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Kangiten or Kankiten (, "god of bliss";
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
(
IAST The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is a transliteration scheme that allows the lossless romanisation of Brahmic family, Indic scripts as employed by Sanskrit and related Indic languages. It is based on a scheme that ...
): ), also known as Binayaka (毘那夜迦; Skt. ), Ganabachi (誐那鉢底, alternatively Ganahachi or Ganahattei; Skt. ), or more commonly, Shōten or Shōden (聖天, lit. "sacred god" or "noble god"), is a
deva Deva may refer to: Arts and entertainment Fictional characters * Deva, List of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd edition monsters, an ''Advanced Dungeons & Dragons'' 2nd edition monster * Deva, in the 2023 Indian film ''Salaar: Part 1 – Ceasefir ...
(''ten'') venerated mainly in the
Shingon is one of the major schools of Buddhism in Japan and one of the few surviving Vajrayana lineages in East Asian Buddhism. It is a form of Japanese Esoteric Buddhism and is sometimes called "Tōmitsu" (東密 lit. "Esoteric uddhismof Tō- ...
and
Tendai , also known as the Tendai Dharma Flower School (天台法華宗, ''Tendai hokke shū,'' sometimes just ''Hokkeshū''), is a Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition with significant esoteric elements that was officially established in Japan in 806 by t ...
schools of
Japanese Buddhism Buddhism was first established in Japan in the 6th century CE. Most of the Japanese Buddhists belong to new schools of Buddhism which were established in the Kamakura period (1185-1333). During the Edo period (1603–1868), Buddhism was cont ...
who is the Buddhist equivalent of the
Hindu Hindus (; ; also known as Sanātanīs) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism, also known by its endonym Sanātana Dharma. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pp. 35–37 Historically, the term has also be ...
deity
Ganesha Ganesha or Ganesh (, , ), also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka and Pillaiyar, is one of the best-known and most worshipped Deva (Hinduism), deities in the Hindu deities, Hindu pantheon and is the Supreme God in the Ganapatya sect. His depictions ...
. Although Kangiten (Shōten) and Ganesha share a common origin and a number of traits, there are also some marked differences between the two. For instance, the Buddhist Vinayaka was (at least at first) negatively portrayed as the creator of obstacles and the leader of a class of malignant demons who obstructed Buddhist practice called ''vinayakas'', though later tradition made an attempt to distinguish between the ''vinayakas'' and their lord, who became seen as a manifestation of the
bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a person who has attained, or is striving towards, '' bodhi'' ('awakening', 'enlightenment') or Buddhahood. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal nirvana or ''bodhi'' in ...
Avalokiteshvara (
Kannon Guanyin () is a common Chinese name of the bodhisattva associated with Karuṇā, compassion known as Avalokiteśvara (). Guanyin is short for Guanshiyin, which means " he One WhoPerceives the Sounds of the World". Originally regarded as m ...
in Japanese) and/or the
buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha (),* * * was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist legends, he was ...
Vairochana. Kangiten enjoys both a positive and negative reception in Japan. On the one hand, he is popularly revered as an extremely efficacious god who grants whatever is asked of him without fail, including impossible wishes. He is also said to watch over those who have a karmic connection with him from the moment of their conception, serving as their invisible companion throughout their lives. On the other hand, he is considered to be still bound by base passions and desires ('' kleshas'') and thus is sometimes also regarded as a rather volatile, demanding god who is quick to punish those who have offended him. Unlike his Hindu counterpart, whose image is prominently displayed in public, Kangiten is considered too sacred to be seen: images of the deity in temples are kept hidden from view, rituals centered on him are performed by qualified monks out of public sight, and lay devotees are discouraged from venerating iconographic depictions of the god at home. While he is sometimes depicted as an elephant-headed single male deity like Ganesha, he is more commonly portrayed as a male-female couple (both with elephant heads) standing in an embrace in an iconographic depiction known as the Dual(-bodied) Kangiten (双身歓喜天, ''Sōshin Kangiten'') or the Embracing Kangiten.


Names

Kangiten inherited many names and characteristics from the
Hindu Hindus (; ; also known as Sanātanīs) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism, also known by its endonym Sanātana Dharma. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pp. 35–37 Historically, the term has also be ...
god
Ganesha Ganesha or Ganesh (, , ), also known as Ganapati, Vinayaka and Pillaiyar, is one of the best-known and most worshipped Deva (Hinduism), deities in the Hindu deities, Hindu pantheon and is the Supreme God in the Ganapatya sect. His depictions ...
(with whom he shares a common origin), though the name 'Ganesha' (
IAST The International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration (IAST) is a transliteration scheme that allows the lossless romanisation of Brahmic family, Indic scripts as employed by Sanskrit and related Indic languages. It is based on a scheme that ...
: ) itself was never applied to the Buddhist deity, who was generally referred to by the earlier names 'Ganapati' () or 'Vinayaka' (). 'Vinayaka' was transcribed into
Chinese characters Chinese characters are logographs used Written Chinese, to write the Chinese languages and others from regions historically influenced by Chinese culture. Of the four independently invented writing systems accepted by scholars, they represe ...
as 毘那夜迦 (
pinyin Hanyu Pinyin, or simply pinyin, officially the Chinese Phonetic Alphabet, is the most common romanization system for Standard Chinese. ''Hanyu'' () literally means 'Han Chinese, Han language'—that is, the Chinese language—while ''pinyin' ...
: ''Pínàyèjiā''; Japanese (''
rōmaji The romanization of Japanese is the use of Latin script to write the Japanese language. This method of writing is sometimes referred to in Japanese as . Japanese is normally written in a combination of logogram, logographic characters borrowe ...
''): ''Binayaka'' / ''Binayakya''), 頻那夜迦 (pinyin: ''Pínnàyèjiā''), and 毘那怛迦 (pinyin: ''Pínàdájiā''), respectively, while 'Ganapati' was transcribed as 誐那鉢底 (pinyin: ''Énàbōdǐ''; Japanese: ''Ganabachi'' / ''Ganahachi'' / ''Ganahattei'') or 伽那鉢底 / 迦那鉢底 (''Jiānàbōdǐ''). The term ''vinayaka'' was also used to refer to a class of beings to which Vinayaka and/or his cohorts belong. In Japan, the deity is commonly known as 'Shōten' / 'Shōden' (聖天, "sacred / noble god"; Skt. ') or 'Kangiten' (歓喜天, "god of bliss"; Skt. ' or '). The former epithet indicates his association with good luck and fortune and may be an allusion to the
bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a person who has attained, or is striving towards, '' bodhi'' ('awakening', 'enlightenment') or Buddhahood. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal nirvana or ''bodhi'' in ...
Avalokiteshvara (
Kannon Guanyin () is a common Chinese name of the bodhisattva associated with Karuṇā, compassion known as Avalokiteśvara (). Guanyin is short for Guanshiyin, which means " he One WhoPerceives the Sounds of the World". Originally regarded as m ...
), who is also known as 'Aryavalokiteshvara' (; Japanese: 聖観音, ''Shō-Kannon''), one of the figures that constitute the dual-bodied (双身, ''sōshin'') Kangiten, while the latter is especially associated with this dual form, who is venerated as a giver of joy and prosperity. Among devotees, he is also sometimes simply referred to by the honorific 'Tenson' (天尊, "venerable deity"). In this article, the names 'Vinayaka', 'Ganapati', 'Shōten' and 'Kangiten' are used interchangeably for the Buddhist deity, with 'Kangiten' specifically denoting the deity's dual form.


