding the Sugauli Treaty of 1816 and upgrading the British resident in Kathmandu to an envoy. Slavery was abolished in Nepal in 1924.

Democratic reform

Popular dissatisfaction against the family rule of the Ranas had started emerging from among the few educated people, who had studied in various Indian schools and colleges, and also from within the Ranas, many of whom were marginalised within the ruling Rana hierarchy. Many of these Nepalese in exile had actively taken part in the Indian Independence struggle and wanted to liberate Nepal as well from the internal autocratic Rana occupation. The political parties such as the '' Praja Parishad'' and Nepali Congress were already formed in exile by leaders such as B.P. Koirala, Ganesh Man Singh, Subarna Shamsher Rana, Krishna Prasad Bhattarai, Girija Prasad Koirala and many other patriotic-minded Nepalis who urged the military and popular political movement in Nepal to overthrow the autocratic Rana Regime. Among the prominent martyrs to die for the cause, executed at the hands of the Ranas, were Dharma Bhakta Mathema, Shukraraj Shastri, Gangalal Shrestha and Dasharath Chand. This turmoil culminated in King Tribhuvan, a direct descendant of Prithvi Narayan Shah, fleeing from his 'palace prison' in 1950, to the newly independent India, touching off an armed revolt against the Rana administration. This eventually ended in the return of the Shah family to power and the appointment of a non-Rana as prime minister. A period of the quasi-constitutional rule followed, during which the monarch, assisted by the leaders of fledgling political parties, governed the country. During the 1950s, efforts were made to frame a constitution for Nepal that would establish a representative form of government, based on a British model.

In early 1959, Tribhuvan's son King Mahendra issued a new constitution, and the first democratic elections for a national assembly were held. The Nepali Congress, a moderate socialist group, gained a substantial victory in the election. Its leader, B.P. Koirala, formed a government and served as prime minister. After a period of power wrangling between the king and the elected government, Mahendra dissolved the democratic experiment in 1960.

King Mahendra's new constitution

Declaring the contemporary parliament a failure, King Mahendra in 1960 dismissed the Koirala government, declared that a "party-less" Panchayat system would govern Nepal, and promulgated another new constitution on 16 December 1962.

Subsequently, the Prime Minister, members of parliament and hundreds of democratic activists were arrested. In fact, this trend of the arrest of political activists and democratic supporters continued for the entire 30-year period of the partyless Panchayat system under King Mahendra and then his son, King Birendra.

The new constitution established a "partyless" system of panchayats (councils), which King Mahendra considered to be a democratic form of government, closer to Nepalese traditions. As a pyramidal structure, progressing from village assemblies to a Rastriya Panchayat (National Parliament), the panchayat system constitutionalised the absolute power of the monarchy and kept the King as head of state with sole authority over all governmental institutions, including the cabinet (council of ministers) and the parliament. One-state-one-language became the national policy, and all other languages suffered at the cost of the official language, Nepali, which was the king's language.

King Mahendra was succeeded by his 27-year-old son, King Birendra, in 1972. Amid student demonstrations and anti-regime activities in 1979, King Birendra called for a national referendum to decide on the nature of Nepal's government: either the continuation of the panchayat system with democratic reforms or the establishment of a multiparty system. The referendum was held in May 1980, and the Panchayat system won a narrow victory. The king carried out the promised reforms, including a selection of the prime minister by the Rashtriya Panchayat.

End of Panchayat system

There was resentment against the authoritarian regime and the curbs on the freedom of the political parties. There was a widespread feeling of the palace being non-representative of the masses, especially when the Marich Man Singh government faced political scandals on charges of misappropriation of funds allotted for the victims of the earthquake in August 1998 or when it reshuffled the cabinet instead of investigating the deaths of the people in a stampede in the national sports complex in a hailstorm. Also, the souring of the India-Nepal trade relations affected the popularity of the Singh government.

In April 1987, Nepal had introduced the work permit for Indian workers in three of its districts, and in early 1989, Nepal provided 40% duty concession to Chinese goods and later withdrew duty concessions from Indian goods in such a manner that the Chinese goods became cheaper than the Indian goods. This led to the souring of relations which were already strained over the purchase of Chinese arms by Nepal in 1988. India refused to renew two separate Treaties of Trade and Transit and insisted on a single treaty dealing with the two issues, which was not acceptable to Nepal. A deadlock ensued and the Treaties of Trade and Transit expired on 23 March 1989. The brunt of the closure of the trade and transit points was mainly faced by the lower classes in Nepal due to the restricted supply of consumer goods and petroleum products such as petrol, aviation fuel and kerosene. The industries suffered because of their dependence on India for resources, trade and transit. The Government of Nepal tried to deal with the situation by depending on foreign aid from the US, UK, Australia and China. However, the government's strategy to manage the crisis could not satisfy those people who desired negotiations with India rather than dependence on foreign aid as a solution.