Historical development and literature


As demon and deity

Several theories have been advanced regarding the origins of the Hindu deity Ganesha, who first undisputably appears in the historical record in his classic form around the early 4th to 5th centuries CE. One theory is that Ganesha gradually came to prominence in connection with the Vinayakas, a group of four troublesome demons mentioned in the '' Manava-Grihyasutra'' (a text belonging to the Manava school of the Black (''Krishna'') Yajurveda) and the ''
Mahabharata The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; , , ) is one of the two major Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epics of ancient India revered as Smriti texts in Hinduism, the other being the ''Ramayana, Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the events and aftermath of the Kuru ...
''. Whereas in Hinduism Ganesha was regarded mainly as a remover of obstacles, Buddhists originally emphasized his destructive side as the creator of obstacles and his function as a demon king. Early instances of the name 'Vinayaka' in Buddhist texts for instance have a negative connotation, denoting a malignant being (or beings) who is both the cause and the symbolic representation of obstacles or impediments. A note in the '' Mahamayuri Vidyarajni Sutra'' by the Tang period monk
Yijing The ''I Ching'' or ''Yijing'' ( ), usually translated ''Book of Changes'' or ''Classic of Changes'', is an ancient Chinese divination text that is among the oldest of the Chinese classics. The ''I Ching'' was originally a divination manual in ...
defines Vinayaka as an "obstructive deity" (障礙神, pinyin: ''zhàng'àishén''; Japanese: ''shōgeshin'') and notes his widespread worship in the west (i.e. India). The '' Mahavairochana Tantra'' (also known as the ''Vairochanabhisambodhi Sutra'') meanwhile speaks of demonic entities such as ''vinayakas'' and '' rakshasas'' being dispersed through the power of
mantra A mantra ( ; Pali: ''mantra'') or mantram (Devanagari: मन्त्रम्) is a sacred utterance, a numinous sound, a syllable, word or phonemes, or group of words (most often in an Indo-Iranian language like Sanskrit or Avestan) belie ...
. The monk
Yi Xing Yixing (, 683–727) was a Buddhist monk of the Tang dynasty, recognized for his accomplishments as an astronomer, a reformer of the calendar system, a specialist in the ''I Ching, Yijing'' (易經), and a distinguished Buddhist figure with exp ...
, in his commentary on this text, describes ''vinayakas'' as obstructions produced from a deluded mind (從妄想心生). In esoteric Buddhist literature, Vinayaka is portrayed as the enemy of the ritual practitioner who is to be either expelled with mantras or soothed with ritual offerings, which are then consumed by the practitioner to increase his strength; once duly propitiated he turns into the practitioner's ally, a protecting deity who removes all impediments. Vinayaka – also known under the name 'Vighnaraja' (), "Lord of Obstacles" – is sometimes also shown being trampled on by
wrathful deities In Buddhism, wrathful deities or fierce deities are the fierce, wrathful or forceful (Tibetan: ''trowo'', Sanskrit: ''krodha'') forms (or "aspects", "manifestations") of enlightened Buddhas, Bodhisattvas or Devas (divine beings); normally the s ...
like
Mahakala Mahākāla (, ) is a deity common to Hinduism and Buddhism. In Buddhism, Mahākāla is regarded as a ''Dharmapala, Dharmapāla'' ("Protector of the Dharma") and a Wrathful deities, wrathful manifestation of a The Buddha, Buddha, while in Hindu ...
or Achala in Tibetan and East Asian Buddhist art. The emergence of Esoteric (Tantric) Buddhism and its spread to
Nepal Nepal, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal, is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is mainly situated in the Himalayas, but also includes parts of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It borders the Tibet Autonomous Region of China Ch ...
, Tibet, and eventually to East Asia saw Vinayaka acquire a more positive role as a subjugator of demons. In Tibet, the deity was worshiped for the removal of obstacles and the granting of wealth and was at times portrayed as a wrathful, multiarmed deity wielding weapons. A Nepalese text provides a list of spells invoking Ganapati to not only bestow wealth but also to cause harm to enemies. Vinayaka is also depicted in a wall painting in Mogao Cave 285 in
Dunhuang Dunhuang () is a county-level city in northwestern Gansu Province, Western China. According to the 2010 Chinese census, the city has a population of 186,027, though 2019 estimates put the city's population at about 191,800. Sachu (Dunhuang) was ...
as a protector of Buddhism with the gods
Maheshvara Shiva (; , ), also known as Mahadeva (; , , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh and Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the God in Hinduism, Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions w ...
(Shiva) and Skanda.


Introduction to Japan

The two primary
mandalas A mandala (, ) is a geometric configuration of symbols. In various spiritual traditions, mandalas may be employed for focusing attention of practitioners and adepts, as a spiritual guidance tool, for establishing a sacred space and as an aid ...
of East Asian esoteric Buddhism (Tangmi) also feature Vinayaka(s). In the Womb Realm (''Garbhakoshadhatu'') Mandala (based on the ''Mahavairochana Tantra''), Vinayaka is found among the retinue of the directional deity
Ishana Ishana (Sanskrit: ईशान, IAST: Īśāna), is a Hindu god and the '' dikpala'' of the northeast direction. He is often considered to be one of the forms of the god Shiva, and is also often counted among the eleven Rudras. He is venerated ...
with the god Mahakala (both of whom are derived from the Hindu
Shiva Shiva (; , ), also known as Mahadeva (; , , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh and Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the God in Hinduism, Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions w ...
), while the outer sections of the Vajra Realm (''Vajradhatu'') Mandala (based on the '' Vajrashekhara Sutra'') contains four groups of five deities distributed along the four directions, each group containing one ''vinayaka'' – here interpreted as emanations of the buddha Vairochana who expressly adopt the form of ''vinayakas'' in order to subjugate the obstacle-causing demons. Vinayaka's inclusion in these mandalas – brought to Japan by
Kūkai , born posthumously called , was a Japanese Buddhist monk, calligrapher, and poet who founded the Vajrayana, esoteric Shingon Buddhism, Shingon school of Buddhism. He travelled to China, where he studied Tangmi (Chinese Vajrayana Buddhism) und ...
(774–835), the founder of
Shingon Buddhism is one of the major schools of Buddhism in Japan and one of the few surviving Vajrayana lineages in East Asian Buddhism. It is a form of Japanese Esoteric Buddhism and is sometimes called "Tōmitsu" (東密 lit. "Esoteric uddhismof Tō-j ...
– facilitated his introduction to Japan, where he (like most other Hindu deities assimilated in Buddhism) was first considered a minor guardian of the two mandalas. By the
Heian period The is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. It followed the Nara period, beginning when the 50th emperor, Emperor Kammu, moved the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto). means in Japanese. It is a ...
(794–1185), Vinayaka emerged as a ''besson'' (別尊, lit. "separate/distinct worthy"), a deity with an individualized
cult Cults are social groups which have unusual, and often extreme, religious, spiritual, or philosophical beliefs and rituals. Extreme devotion to a particular person, object, or goal is another characteristic often ascribed to cults. The term ...
centered around him. The deity's cult was developed within the Shingon school by the monk Kakuban (1095–1143), while in
Tendai , also known as the Tendai Dharma Flower School (天台法華宗, ''Tendai hokke shū,'' sometimes just ''Hokkeshū''), is a Mahāyāna Buddhist tradition with significant esoteric elements that was officially established in Japan in 806 by t ...
, it was systematized by Annen (841–889?).


Emergence of Dual Vinayaka (Kangiten)

The late Heian period saw the rise in popularity of the Dual-bodied Kangiten (''Sōshin'' / ''Sōjin Kangiten'') image, in which Vinayaka (heretofore depicted as a single figure, often with two arms but sometimes also four or six) is shown as an embracing male-female couple. The origins of this imagery, unique to East Asia, have perplexed scholars for years; there is no concrete evidence about the inception of this form. It has been compared with the sexual yab-yum iconography found in Nepal and Tibet, although it is markedly different from them in that both figures have animal heads (yab-yum representations are restricted to fully humanoid deities; the zoocephalic Vinayaka-Ganapati was thus not portrayed in this form, though erotic depictions of him do exist) and are shown fully clothed. Lode Rosseels suggests that the Dual Vinayaka form may have originated from an iconographic type attested in
Xinjiang Xinjiang,; , SASM/GNC romanization, SASM/GNC: Chinese postal romanization, previously romanized as Sinkiang, officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR), is an Autonomous regions of China, autonomous region of the China, People' ...
(Chinese Turkestan) and
Dunhuang Dunhuang () is a county-level city in northwestern Gansu Province, Western China. According to the 2010 Chinese census, the city has a population of 186,027, though 2019 estimates put the city's population at about 191,800. Sachu (Dunhuang) was ...
in the 8th century showing Ganapati with four legs (representing the deity's union with his
shakti Shakti (Devanagari: शक्ति, IAST: Śakti; 'energy, ability, strength, effort, power, might, capability') in Hinduism, is the "Universal Power" that underlies and sustains all existence. Conceived as feminine in essence, Shakti refer ...
in a non-sexual fashion), which was "reinterpreted by the Chinese in accordance with popular
Taoist Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ...
ideals ... which probably resulted in the restoration of the four-legged and four-armed form to two almost identical elephant-headed deities in a nonsexual embrace." The form is first attested in 7th–8th century Chinese esoteric Buddhist texts. The ''Dharani-samuchchaya Sutra'' ( Taishō Tripitaka 901), translated into Chinese by a monk named Atigupta (or Atikuta) in 653–654 CE describes a ritual to worship the Dual Vinayaka, which was replicated by Amoghavajra (705–774) in his ritual text ''Rite of the Dual-bodied Vinayaka, the Great Saintly Deva of Bliss'' (T. 1266). The text gives instructions for the fashioning of both the dual-bodied and the six-armed single Vinayaka images and specifies the types of offerings one should give to the deity. Two texts attributed to Bodhiruchi (trad. 672–727), the ''Sutra of the Mantras and Rituals of the Gana'' (T. 1267), and the ''Larger Sutra of the Mantras and Rituals of the Gana'' (T. 1268), contain the same guidelines for rituals and depictions of the Dual-bodied Vinayaka. In the former text, Vinayaka teaches a multitude of deities and demons who have congregated at
Mount Kailash Mount Kailash (also Kailasa; ''Kangrinboqê'' or ''Gang Rinpoche''; ; ; , ) is a mountain in Ngari Prefecture, Tibet Autonomous Region of China. It lies in the Kailash Range (Gangdisê Mountains) of the Transhimalaya, in the western part ...
a one-syllable mantra, followed by a description of a ritual dedicated to the Dual Vinayaka similar to that found in Amoghavajra's text. Vinayaka's demon followers promise the deity to grant the wishes of whoever repeats the one-syllable mantra. The ''Larger Gana Sutra'' meanwhile contains additional rituals to propitiate the Dual Vinayaka as well as the four-armed form of the deity. It also has rituals aimed at attracting love, gaining wisdom, or destroying enemies. A ritual manual by Shubhakarasimha (637–736) titled ''Ritual of the Mantras and Offerings that Converted the Great Saintly Deva of Bliss King Vinayaka, the Dual-Bodied Maheshvara'' (T. 1270) mentions new myths regarding the Dual-bodied Vinayaka not found in Indian sources and is the first text that explicitly associates the deity with the
bodhisattva In Buddhism, a bodhisattva is a person who has attained, or is striving towards, '' bodhi'' ('awakening', 'enlightenment') or Buddhahood. Often, the term specifically refers to a person who forgoes or delays personal nirvana or ''bodhi'' in ...
Avalokiteshvara ( Guanyin / Kannon). It also prohibits placing his images in Buddhist altar rooms.