Taking advantage of the uneasiness amongst some people against the government and the strained India-Nepal relations, the Nepali Congress (NC) and the left-wing parties blamed the government for perpetuating the crisis and not taking any serious measures to solve it. In December 1989, the NC tried to utilize B.P. Koirala's anniversary by launching a people's awareness program. The left-wing alliance known as the United Left Front (ULF) extended its support to the NC in its campaign for a party system. On 18–19 January 1990, the NC held a conference in which leaders from various countries and members of the foreign Press were invited. Leaders from India attended the conference; Germany, Japan, Spain, Finland supported the movement; and the Embassies of the US and West Germany were present on the occasion. Inspired by the international support and the democratic movements occurring throughout the world after the disintegration of the Soviet Union in 1989, the NC and the ULF launched a mass movement on 18 February to end the Panchayat regime and the installation of an interim government represented by various parties and people.

On 6 April the Marich Man Singh government was dismissed and Lokendra Bahadur Chand became the Prime Minister on the same day. However, the agitating mob was not satisfied with the change of government as they were not against the Singh government per se but against the party-less system. On 16 April the Chand government was also dismissed and a Royal Proclamation was issued the next day which dissolved the National Panchayat, the Panchayat policy and the evaluation committee and the class organizations. Instead, the proclamation declared "functioning of the political parties" and maintained that "all political parties will always keep the national interest uppermost in organizing themselves according to their political ideology."'

During this protest many civilians were killed; after the end of the Panchayat rule they were seen as 'undeclared martyrs'. One of those martyrs is Ram Chandra Hamal, a member of the Nepali Congress and killed during his imprisonment.

1990 People's Movement

People in rural areas had expected that their interests would be better represented after the adoption of parliamentary democracy in 1990. The Nepali Congress with the support of "Alliance of leftist parties" decided to launch a decisive agitational movement, Jana Andolan, which forced the monarchy to accept constitutional reforms and to establish a multiparty parliament. In May 1991, Nepal held its first parliamentary elections in nearly 50 years. The Nepali Congress won 110 of the 205 seats and formed the first elected government in 32 years.

Civil strife

In 1992, in a situation of economic crisis and chaos, with spiraling prices as a result of the implementation of changes in the policy of the new Congress government, the radical left stepped up their political agitation. A Joint People's Agitation Committee was set up by the various groups. A general strike was called for 6 April.

Violent incidents began to occur on the evening before the strike. The Joint People's Agitation Committee had called for a 30-minute 'lights out' in the capital, and violence erupted outside Bir Hospital when activists tried to enforce the 'lights out'. At dawn on 6 April, clashes between strike activists and police, outside a police station in Pulchok (Patan), left two activists dead.

Later in the day, a mass rally of the Agitation Committee at Tundikhel in the capital Kathmandu was attacked by police forces. As a result, riots broke out and the Nepal Telecommunications building was set on fire; police opened fire at the crowd, killing several people. The Human Rights Organization of Nepal estimated that 14 people, including several onlookers, had been killed in police firing.

When promised land reforms failed to appear, people in some districts started to organize to enact their own land reform and to gain some power over their lives in the face of usurious landlords. However, this movement was repressed by the Nepali government, in Operation Romeo and Operation Kilo Sera II, which took the lives of many of the leading activists of the struggle. As a result, many witnesses to this repression became radicalized.

Nepalese Civil War

In February 1996, one of the Maoist parties started a bid to replace the parliamentary monarchy with a people's new democratic republic, through a Maoist revolutionary strategy known as the people's war, which led to the Nepalese Civil War. Led by Dr. Baburam Bhattarai and Pushpa Kamal Dahal (better known by his ''nom de guerre'' "Prachanda"), the insurgency began in five districts in Nepal: Rolpa, Rukum, Jajarkot, Gorkha, and Sindhuli. The Maoists declared the existence of a provisional "people's government" at the district level in several locations.

21st century

Palace massacre

On 1 June 2001, Crown Prince Dipendra allegedly went on a shooting-spree, assassinating 9 members of the royal family, including King Birendra and Queen Aishwarya, before shooting himself. Due to his survival, he temporarily became king before dying of his wounds, after which Prince Gyanendra (Birendra's brother) inherited the throne, according to tradition. The massacre shattered the aura of mythology that still surrounded the Royal Family, exposing their far too human intrigues.