Other esoteric texts on Vinayaka

The ''Sutra of the Divine Incantations of the Eleven-Headed valokiteshvara' (T. 1071), translated by the monk
Xuanzang Xuanzang (; ; 6 April 6025 February 664), born Chen Hui or Chen Yi (), also known by his Sanskrit Dharma name Mokṣadeva, was a 7th-century Chinese Bhikkhu, Buddhist monk, scholar, traveller, and translator. He is known for the epoch-making ...
in 656 CE, expounds the rite of
bathing Bathing is the immersion of the body, wholly or partially, usually in water, but often in another medium such as hot air. It is most commonly practised as part of personal cleansing, and less frequently for relaxation or as a leisure activity. ...
an image of Vinayaka with perfumed water. A short text attributed to Amoghavajra titled ''Tantra on the Practice of the Secret Ritual of the Dual-bodied Bodhisattva Great Saintly Deva of Bliss, the Samaya-Body Copenetrated by Meditation and Wisdom of the Tathagata Mahavairochana'' (T. 1271) describes the Dual Vinayaka ritual as a procedure to gain four kinds of benefits or ''
siddhi In Indian religions, (Sanskrit: '; fulfillment, accomplishment) are material, paranormal, supernatural, or otherwise magical powers, abilities, and attainments that are the products of Yoga, yogic advancement through sādhanās such as medit ...
s'' (protection, gain, love and subjugation) which come in three grades: the highest grade confers kingship; the second grade provides wealth; the third grade provides sufficient food and clothing. In parallel to the material results, the tantra classifies ritual practitioners into three categories: the highest class of adept are allowed to learn the rite's inner secrets, the middle are permitted to read the text, while the lowest may not conduct the ritual on their own but should let a more developed practitioner do it for them. The text notably prescribes alcoholic beverages ( considered taboo in exoteric Buddhism), dubbed the "water of bliss" (歡喜水, pinyin: ''huānxǐshuǐ'', Japanese: ''kangisui''), as an offering to the deity, which is then consumed as a medicine to remove evil. Amoghavajra's disciple Hanguang (含光) composed a text in 747 called ''Secret Essence of the Yoga-siddhi of the Vinayaka Ganapati'' (T.1273) in which he continued his master's work. He writes that every ritual should be preceded by an invocation to Vinayaka-Ganapati, the god of beginnings. This text identifies both Vinayaka and Avalokiteshvara as manifestations of the all-pervading body of the buddha Vairochana, with the pair being taken to symbolize both Vairochana's material and spiritual aspects. A ritual manual attributed to Bodhiruci with the title ''The Rite of the Nine-Eyed Deva, the Provisional Manifestation of the Golden Ganapati'' describes a wrathful manifestation of Vinayaka with four arms and three heads (each with three eyes) apparently based on Tibetan forms of the deity. The manual gives instructions for the fashioning of the image, which should then be kept hidden from view at all times and offered radishes, cakes, sweets, and honey. A sutra translated by Vajrabodhi known as ''The Dharani Sutra of the Golden Ganapati'' (T. 1269) gives instructions on how to depict a six-armed Ganapati, which should also be concealed and offered sweets such as modak (歡喜團, pinyin: ''huānxǐtuán''; Japanese: ''kangidan'', lit. "bliss buns"), honey, and fruits. An apocryphal sutra dating from the early 11th century, ''The Attainment Rites of Vinayaka taught by Vajrasattva'' (T. 1272), contains
black magic Black magic (Middle English: ''nigromancy''), sometimes dark magic, traditionally refers to the use of Magic (paranormal), magic or supernatural powers for evil and selfish purposes. The links and interaction between black magic and religi ...
spells invoking ''vinayakas'' aimed at the destruction of one's enemies. This text was deemed so gruesome that
Emperor Zhenzong Emperor Zhenzong of Song (23 December 968 – 23 March 1022), personal name Zhao Heng, was the third emperor of the Song dynasty of China. He reigned from 997 to his death in 1022. His personal name was originally Zhao Dechang, but was change ...
(reigned 997–1022) banned its circulation in China in 1017. A minor astrological or divinatory text apocryphally attributed to Prajnachakra, another disciple of Amoghavajra who became the master of the Tendai monk Enchin (814–891), known as ''The Rules for the Diviner's Board of the Great Saintly Bliss Deva'' (T. 1275) describes the outline of an esoteric divination board (式盤, Ch. ''shìpán''; Jp. ''shikiban''), which consisted of two parts linked by an axis: the cylindrical or conical upper part called the "heavenly board" (天盤, Ch. ''tiānpán''; Jp. ''tenban''), was cylindrical or conical, and the square lower part called the "earthly board" (地盤, Ch. ''dìpán''; Jp. ''chiban''). The practitioner is to visualize four ''vinayakas'' (all manifestations of Vinayaka-Ganapati) at each of the cardinal directions on the ''tenban'', while the guardian deities of the eight directions ('' dikpala'') and the
Twenty-Eight Mansions The Twenty-Eight Mansions (), also called or , are part of the Chinese constellations system. They can be considered as the equivalent to the Zodiac, zodiacal constellations in Western astronomy, though the Twenty-eight Mansions reflect the move ...
of
Chinese astronomy Astronomy in China has a long history stretching from the Shang dynasty, being refined over a period of more than 3,000 years. The Ancient China, ancient Chinese people have identified stars from 1300 BCE, as Chinese star names later categori ...
are to be visualized on the ''chiban''. The text then lists a number of possible combinations obtained by rotating the ''tenban'' over the ''chiban'' (linking any one of the four "heavenly" ''vinayakas'' with one of the eight "earthly" directional devas), each of which produced different material benefits such as obtaining a high position, attaining marital union, making a person fall ill, or returning a curse to its sender. Kūkai, who brought Shubhakarasimha's, Vajrabodhi's, and Amoghavajra's ritual manuals with him to Japan, is also said to have himself authored a text on Vinayaka titled the ''Shōten Procedural'' (聖天次第, ''Shōten shidai''). The Tendai monk Ennin, too, lists the ''Rite of the Dual-bodied Vinayaka, the Great Saintly Deva of Bliss'' among the texts he obtained in China.


From the medieval period onwards

Since the Heian period, Vinayaka (Shōten / Kangiten) featured in state-sponsored official rites. These ceremonies were originally a prerogative of the imperial court: an edict dating from 785 prohibited the private performance of rites focused on a number of deities, Shōten being one of them. However, he was at times also invoked against the imperial house: in '' The Tale of Hōgen'', the nobleman Fujiwara no Yorinaga (1120–1156) requests the performance of rituals centered on Shōten, Uchchhushma (Ususama Myōō) and Vajrakumara (金剛童子, Kongō Dōji) against Emperor Go-Shirakawa. Shōten was commonly invoked in rites of subjugation. Legend relates that the Tendai monk Son'i ( 尊意, 866–940) invoked Shōten to pacify the vengeful spirit of statesman Sugawara no Michizane (later deified as Tenjin, the ''
kami are the Deity, deities, Divinity, divinities, Spirit (supernatural entity), spirits, mythological, spiritual, or natural phenomena that are venerated in the traditional Shinto religion of Japan. ''Kami'' can be elements of the landscape, forc ...
'' of learning), who was himself claimed to be a devotee of the god. Another story claims that when Son'i was performing a
rite Rite may refer to: Religion * Ritual, an established ceremonious act * Rite (Christianity), sacred rituals in the Christian religion * Ritual family, Christian liturgical traditions; often also called ''liturgical rites'' * Catholic particular ch ...
centered on the deity Achala (Fudō Myōō) for the end of the rebellion of Taira no Masakado in 940, a statue of Kangiten on a side altar flew eastward with the sound of a flying arrow, followed by an apparition of Masakado's head falling on the main altar, signifying his defeat. In 1329, Emperor Go-Daigo performed a subjugation ritual invoking the god against the
Kamakura shogunate The was the feudal military government of Japan during the Kamakura period from 1185 to 1333. Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric. (2005)"''Kamakura-jidai''"in ''Japan Encyclopedia'', p. 459. The Kamakura shogunate was established by Minamoto no Yori ...
; after the shogunate's regent (''
shikken The was a senior government post held by members of the Hōjō clan, officially a regent of the shogunate. From 1199 to 1333, during the Kamakura period, the ''shikken'' served as the head of the ''bakufu'' (shogun's government). This era was ref ...
'')
Hōjō Takatoki was the last '' Tokusō'' and ruling Shikken (regent) of Japan's Kamakura shogunate; the rulers that followed were his puppets. A member of the Hōjō clan, he was the son of Hōjō Sadatoki, and was preceded as ''shikken'' by Hōjō Mototo ...
committed suicide during the Siege of Kamakura in 1333, the emperor ordered
Ashikaga Takauji also known as Minamoto no Takauji was the founder and first ''shōgun'' of the Ashikaga shogunate."Ashikaga Takauji" in ''Encyclopædia Britannica, The New Encyclopædia Britannica''. Chicago: Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 15th edn., 1992, Vol. ...
to establish a memorial sanctuary in Hōkai-ji, a temple in Kamakura notable for being a cultic center of Kangiten, to placate Takatoki's spirit. After the
Kenmu Restoration The was a three-year period of Imperial rule in Japanese history between the Kamakura period and the Muromachi period from 1333 to 1336. The Kenmu Restoration was an effort made by Emperor Go-Daigo to overthrow the ruling Kamakura Shogunate ...
(1333–1336), this particular Kangiten became an object of worship of the Ashikaga shogunate and the remnants of the
Hōjō clan The was a Japanese samurai family who controlled the hereditary title of '' shikken'' (regent) of the Kamakura shogunate between 1203 and 1333. Despite the title, in practice the family wielded actual political power in Japan during this perio ...
. In 1433, the monks of
Mount Hiei is a mountain to the northeast of Kyoto, lying on the border between the Kyoto and Shiga Prefectures, Japan. The temple of Enryaku-ji, the first outpost of the Japanese Tendai (Chin. Tiantai) sect of Buddhism, was founded atop Mount Hiei by ...
conducted a Shōten rite against the sixth Ashikaga ''shōgun'' Yoshinori. Historical figures known to have been devoted to Shōten (and whose successes were sometimes credited to him) include the famous warlords
Toyotomi Hideyoshi , otherwise known as and , was a Japanese samurai and ''daimyō'' (feudal lord) of the late Sengoku period, Sengoku and Azuchi-Momoyama periods and regarded as the second "Great Unifier" of Japan.Richard Holmes, The World Atlas of Warfare: ...
and
Tokugawa Ieyasu Tokugawa Ieyasu (born Matsudaira Takechiyo; 31 January 1543 – 1 June 1616) was the founder and first ''shōgun'' of the Tokugawa shogunate of Japan, which ruled from 1603 until the Meiji Restoration in 1868. He was the third of the three "Gr ...
, the
Edo period The , also known as the , is the period between 1600 or 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when the country was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and some 300 regional ''daimyo'', or feudal lords. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengok ...
merchants Kinokuniya Bunzaemon and Takadaya Kahei, the ''
daimyō were powerful Japanese magnates, feudal lords who, from the 10th century to the early Meiji era, Meiji period in the middle 19th century, ruled most of Japan from their vast hereditary land holdings. They were subordinate to the shogun and no ...
'' and political reformer Matsudaira Sadanobu, and wealthy business families such as the
Mitsui is a Japanese corporate group and '' keiretsu'' that traces its roots to the ''zaibatsu'' groups that were dissolved after World War II. Unlike the ''zaibatsu'' of the pre-war period, there is no controlling company with regulatory power. Ins ...
, the Sumitomo, and the Kōnoike. The 15th century Noh playwright Konparu Zenchiku was also devoted to the god since his youth; during a twenty-one day retreat at Fushimi Inari Shrine with his wife (a daughter of his master Zeami) in 1467, the 63-year old Zenchiku consumed a
talisman A talisman is any object ascribed with religious or magical powers intended to protect, heal, or harm individuals for whom they are made. Talismans are often portable objects carried on someone in a variety of ways, but can also be installed perm ...
of the deity while praying for the "harmonious union of
yin and yang Originating in Chinese philosophy, yin and yang (, ), also yinyang or yin-yang, is the concept of opposite cosmic principles or forces that interact, interconnect, and perpetuate each other. Yin and yang can be thought of as complementary an ...
, husband and wife." Upon being told by a priest that his prayer was not answered because he had no karmic connection with Shōten, Zenchiku repented of his negligence and renewed his vow, eventually receiving a dream that deepened his faith. Little is known regarding premodern devotion to Shōten outside of the ruling classes other than that it spread during the Edo period, all the while still remaining relatively arcane. A certain legend claims that Ieyasu attempted to stake a claim on the deity by promoting rumors of Shōten being a fearsome god whose efficacy is counterbalanced by his fickleness and quick temper, thus keeping the cult's growth among the general populace in check. This, the story claims, is the reason why he is not as popular in the
Kantō region The is a geography, geographical region of Honshu, the largest island of Japan. In a common definition, the region includes the Greater Tokyo Area and encompasses seven prefectures of Japan, prefectures: Chiba Prefecture, Chiba, Gunma Prefe ...
(the Tokugawa seat of power) as he is in western Japan, where he is widely worshiped even today. Perhaps in reaction against the deity's reputation among the public as one who grants any and all material desires, various sources emphasize the ineffectiveness and even danger of performing rituals on one's own, without the aid of a qualified priest. The Tendai monk Kōkei (977–1049) warned that while the benefits brought by the god are very real, he is swift to curse negligent practitioners; it is thus better for people in this Final Age not to worship him. The 18th-century
tradesman A tradesperson or tradesman/tradeswoman is a skilled worker that specialises in a particular trade. Tradespeople (tradesmen/women) usually gain their skills through work experience, on-the-job training, an apprenticeship program or formal educ ...
and ''
kokugaku was an academic movement, a school of Japanese philology and philosophy originating during the Edo period. scholars worked to refocus Japanese scholarship away from the then-dominant study of Chinese, Confucian, and Buddhist texts in favor of ...
'' scholar Tsumura Sōan writes the following regarding Kangiten: A notable modern-day Shōten devotee is the entrepreneur and Buddhist scholar Hayashiya Tomojirō (林屋友次郎, 1886–1953), who authored ''A Guide to Shōten Devotion'' (聖天信仰の手引き, ''Shōten shinkō no tebiki''), a manual instructing lay worshipers (specifically new devotees) the proper manner of worshiping the deity.


Mythology

A number of texts relate different stories regarding the origin and meaning of the Dual Vinayaka image. According to the story found in Shubhakarasimha's ritual manual, Maheshvara's wife Uma (
Parvati Parvati (, , IPA: /Sanskrit phonology, pɑɾʋət̪iː/), also known as Uma (, , IPA: Sanskrit phonology, /ʊmɑː/) and Gauri (, , IPA: /Sanskrit phonology, gə͡ʊɾiː/), is one of the principal goddesses in Hinduism, revered as the Devi, ...
) gave birth to three thousand children: from her left side was born 1,500 evil deities headed by King Vinayaka (毘那夜迦王), while from her right side came 1,500 benevolent deities led by King Senayaka (扇那夜迦王;
Pali Pāli (, IAST: pāl̤i) is a Classical languages of India, classical Middle Indo-Aryan languages, Middle Indo-Aryan language of the Indian subcontinent. It is widely studied because it is the language of the Buddhist ''Pali Canon, Pāli Can ...
: ; Sanskrit: , "commander" or "lord of the army"), who was actually the incarnation of Avalokiteshvara. In order to subdue Vinayaka's evil deeds, Senayaka "took simultaneous birth with Vinayaka so that they would be younger and elder brother, husband and wife." Reborn as his wife, Senayaka embraced Vinayaka, thereby calming his rage and turning him into a force for good. In another legend recorded in a medieval Japanese iconographic compendium known as the ''Kakuzenshō'' (覚禅鈔), Vinayaka was originally the king of a country called Marakeira, who only ate beef and radishes. When these became rare, he started feasting on human corpses; when these too became scarce, he began to eat living people. His subjects eventually revolted and were about to kill the king when he transformed himself into "the great demon king Vinayaka." The kingdom was then struck by an epidemic (implied to have been caused by the demon), at which the people prayed to the Eleven-Headed (''Ekadashamukha'') Avalokiteshvara, who took the form of a female ''vinayaka'' and seduced the demon king, filling him with joy (歓喜, ''kangi'') and pacifying him. Thus, he, in union with her, became the Dual Kangiten. A third tale somewhat similar to the above found in another Japanese text portrays Vinayaka (Kangi) as the head of a vast army of ''vinayaka'' demons who lived in a mountain called Mount Vinayaka, also known as "Elephant-headed Mountain" (象頭山, ''Zōzu-sen'') or "Mountain of Obstacles" (障礙山, ''Shōge-san''), who received a command from Maheshvara (who at the time had not yet converted to Buddhism) to cause trouble to humans and steal their vital essence. To tame him, Avalokiteshvara manifested himself as a female ''vinayaka'' and came before the demon king. Upon seeing the demoness, Kangi immediately fell in love with her, but she agreed to become his consort only if he abandoned his evil ways and embraced Buddhism. After Kangi assented, the demoness took him in her arms, leading the king to achieve great bliss (''kangi''). A variant of this story portrays Shōten (here identified as female) as a daughter of Maheshvara who was exiled to Mount Vinayaka because of her ugliness and her violent nature. In the mountain, she meets a god who courts her. She replies that she is already wed to another deity named Gundari ( Amritakundalin) but agrees to marry him if he reforms himself. (Still other versions in which Vinayaka is male portray Gundari as a goddess.) Yet another story relates that Vinayaka was originally a courtier in an Indian kingdom nicknamed the "Long-Nosed Minister" (鼻長大臣, ''Bichō Daijin'') who had an intimate liaison with the queen. After discovering their affair, the king poisons Bichō Daijin by making him eat elephant meat. The queen tells her lover to run away to Mount Keira (Mount Kailash) and cure himself by bathing in oil and eating radishes. After recovering, Bichō Daijin swore vengeance against the king and transformed into a fearsome elephant-headed "great god of obstacles" (大障礙神, ''dai-shōgeshin'') named Vinayaka. Storming into the palace with his army of demons, Vinayaka confessed to the queen his lust for her. In reply, the queen bade him repent of his evil ways and embraced him, "her body ecomingas his in form." Thus Vinayaka was freed from his base desires and attained great bliss.