Meanwhile, the Maoist rebellion escalated, and in October 2002 the king temporarily deposed the government and took complete control of it. A week later he reappointed another government, but the country was still unstable because of the civil war with the Maoists, the various clamouring political factions, the king's attempts to take more control of the government, and worries about the competence of Gyanendra's son and heir, Prince Paras.

Suspension of responsible government

In the face of unstable governments and a Maoist siege on the Kathmandu Valley in August 2004, popular support for the monarchy began to wane. On 1 February 2005, Gyanendra dismissed the entire government and took to exercising his executive powers without ministerial advice, declaring a "state of emergency" to quash the Maoist movement. Politicians were placed under house arrest, phone and internet lines were cut, and freedom of the press was severely curtailed.

2006 democracy movement

The king's new regime made little progress in his stated aim of suppressing the insurgents. The European Union described the municipal elections of February 2006 as "a backward step for democracy", as the major parties boycotted the election and the army forced some candidates to run for office. In April 2006 strikes and street protests in Kathmandu forced the king to reinstate the parliament. A seven-party coalition resumed control of the government and stripped the king of most of his powers. As of 15 January 2007, a unicameral legislature under an interim constitution governed Nepal.

Abolition of the monarchy

The Constituent Assembly came to fruition on 24 December 2007 when it was announced that the monarchy would be abolished in 2008 after the Constituent Assembly elections; and on 28 May 2008, Nepal was declared a ''Federal Democratic Republic''.

Administration

Administrative divisions

Until 2015, Nepal was divided into 14 zones and 75 districts, grouped into 5 development regions. This system was introduced during the Panchayat era in the 1970s and remained in place until the promulgation of the new Constitution of Nepal in 2015, which replaced it with a federal structure.

The five development regions of Nepal were (from east to west):

Each district was administered by a Chief District Officer (CDO), a powerful local administrator responsible for implementing law and order, revenue collection, and disaster response. These officers reported directly to the Ministry of Home Affairs.

The 14 zones of Nepal were:

This administrative division was replaced by a federal structure under the Constitution of Nepal 2015, which created seven provinces. However, the 75 districts continue to function as local administrative units within the federal setup.

Government and politics

The Kingdom of Nepal was a unitary monarchical state ruled by the Shah dynasty from 1768 until the abolition of the monarchy in 2008. For much of its modern history, the king held absolute power, with limited or no checks by representative institutions.

Absolute monarchy and the Panchayat system (1768–1990)

Until 1990, Nepal functioned as an absolute monarchy, with the king exercising executive, legislative, and judicial authority. In 1960, King Mahendra dissolved the democratically elected government, banned political parties, and established the Panchayat system, a partyless political structure intended to promote national unity under royal leadership. Governance during this period operated through indirect elections, royal nominations, and central control. The king remained the supreme authority and appointed all key positions in the government.

Transition to constitutional monarchy (1990–2005)

In response to the 1990 People's Movement (Jana Andolan), King Birendra agreed to major political reforms. A new constitution was promulgated, establishing a constitutional monarchy with a multiparty parliamentary democracy. The king became a constitutional head of state, while executive authority shifted to an elected government.

Nepal’s legislature became bicameral:
* The House of Representatives (Pratinidhi Sabha) had 205 members directly elected by citizens aged 18 or older.
* The National Council (Rastriya Sabha) consisted of 60 members—ten appointed by the king, 35 elected by the House, and 15 by an electoral college made up of chairs of village and town bodies....

The leader of the majority party or coalition in the House was appointed prime minister and headed the Council of Ministers (Cabinet). The prime minister advised the king on ministerial appointments. Despite democratic reforms, political instability was chronic. No government lasted a full term, and the king retained the power to dissolve parliament on the prime minister’s recommendation.

Royal rule and civil war (2005–2006)

In February 2005, King Gyanendra dismissed the elected government, citing its failure to resolve the Maoist insurgency, and assumed direct rule. He declared a state of emergency, curtailed civil liberties, and arrested political leaders, prompting widespread national and international condemnation.

People's Movement and abolition of monarchy (2006–2008)

A second mass uprising in April 2006 (Jana Andolan II) forced King Gyanendra to reinstate the House of Representatives. On 18 May 2006, the reinstated parliament stripped the monarch of governing powers and declared Nepal a secular state.

Key developments followed:
* A new interim constitution was adopted in January 2007.
* The Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) joined the interim government in April 2007 after peace talks.
* The interim legislature was expanded to 330 seats, including Maoist representatives and other political stakeholders.