Association with other deities

Kangiten is commonly identified as an "assimilation / emanation body" (等流身, ''tōrujin''; Sanskrit: ''niṣyanda-kāya'') of Vairochana, with the female half of the embracing pair being also identified as a manifestation of the Eleven-Headed Avalokiteshvara. In addition to these two, he was also connected or identified with other deities such as Maheshvara-Daijizaiten, the wrathful hearth god Sanbō Kōjin, the snake god Ugajin, Enma (Yama),
Benzaiten is an East Asian Buddhism, East Asian Buddhist Dharmapala, goddess who originated from the Hindu Saraswati, the patroness of speech, the arts, and learning. Worship of Benzaiten arrived in Japan during the sixth through eighth centuries, mai ...
(
Sarasvati Saraswati (, ), also spelled as Sarasvati, is one of the principal Devi, goddesses in Hinduism, revered as the goddess of knowledge, education, learning, arts, speech, poetry, music, purification, language and culture. Together with the godde ...
), the fox goddess Dakiniten, and the wisdom king Aizen Myōō ( Ragaraja). Whereas some sources identify Shōten as Maheshvara's son – which reflects Shiva's and Ganesha's relationship in Hindu mythology – others also identify him as Maheshvara's incarnation. The Shingon monk Kakuban for instance wrote: In another text, 'Daijizaiten' is one of the various names for the deity: This identification of Shōten with Daijizaiten was however criticized in the
hagiography A hagiography (; ) is a biography of a saint or an ecclesiastical leader, as well as, by extension, an adulatory and idealized biography of a preacher, priest, founder, saint, monk, nun or icon in any of the world's religions. Early Christian ...
of Shingon Ritsu monk Tankai (1629–1721), the founder of Hōzan-ji (Ikoma Shōten), which relates that Tankai, after having doubts about Shōten's true nature, had a dream in which the god explained that he is neither Daijizaiten nor a mere ''vinayaka'' demon but an avatar of Vairochana; although he is called 'Vinayaka' because the ''vinayakas'' are members of his retinue, he, unlike them, is not a malignant demon of obstacles. Tankai's doubts were eventually resolved after finding a copy of the ''Kakuzenshō'', which claimed that identifying Shōten with Maheshvara-Daijizaiten is "a great error" and that "this divinity's special characteristic is that of lord of ''siddhis'', thus he is called 'Jizaiten'. He ought not to be confused with any other ''jizaiten''." A tradition of the Jimon Tendai temple of Mii-dera meanwhile associates Shōten with the demon king
Mara Mara or MARA may refer to: Arts and entertainment Fictional characters * Mara (''Doctor Who''), an evil being in two ''Doctor Who'' serials * Mara (She-Ra), fictional characters from the ''She-Ra and the Princesses of Power'' and ''The New Advent ...
, also known as Takejizaiten (他化自在天; Skt. '' Paranirmitavaśavartin''), the lord of the sixth and highest heaven in the world of desire who once tried to hinder Gautama Buddha's quest for enlightenment (though he is also said to have eventually converted to Buddhism). Indeed, the Mii-dera tradition employs Takejizaiten's mantra in Shōten rituals rather than Daijizaiten's. Shōten was also equated with Sanbō Kōjin, in that the latter was also considered to be a violent deity (''kōjin'') of obstacles. According to a work attributed to the Tendai monk Annen called the ''Ritual of Vinayaka in Four Sections'' (''Shibu Binayaka-hō'', 四部毘那夜迦法), when the construction of Jetavana Monastery suffered a series of delays due to obstructive evil spirits, their leader, a fierce-looking eight-headed deity, appeared before the Buddha's disciple Shariputra, calling himself Nagyōtosajin (那行都佐神), the "Raging King of the Three Jewels" (三宝荒王, ''Sanbō Kōō''). He then demanded that Shariputra create an image of him and make offerings to it, warning that all kinds of calamities will befall those who do not pay him homage. A gloss in the text explains: "It is Kōjin, or Vinayaka." The story is repeated in the Sannō Shinto text ''Shintō Zatsuzatsushū'' (神道雑々集): here, the god identifies himself explicitly as 'Sanbō Kōjin Binayaka' (三宝荒神毘那夜迦). Like Kangiten, Kōjin (Nagyōtosajin) was interpreted as being either a single deity or a pair of deities named respectively Nagyō (那行) and Tosa (都佐). (In a similar vein, some representations of Kangiten split the god's name into two, naming the male half of the pair as 'Bina' and his female consort as 'Yaka'.) In addition, Kōjin was also sometimes identified with Maheshvara-Daijizaiten and was associated with one of Vinayaka's symbols (三昧耶形, ''sa(n)maya-gyō''; Skt. ''samaya''), the
parasol An umbrella or parasol is a folding canopy (building), canopy supported by wooden or metal ribs that is mounted on a wooden, metal, or plastic pole. It is usually designed to protect a person against rain. The term ''umbrella'' is traditionall ...
(傘蓋, ''sangai''). In an apocryphal sutra titled ''Dharani Sutra of the Buddha's Teaching for the Greatest Protection of the Country by Ugaya's Sudden Attainment Wish-Fulfilling Jewel'', Ugajin (who is closely associated with Benzaiten) is said to manifest himself as the deities Dakiniten, Daishōten (Vinayaka), and Aizen Myōō. Another text identifies Vinayaka with the goddess of
Itsukushima Shrine is a Shinto shrine on the island of Itsukushima (popularly known as Miyajima), best known for its "floating" ''torii''.Louis-Frédéric, Nussbaum, Louis-Frédéric (2005)"''Itsukushima-jinja''"in ''Japan Encyclopedia'', p. 407. It is in the cit ...
, who was also identified with Benzaiten. During the medieval period, Benzaiten, Dakiniten, and Shōten were also combined into a single figure which served as the main focus of an esoteric imperial accession rite in which the three deities were worshiped as one known as the Joint Ritual of the Three Devas (三天合行法, ''santen gogyōhō''). The union of these three divinities was associated with a series of triads such as the
three jewels In Buddhism, refuge or taking refuge refers to a religious practice which often includes a prayer or recitation performed at the beginning of the day or of a practice session. Its object is typically the Three Jewels (also known as the Triple ...
(Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha), the
three poisons The three poisons (Sanskrit: ''triviṣa''; Tibetan: ''dug gsum'') in the Mahayana tradition or the three unwholesome roots (Sanskrit: ''akuśala-mūla''; Pāli: ''akusala-mūla'') in the Theravada tradition are a Buddhist term that refers to th ...
(greed, ignorance, and hatred), the three mysteries (body, speech, and mind), and the three shrines that comprise Fushimi Inari Shrine (due to her association with foxes, Dakiniten was identified with the native god Inari). Portrayals of the three devas as a single figure, which became popular during the Nanboku-chō and
Muromachi The , also known as the , is a division of History of Japan, Japanese history running from approximately 1336 to 1573. The period marks the governance of the Ashikaga shogunate, Muromachi or Ashikaga shogunate ( or ), which was officially establ ...
periods and were still being produced as late as the Edo period, depict the composite deity as a three-headed figure riding a fox. The middle head is usually that of Dakiniten, though some show Shōten as occupying the central position. Shōten was also identified with various Japanese gods such as Susanoo,
Amaterasu , often called Amaterasu () for short, also known as and , is the goddess of the sun in Japanese mythology. Often considered the chief deity (''kami'') of the Shinto pantheon, she is also portrayed in Japan's earliest literary texts, the () ...
, Sarutahiko and his wife Ame-no-Uzume (an identification which may have partly stemmed from Sarutahiko's long nose calling to mind Shōten's elephant trunk), or the crossroad deities known as ''
Dōsojin is a generic name for a type of Shinto ''kami'' popularly worshipped in Kantō and neighboring areas in Japan where, as tutelary deity, tutelary deities of borders and paths, they are believed to protect travellers, pilgrims, villages, and individ ...
'' (which are sometimes represented as a human couple).Apart from Avalokiteshvara, various wrathful deities such as Jinja Daishō ( 深沙大将, lit. "General Deep Sands"; a fierce avatar of Vaishravana), Uchchhushma (Ususama), Achala (Fudō), or Amritakundalin (Gundari Myōō) are also believed to subjugate Vinayaka (when interpreted as the cause of obstacles) and his ''vinayaka'' underlings and keep them under control. Indeed, Amritakundalin is said to be particularly effective against the ''vinayakas''; their leader Shōten himself is also said to belong to his retinue.