This transitional phase culminated in the Constituent Assembly elections of 2008, which resulted in the official abolition of the monarchy and the proclamation of the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal.

Economy

The economy of the Kingdom of Nepal was predominantly agrarian, with over 80% of the population engaged in agriculture throughout much of its existence. The country remained largely underdeveloped economically until the late 20th century, with low levels of industrialization and limited infrastructure.

Agriculture and rural economy

Agriculture formed the backbone of Nepal’s economy. Major crops included rice, maize, wheat, millet, and barley. Livestock farming—particularly cattle, buffalo, goats, and poultry—was also widespread. However, productivity remained low due to traditional farming techniques, lack of irrigation, and dependence on monsoon rains.

Land ownership was often unequal, with large holdings in the hands of landlords. Land reform efforts, especially after the 1951 revolution, aimed to address feudal patterns, but progress was slow and uneven.

Industry and trade

The industrial sector remained small and underdeveloped throughout the monarchy. Major industries included cottage industries, textiles, handicrafts, food processing, brick production, and limited-scale manufacturing. Industrialization efforts were initiated under the five-year development plans, starting in 1956 with international assistance.

Nepal had limited mineral resources and relied heavily on imports for machinery, fuel, and industrial goods. Its chief exports included carpets, garments, pashmina, handicrafts, tea, ginger, and medicinal herbs. India remained Nepal’s largest trading partner due to geographic and economic proximity.

Foreign aid and remittances

From the 1960s onward, Nepal increasingly depended on foreign aid from countries like India, China, the United States, the Soviet Union, and later Japan and various European donors. These funds supported infrastructure, health, and education projects.

Labor migration became an important economic phenomenon by the late 20th century, especially to India and the Gulf countries. Remittances began to play a critical role in household income and national foreign exchange reserves.

Tourism and services

Tourism emerged as a key source of revenue starting in the 1960s. With the rise of trekking, mountaineering, and cultural tourism, Nepal attracted thousands of visitors annually. The sector generated income, created jobs, and stimulated urban services, especially in Kathmandu, Pokhara, and Everest regions.

The service sector also expanded in education, finance, and public administration, particularly during the Panchayat period and the constitutional monarchy era (1990–2008).

Challenges

Despite gradual development, Nepal’s economy during the monarchy remained constrained by:
* Geographic isolation and difficult terrain
* Poor infrastructure and transportation
* Political instability and conflict (especially during the Maoist insurgency from 1996)
* Limited access to markets and investment

The Kingdom of Nepal continued to face structural challenges until the monarchy was abolished in 2008 and replaced by a federal democratic republic.

Military

The Kingdom of Nepal maintained a highly centralized and cohesive military structure, known as the Nepali Army, formerly called the Gorkhali Army. It emerged during the unification campaign led by Prithvi Narayan Shah in the mid-18th century. The Gorkhali Army was renowned for its discipline, endurance, and mountain warfare capabilities, traits that became legendary during the Anglo-Nepalese War (1814–1816), leading to the recruitment of Gurkhas into the British Army and later the Indian Army.

Under successive monarchs, the military served both as a unifying force within the kingdom and a symbol of national identity. During the Rana regime (1846–1951), the army remained loyal to the hereditary prime ministers, playing a key role in suppressing internal dissent and maintaining the regime's authority.

Following the end of the Rana rule and the restoration of royal power, the military was gradually professionalized and expanded. During the Cold War period, Nepal's military maintained a non-aligned stance, receiving limited military assistance from both India and the China. The army also served in various United Nations peacekeeping missions, enhancing Nepal's international profile.

The monarchy maintained direct control over the army until 2006, when democratic reforms placed the military under civilian oversight following the end of the Nepalese Civil War and the abolition of the monarchy.

Culture

The Kingdom of Nepal was a multiethnic and multicultural society with a rich tapestry of traditions, languages, and religions. Hinduism was the official state religion, with the monarch revered as the earthly incarnation of Vishnu. At the same time, Buddhism, Kiratism, and various indigenous beliefs were widely practiced, especially among ethnic communities such as the Newars, Tamangs, Gurungs, and Limbus.


The Newar civilization of the Kathmandu Valley significantly shaped Nepali art, architecture, and urban planning. Pagoda-style temples, intricately carved wooden windows, and stone sculptures were hallmarks of traditional Nepali aesthetics. Festivals like Indra Jatra, Dashain, and Tihar blended religious devotion with elaborate public celebrations.