''Gonrui'' and ''jitsurui''

Medieval Japanese thought classified Buddhist devas and native ''kami'' into two types: ''gonsha'' (権者) or ''gonrui'' (権類), deities who are "provisional" manifestations ('' gongen'') of enlightened buddhas and bodhisattvas, and ''jissha'' (実者) or ''jitsurui'' (実類), "real" or "material" lesser divinities who have the same passions and desires as humans do. In this latter category are also included deified lower entities such as animal spirits or spirits of the dead. ''Jitsurui'' deities, due to their nature, are approached with caution, with some sources even recommending that they are best avoided. Esoteric texts distinguish three kinds of Kangiten rituals, each of which classified Vinayaka and his consort differently: *The first one considers the male as a ''jitsurui'' deity and the female as a provisional incarnation. The '' honzon'' or focus of worship in this rite is thus called "provisional and real devas" (権実の天, ''gonjitsu no ten''). *In the second, both deities are considered ''jitsurui''; the ''honzon'' in this case is called "devas both real" (倶実の天, ''kujitsu no ten''). This type of ritual is considered the most effective but also the most dangerous. *The third one visualizes both deities as ''gonrui''; its ''honzon'' is therefore known as "devas both provisional" (倶権の天, ''kugon no ten''). Although its effects are not as quick or apparent, it is considered the safest of the three types. These distinctions merely reflect the perspective of the practitioner; the image used in these rituals does not change.


Iconography


Single and dual forms

Shōten (Kangiten) is mainly depicted either alone or, more commonly, embracing his consort. When shown by himself, he is represented with either two, four, six, eight or even twelve arms, holding various attributes such as a
vajra The Vajra (, , ), is a legendary and ritualistic tool, symbolizing the properties of a diamond (indestructibility) and a thunderbolt (irresistible force). It is also described as a "ritual weapon". The use of the bell and vajra together as s ...
, an
axe An axe (; sometimes spelled ax in American English; American and British English spelling differences#Miscellaneous spelling differences, see spelling differences) is an implement that has been used for thousands of years to shape, split, a ...
, a
noose A noose is a loop at the end of a rope in which the knot tightens under load and can be loosened without untying the knot. The knot can be used to secure a rope to a post, pole, or animal but only where the end is in a position that the loop can ...
, a club, a
trident A trident (), () is a three- pronged spear. It is used for spear fishing and historically as a polearm. As compared to an ordinary spear, the three tines increase the chance that a fish will be struck and decrease the chance that a fish will b ...
, a
wheel A wheel is a rotating component (typically circular in shape) that is intended to turn on an axle Bearing (mechanical), bearing. The wheel is one of the key components of the wheel and axle which is one of the Simple machine, six simple machin ...
, a broken
tusk Tusks are elongated, continuously growing front teeth that protrude well beyond the mouth of certain mammal species. They are most commonly canine tooth, canine teeth, as with Narwhal, narwhals, chevrotains, musk deer, water deer, muntjac, pigs, ...
or a radish (which may have itself developed from the tusk attribute). He notably does not have the Hindu Ganesha's characteristic huge belly nor the latter's animal mount ('' vāhana''), the mouse. Some depictions portray him with one tusk similar to Ganesha, although others show both his tusks intact. Among the various representations of the deity, the single-bodied Shōten image is considered the most difficult and even dangerous to own and maintain due to the god's wild nature; an image of the Eleven-Headed Avalokiteshvara (Jūichimen Kannon) is thus also installed in temples that enshrine the single-bodied Shōten in the belief that this pacifies the deity. Images of this type are employed in an esoteric rite known as the Kangiten Water Ritual (水歓喜天供, ''Sui Kangiten-ku''), in which water that had been used to bathe the statue of Avalokiteshvara is poured over the image, which is then taken by ritual practitioners and devotees for their use. Bathing in this consecrated water is believed to cleanse impurities and remove all impediments. The Dual-bodied Kangiten image usually features both the male and female figures with elephant heads, though a few examples show the female figure as boar-headed. The genders of the pair are not explicit but hinted in the iconography. The female is often shown wearing a crown and resting her feet over that of the male, who rests his head on her shoulder. Some variants may show the male and female gazing at each other, looking over each other's shoulders, wearing a single shared garment, or standing side by side. A few images of the deity classified as ''gonjitsu'' depictions may depict the female alone stepping on the male's foot (symbolizing the ''jitsurui'' deity Vinayaka being subjugated by Avalokiteshvara's provisional incarnation), while ''kugon'' depictions – where both the male and female are interpreted as incarnations of bodhisattvas – may show both the two figures stepping on the other's foot. This symbolizes the unity and non-duality of contrasting genders and opposites. Although Amoghavajra's ''Rite of the Dual-bodied Vinayaka'' recommends that Vinayaka's image be made of
pewter Pewter () is a malleable metal alloy consisting of tin (85–99%), antimony (approximately 5–10%), copper (2%), bismuth, and sometimes silver. In the past, it was an alloy of tin and lead, but most modern pewter, in order to prevent lead poi ...
,
brass Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, in proportions which can be varied to achieve different colours and mechanical, electrical, acoustic and chemical properties, but copper typically has the larger proportion, generally copper and zinc. I ...
, or wood and be about five or seven ''
sun The Sun is the star at the centre of the Solar System. It is a massive, nearly perfect sphere of hot plasma, heated to incandescence by nuclear fusion reactions in its core, radiating the energy from its surface mainly as visible light a ...
'' (approximately 17–20 centimeters) high, most sculptures of Kangiten venerated in Japanese temples are much smaller, measuring around one to two ''sun'' (3–6 centimeters) on average. Because they are periodically ritually bathed in oil, many are made of metals such as
gold Gold is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol Au (from Latin ) and atomic number 79. In its pure form, it is a brightness, bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal. Chemically, gold is a transition metal ...
,
silver Silver is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Ag () and atomic number 47. A soft, whitish-gray, lustrous transition metal, it exhibits the highest electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity, and reflectivity of any metal. ...
,
bronze Bronze is an alloy consisting primarily of copper, commonly with about 12–12.5% tin and often with the addition of other metals (including aluminium, manganese, nickel, or zinc) and sometimes non-metals (such as phosphorus) or metalloid ...
, or
iron Iron is a chemical element; it has symbol Fe () and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earth's o ...
; wooden images (木天, ''mokuten'') are comparatively rare.


Vajra ''vinayakas''

The twenty deities depicted in the outer sections of the Diamond Realm mandala include Vinayaka (shown holding a radish and a modak), a boar-headed deity known as Vajramukha (金剛面天, ''Kongōmenten''; sometimes identified with either the goddess
Chamunda Chamunda (, ), also known as Chamundeshwari, Chamundi or Charchika, is a fearsome form of Chandi, the Hindu mother goddess, Mahadevi and is one of the seven Matrikas.Wangu p.72 She is also one of the chief Yoginis, a group of sixty-four or ...
– depicted in Buddhist art with a boar's head – or Vinayaka's consort), and four ''vinayakas'' distributed along the four directions: # Vajravikirana / Vajrachinna (金剛摧天, ''Kongō-zaiten''; Skt. , "destroying vajra deva"): The ''vinayaka'' of the east, shown holding an umbrella. His name reflects his role as the destroyer of obstacles caused by malevolent ''vinayakas''. Also known as ''Sangaiten'' (傘蓋天, "parasol deva") or ''Sangai Binayaka'' (傘蓋毘那夜迦, "parasol ''vinayaka''"). # Vajrabhakshana (金剛食天, ''Kongō-jikiten'' / 金剛飲食天, ''Kongō-onjikiten''; Skt. , "vajra deva of drink and food"): Situated in the south, this ''vinayaka'' holds a garland of flowers in his right hand and sometimes a noose in his left hand. Also called ''Keman Binayaka'' (華鬘毘那夜迦, "flower garland ''vinayaka''"). # Vajravasin (金剛衣天, ''Kongō-eten'' / 金剛衣服天, ''Kongō-ebukuten''; Skt. , "vajra deva of clothing"): The ''vinayaka'' of the west, depicted holding a bow and arrow. Also called ''Kōkyūsen Binayaka'' (拘弓箭毘那夜迦, "bow-and-arrow-wielding ''vinayaka''"). # Vajrajaya (金剛調伏天, ''Kongō-chōbukuten'' / 調伏天, ''Chōbukuten''; "subduing ajradeva"): Situated in the north, shown holding a sword or a staff or club in his right hand and a jewel in his left. Also known as ''Kōtō Binayaka'' (拘刀毘那夜迦, "sword-wielding ''vinayaka''") or ''Konjiki Ganahattei'' (金色迦那鉢底, "golden Ganapati"). Although all four are depicted with elephant heads in the Diamond Realm mandala, the ''Kakuzenshō'' portrays three of the four ''vinayakas'' as human figures, with Vajrajaya being the only one shown as elephant-headed.


Other depictions

A mandala centered on Kangiten shows the dual-bodied form of the deity at the center of a four-petaled lotus arm-in-arm as if dancing, surrounded by the four directional ''vinayakas'' and the guardian devas of the eight directions. Two six-armed ''vinayakas'' are sometimes also depicted at the mandala's bottom part. A depiction commonly found in hanging scrolls and talismans ('' ofuda'') known as Kangi Dōji (歓喜童子) shows Shōten as a sitting human youth (童子, ''dōji'') with one or two elephant heads on his headgear. He has four (or rarely eight) arms holding an axe or a halberd, a jeweled staff, a modak, and a radish. This image was popularized by the 17th century Shingon monk Ikū (以空, 1637–1719), who is said to have seen Shōten in this manner after praying that the god show himself in a form that can be displayed in public (unlike his elephant-headed forms).


Worship


Bīja and mantra

The ''
bīja In Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism, the Sanskrit term Bīja () (Japanese language, Jp. 種子 ''shuji'') (Chinese language, Chinese 種子 ''zhǒngzǐ''), literally seed, is used as a metaphor for the origin or cause of things and cognate with bindu ...
'' or seed syllable used to represent Shōten is (
Devanagari Devanagari ( ; in script: , , ) is an Indic script used in the Indian subcontinent. It is a left-to-right abugida (a type of segmental Writing systems#Segmental systems: alphabets, writing system), based on the ancient ''Brāhmī script, Brā ...
: गः; Japanese pronunciation: ''gyaku''), written in Siddham script. It is usually written double (गःगः), symbolizing his dual form. The
mantra A mantra ( ; Pali: ''mantra'') or mantram (Devanagari: मन्त्रम्) is a sacred utterance, a numinous sound, a syllable, word or phonemes, or group of words (most often in an Indo-Iranian language like Sanskrit or Avestan) belie ...
considered to be the standard in Japanese Buddhism, identified in Amoghavajra's ''Rite of the Dual-bodied Vinayaka'' as Vinayaka's "heart mantra" (心呪), is as follows: The mantra is traditionally interpreted as Vinayaka's seed syllable flanked by those of Avalokiteshvara ( / ह्रीः, ''hrīḥ'') and Amritakundalin ( / हुं, ''huṃ''), the two figures who subjugated him.


Rituals

Shōten is ritually worshiped via a number of rites:


Oil Bath (''Yokuyu-ku'')

The Oil Bath Ritual (浴油供, ''Yokuyu-ku'') involves placing a statue of Kangiten on a brass basin and pouring ('' abhisheka'') consecrated warm oil on it using a ladle 108 times, a process that is repeated for seven days. Perfumed pure
sesame oil Sesame oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from sesame seeds. The oil is one of the earliest-known crop-based oils. Worldwide mass modern production is limited due to the inefficient manual harvesting process required to extract the oil. ...
is commonly used for the rite, though tradition claims that it originally employed
ghee Ghee is a type of clarified butter, originating from South Asia. It is commonly used for cooking, as a Traditional medicine of India, traditional medicine, and for Hinduism, Hindu religious rituals. Description Ghee is typically prepared by ...
mixed with
honey Honey is a sweet and viscous substance made by several species of bees, the best-known of which are honey bees. Honey is made and stored to nourish bee colonies. Bees produce honey by gathering and then refining the sugary secretions of pl ...
(蘇蜜油, ''somitsu-yu''). It is considered the most sacred and potent of the deity's rituals but also the most arcane: it is restricted to monks who have received proper initiation into the rite (performance by unqualified individuals is strictly forbidden) and is conducted outside of the public gaze. The ritual is symbolically interpreted as representing Vinayaka's conversion and initiation (''abhisheka'') into the Buddhist path, during which the former demon king's evil nature and mental defilements ('' kleshas'') are washed away, thereby revealing his true nature as a manifestation of Vairochana Buddha. Likewise, it is believed to purify the practitioner and devotees as well.


Flower-Water Offering (''Kesui-ku'')

The Flower-Water Ritual (華水供, ''Kesui-ku'') involves offering water scented with flowers, incense, and/or '' shikimi'' (''Illicium anisatum'') leaves to Buddhist divinities in lieu of food and drink. The practice is thought to have derived from the precept that forbade those who have taken
monastic vows Monasticism (; ), also called monachism or monkhood, is a religious way of life in which one renounces worldly pursuits to devote oneself fully to spiritual activities. Monastic life plays an important role in many Christian churches, especially ...
(which includes the Buddhist devas) from eating anything after noon. In practice, however, the ''Kesui-ku'' performed in many Shōten temples denotes a ceremony mostly similar in structure to the Oil Bath rite but without the bathing of the deity's image in oil. In this case, Shōten is offered not just flowers and water, but also other types of foodstuffs.


Other rites

In some temples, rituals such as the ''Daihannya Tendoku'' (大般若転読), in which a group of monks symbolically 'read' the 600-fascicle '' Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra'' (大般若経, ''Daihannya-kyō'') by flipping through (転読, ''tendoku'', lit. "rolling reading") copies of portions of the text, and ''Hyakumi Kuyō'' (百味供養, lit. "Offering of One Hundred Foods"), in which an extravagant amount of fruits, vegetables, and other delicacies are offered to Shōten, are performed upon request as thanksgiving for prayers answered.


Offerings

Like his Hindu counterpart Ganesha, Shōten is held to be partial to sweets. Common offerings to Shōten include rice wine (''
sake Sake, , or saki, also referred to as Japanese rice wine, is an alcoholic beverage of Japanese origin made by fermenting rice that has been polished to remove the bran. Despite the name ''Japanese rice wine'', sake, and indeed any East Asi ...
''), radishes (''
daikon Daikon 大根 (だいこん) or mooli, (مولی) ''Raphanus sativus'' var. ''longipinnatus,'' is a mild-flavored winter radish usually characterized by fast-growing leaves and a long, white, root. Originally native to continental East Asia ...
''), and sweets filled with
red bean paste Red bean paste () or red bean jam, also called adzuki bean paste or ''anko'' (a Japanese word), is a paste made of red beans (also called "adzuki beans"), used in East Asian cuisine. The paste is prepared by boiling the beans, then mashing or ...
(''anko'') such as ''kangidan'' (歓喜団, "bliss buns"), a deep-fried confection stuffed with spiced ''anko'' based on the Indian modak, Ganesha's favorite food. Conversely, offering him sour
citrus ''Citrus'' is a genus of flowering trees and shrubs in the family Rutaceae. Plants in the genus produce citrus fruits, including important crops such as oranges, mandarins, lemons, grapefruits, pomelos, and limes. ''Citrus'' is nativ ...
fruits, pears,
mushrooms A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy, spore-bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or another food source. ''Toadstool'' generally refers to a poisonous mushroom. The standard for the name "mushroom" is ...
,
lotus root ''Nelumbo nucifera'', also known as the pink lotus, sacred lotus, Indian lotus, or simply lotus, is one of two extant species of aquatic plant in the family Nelumbonaceae. It is sometimes colloquially called a water lily, though this more of ...
(''renkon''), and dishes which go against the Buddhist vegetarian diet (i.e. those containing
meat Meat is animal Tissue (biology), tissue, often muscle, that is eaten as food. Humans have hunted and farmed other animals for meat since prehistory. The Neolithic Revolution allowed the domestication of vertebrates, including chickens, sheep, ...
,
fish A fish (: fish or fishes) is an aquatic animal, aquatic, Anamniotes, anamniotic, gill-bearing vertebrate animal with swimming fish fin, fins and craniate, a hard skull, but lacking limb (anatomy), limbs with digit (anatomy), digits. Fish can ...
, or pungent vegetables such as
garlic Garlic (''Allium sativum'') is a species of bulbous flowering plants in the genus '' Allium''. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chives, Welsh onion, and Chinese onion. Garlic is native to central and south Asia, str ...
or
scallions Scallions (also known as green onions and spring onions) are edible vegetables of various species in the genus ''Allium''. Scallions generally have a milder taste than most onions. Their close relatives include garlic, shallots, leeks, chive ...
) is considered taboo. Daikon radishes are interpreted as representing the
three poisons The three poisons (Sanskrit: ''triviṣa''; Tibetan: ''dug gsum'') in the Mahayana tradition or the three unwholesome roots (Sanskrit: ''akuśala-mūla''; Pāli: ''akusala-mūla'') in the Theravada tradition are a Buddhist term that refers to th ...
(specifically ''
dvesha __NOTOC__ Dvesha (Sanskrit: द्वेष, IAST: ''dveṣa''; ; Tibetan: ''zhe sdang'') is a Buddhist and Hindu term that is translated as "hate, aversion".;; Quote: The attainment of freedom from the three poisons of lust (raga), hatred (dvesa) ...
'' or hatred); offering the vegetable to the deity is thus held to be a meritorious purificatory act. At the same time, because radishes are also popularly believed to aid digestion, they also symbolize Shōten's action of removing the three poisons.