Language was another pillar of Nepalese identity. While Nepali (Gorkhali) served as the national language, dozens of other languages—including Maithili, Tamang, Bhojpuri, Newar, and Tharu—flourished across the kingdom. The state promoted Nepali as the medium of administration and education, particularly after the 1960s Panchayat regime, sometimes to the exclusion of minority tongues.

The monarchy also played a cultural role, sponsoring arts and literature, particularly during the early Shah dynasty consolidation and the Rana modernization period, when Sanskrit, Hindu epics, and classical Nepali literature were heavily patronized. Post-1950s, Nepal experienced a cultural awakening marked by literary modernism, folk revivalism, and a growing national consciousness that balanced tradition with gradual modernization.

Symbols

Historical arms

Throughout its history, the Kingdom of Nepal used a series of coats of arms that reflected changes in dynastic rule, political ideologies, and national symbolism. These emblems often incorporated Hindu motifs, Mount Everest, and symbols of national unity.

Historical flag

Nepal is the only modern nation with a non-quadrilateral national flag. The current double-pennon design was standardized in 1962. Before that, the country used several iterations of red flags incorporating various religious and dynastic symbols.

The evolution of Nepal’s flag symbolized shifts in political regimes, from regional kingdoms to a unified monarchy, and ultimately to a modern nation-state by the mid-20th century.

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

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Further reading

* Garzilli, Enrica, "A Sanskrit Letter Written by Sylvain Lévi in 1923 to Hemarāja Śarmā Along With Some Hitherto Unknown Biographical Notes (Cultural Nationalism and Internationalism in the First Half of the 21st Cent.: Famous Indologists Write to the Raj Guru of Nepal – no. 1), in ''Commemorative Volume for 30 Years of the Nepal-German Manuscript Preservation Project. Journal of the Nepal Research Centre'', XII (2001), Kathmandu, ed. by A. Wezler in collaboration with H. Haffner, A. Michaels, B. Kölver, M. R. Pant and D. Jackson, pp. 115–149.
* Garzilli, Enrica, "Strage a palazzo, movimento dei Maoisti e crisi di governabilità in Nepal", in ''Asia Major 2002'', pp. 143–160.
* Garzilli, Enrica, "Il nuovo Stato del Nepal: il difficile cammino dalla monarchia assoluta alla democrazia", in ''Asia Major 2005–2006'', pp. 229–251.
* Garzilli, Enrica, "Il Nepal da monarchia a stato federale", in ''Asia Major 2008'', pp. 163–181.
* Garzilli, Enrica, "La fine dell'isolamento del Nepal, la costruzione della sua identità politica e delle sue alleanze regionali" in ''ISPI: Istituto per gli Studi di Politica Internazionali'', CVII (Nov. 2008), pp. 1–7;
* Garzilli, Enrica, "Le elezioni dell'Assemblea Costituente e i primi mesi di governo della Repubblica Democratica Federale del Nepal", in ''Asia Maior 2010'', pp. 115–126.
* Garzilli, Enrica, "Nepal, la difficile costruzione della nazione: un paese senza Costituzione e un parlamento senza primo ministro", in ''Asia Maior 2011'', pp. 161–171.
* Garzilli, Enrica, "The Interplay between Gender, Religion and Politics, and the New Violence against Women in Nepal", in J. Dragsbæk Schmidt and T. Roedel Berg (eds.), ''Gender, Social Change and the Media: Perspective from Nepal'', University of Aalborg and Rawat Publications, Aalborg-Jaipur: 2012, pp. 27–91.
* Garzilli, Enrica, "Nepal, stallo politico e lentezze nella realizzazione del processo di pace e di riconciliazione", in ''Asia Maior 2012'', pp. 213–222.
* Garzilli, Enrica, "A Sanskrit Letter Written by Sylvain Lévy in 1925 to Hemarāja Śarmā along with Some Hitherto Unknown Biographical Notes (Cultural Nationalism and Internationalism in the First Half of the 20th Century – Famous Indologists write to the Raj Guru of Nepal – No. 2)", in ''History of Indological Studies. Papers of the 12th World Sanskrit Conference Vol. 11.2'', ed. by K. Karttunen, P. Koskikallio and A. Parpola, Motilal Banarsidass and University of Helsinki, Delhi 2015, pp. 17–53.
* Garzilli, Enrica, "Nepal 2013–2014: Breaking the Political Impasse", in ''Asia Maior 2014'', pp. 87–98.
* Wright, Daniel, ''History of Nepal''. New Delhi-Madras, Asian Educational Services, 1990

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