Reputation

Shōten is popularly regarded as a powerful, efficacious deity who readily grants whatever is asked of him, including impossible or even immoral wishes. He is sometimes called "Vairochana's final expedient incarnation" (大日如来最後の方便身, ''Dainichi Nyorai saigo no hōbenshin'') because he is believed to be the last resort of those who have no other recourse. At the same time, his reputation has sometimes also caused him to be characterized negatively as highly demanding and temperamental, requiring constant attention from his devotees and harassing or punishing those who have either become lax in their devotion or quit worshiping him altogether. An oft-repeated urban legend claims that worshiping Shōten is a double-edged sword as it uses up seven generations' worth of good
karma Karma (, from , ; ) is an ancient Indian concept that refers to an action, work, or deed, and its effect or consequences. In Indian religions, the term more specifically refers to a principle of cause and effect, often descriptively called ...
at once; in other words, it confers immediate gratification to the worshiper but also eventually brings about their downfall. However, in his ''A Guide to Shōten Devotion'', Hayashiya Tomojirō criticized this as a "baseless, superstitious legend" that should be ignored. In the past, Shōten's cult was widespread among gamblers, actors,
geisha {{Culture of Japan, Traditions, Geisha {{nihongo, Geisha{{efn, {{IPAc-en, lang, ˈ, ɡ, eɪ, ., ʃ, ə, {{IPA, ja, ɡei.ɕa, ɡeː-, lang{{cite book, script-title=ja:NHK日本語発音アクセント新辞典, publisher=NHK Publishing, editor= ...
, and people in the pleasure quarters. During the
Edo period The , also known as the , is the period between 1600 or 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when the country was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and some 300 regional ''daimyo'', or feudal lords. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengok ...
, he was also widely venerated by merchants, especially vegetable-oil sellers. Even today, he is mainly worshiped for success in love, relationships, and business. Devotion to Shōten is particularly prevalent in the
Kansai The or the lies in the southern-central region of Japan's main island Honshū. The region includes the prefectures of Nara, Wakayama, Kyoto, Osaka, Hyōgo and Shiga, often also Mie, sometimes Fukui, Tokushima and Tottori. The metropoli ...
area (especially in
Osaka is a Cities designated by government ordinance of Japan, designated city in the Kansai region of Honshu in Japan. It is the capital of and most populous city in Osaka Prefecture, and the List of cities in Japan, third-most populous city in J ...
), where it rivals that of the god Ebisu (another deity worshiped for commercial success) in popularity. Perhaps to curb abuses and superstitious ideas that could stem from the popular image of Shōten as a god who grants each and every wish, various authors such as Hayashiya have stressed the importance of deepening one's devotion beyond simply asking for worldly benefits. Tendai monk Haneda Shukai for instance writes that the god's true gift to his worshipers is non-attachment (''naiṣkramya''; 出離, ''shutsuri'') to material desires and that faith in Shōten (or any other Buddhist deity) should awaken in the devotee a desire to learn and follow Buddhist teachings.


Shōten and impurity

Shōten is also considered to abhor
impurity In chemistry and materials science, impurities are chemical substances inside a confined amount of liquid, gas, or solid. They differ from the chemical composition of the material or compound. Firstly, a pure chemical should appear in at least on ...
(''kegare''). For instance, ritually impure persons (e.g. those who had recently come in contact with death or menstruating women) are discouraged from visiting him in temples for a set period of time. (Similar taboos exist in
Shinto , also called Shintoism, is a religion originating in Japan. Classified as an East Asian religions, East Asian religion by Religious studies, scholars of religion, it is often regarded by its practitioners as Japan's indigenous religion and as ...
, which also lays great emphasis on purity, but is otherwise rare in Japanese Buddhism, which was closely associated with death and the afterlife due to its having a near-monopoly on funerary practices.) Temples dedicated to Shōten also do not have a cemetery (a common fixture in many Japanese temples) within their precincts, nor do monks who perform Shōten rites conduct funerals. Temples also forbid devotees from placing ''ofuda'' of the deity in 'unclean' rooms (e.g. bedrooms or kitchens) or in altars ('' butsudan'') where deceased family members are venerated.


As hidden god

A notable characteristic of Shōten is the air of secrecy surrounding him. Unlike Ganesha, whose image is prominently worshiped in many temples and homes, most images of Shōten are kept hidden inside miniature shrines (厨子, ''zushi'') and are never shown to the public, only being taken out during the performance of rites (which are themselves conducted in private) such as the Oil Bath Ritual. A notable exception to the rule is the ''honzon'' of Kangi-in (Menuma Shōden-zan) in Kumagaya,
Saitama Prefecture is a Landlocked country, landlocked Prefectures of Japan, prefecture of Japan located in the Kantō region of Honshu. Saitama Prefecture has a population of 7,338,536 (January 1, 2020) and has a geographic area of 3,797 Square kilometre, km2 ( ...
, which is intermittently put on public display (御開帳, ''go-kaichō'') since the
Edo period The , also known as the , is the period between 1600 or 1603 and 1868 in the history of Japan, when the country was under the rule of the Tokugawa shogunate and some 300 regional ''daimyo'', or feudal lords. Emerging from the chaos of the Sengok ...
. As they require a high level of maintenance, modern-day lay devotees are discouraged from owning or venerating idols of Shōten in their homes; instead, they are advised to venerate him via consecrated paper or wooden ''ofuda'' distributed by temples. Such ''ofuda'' are usually aniconic, bearing no visual representation of the god (who may be simply represented by his seed syllable), though a few examples contain a depiction of the youthful Kangi Dōji or of Kangiten as an anthropomorphic male-female couple. Popular belief holds that encountering Shōten (i.e. learning about him or getting an opportunity to venerate him) is only possible if one has a karmic connection (縁, ''en'' / ''enishi'') with him, which itself is considered to be a precious and rare blessing. This sentiment is expressed in a liturgical text penned by the monk Kakuban, which states: Shōten is also described in medieval texts as a "
placenta The placenta (: placentas or placentae) is a temporary embryonic and later fetal organ that begins developing from the blastocyst shortly after implantation. It plays critical roles in facilitating nutrient, gas, and waste exchange between ...
god" (胞衣神, ''enagami'' or 胞衣荒神, ''ena kōjin''), a deity who guards individuals since the moment of their conception (just as the placenta covers and protects the fetus) and subsequently follows them throughout their life "like a shadow."


Lay devotion

Some people as part of their devotion may observe vows (願掛け, ''gankake''; cf. the Hindu ''
vrata Vrata is a Sanskrit word that means "vow, resolve, devotion", and refers to pious observances such as Fasting#Hinduism, fasting and pilgrimage (Tirtha (Hinduism), Tirtha) found in Indian religions such as Hinduism and Jainism. It is typically ...
''), in which they would promise to carry out certain pious acts in return for specific favors, or abstain from alcohol,
tobacco Tobacco is the common name of several plants in the genus '' Nicotiana'' of the family Solanaceae, and the general term for any product prepared from the cured leaves of these plants. More than 70 species of tobacco are known, but the ...
, or certain types of food. From an orthodox perspective, however, any promises made to Shōten cannot be revoked; such devotional practices are thus not to be performed casually, with some authorities even recommending to avoid them altogether lest one risk committing a grave offense against the god. A set of guidelines for devotees published by Honryū-in (also known as Matsuchiyama Shōden, a sub-temple of
Sensō-ji , is an ancient Buddhist temple in Asakusa, Tokyo, Japan. It is Tokyo's oldest-established temple, and one of its most significant. It is dedicated to Kannon, the bodhisattva of compassion. Structures in the temple complex include the main hall, ...
in
Asakusa is a district in Taitō, Tokyo, Japan. It is known for Sensō-ji, a Buddhist temple dedicated to the bodhisattva Kannon. There are several other temples in Asakusa, as well as various festivals, such as . History The development of Asaku ...
,
Tokyo Tokyo, officially the Tokyo Metropolis, is the capital of Japan, capital and List of cities in Japan, most populous city in Japan. With a population of over 14 million in the city proper in 2023, it is List of largest cities, one of the most ...
dedicated to Kangiten) for instance advises the reader that " inceabstinence (断ち物, ''tachimono'') requires a strong resolve, it is better not to practice it." Opinions differ regarding the place of abstinence in Shōten worship. On the one hand, Hayashiya claimed that "although Shōten does not necessarily reject one's wishes if one does not practice abstinence, it is true that they are granted faster if one does." Haneda, on the other hand, criticized it as well as the taking of extreme vows (especially when made with materialistic goals in mind) as harmful practices that only attract ''vinayaka'' demons (in effect making them a kind of Faustian bargain), asserting that they do not represent authentic devotion to Shōten.


Temples

Shōten is worshiped in many Shingon and Tendai Buddhist temples throughout Japan. The following are two of the most important places of worship dedicated to the deity in Japan, traditionally reckoned as the "Three Greatest Shōten emples (日本三大聖天, ''Nihon Sandai Shōten''): *Honryū-in ( 本龍院) (
Asakusa is a district in Taitō, Tokyo, Japan. It is known for Sensō-ji, a Buddhist temple dedicated to the bodhisattva Kannon. There are several other temples in Asakusa, as well as various festivals, such as . History The development of Asaku ...
, Taitō,
Tokyo Tokyo, officially the Tokyo Metropolis, is the capital of Japan, capital and List of cities in Japan, most populous city in Japan. With a population of over 14 million in the city proper in 2023, it is List of largest cities, one of the most ...
) – Shō-Kannon- shū (offshoot of Tendai) :One of the sub-temples of
Sensō-ji , is an ancient Buddhist temple in Asakusa, Tokyo, Japan. It is Tokyo's oldest-established temple, and one of its most significant. It is dedicated to Kannon, the bodhisattva of compassion. Structures in the temple complex include the main hall, ...
, the oldest and most famous Buddhist temple in Tokyo; also known as Matsuchiyama Shōden (待乳山聖天). Legend claims that the hillock the temple stands on miraculously emerged out of the earth in the year 595. The temple itself was supposedly founded six years later (601), after the bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara appeared in the form of Kangiten and put an end to the severe drought that affected the area. * Hōzan-ji (宝山寺) ( Ikoma,
Nara Prefecture is a Prefectures of Japan, prefecture of Japan located in the Kansai region of Honshu. Nara Prefecture has a population of 1,321,805 and has a geographic area of . Nara Prefecture borders Kyoto Prefecture to the north, Osaka Prefecture to the ...
) – Shingon Risshū :Also known as Ikoma Shōten (生駒聖天), located on the summit of Mount Ikoma in
Nara Prefecture is a Prefectures of Japan, prefecture of Japan located in the Kansai region of Honshu. Nara Prefecture has a population of 1,321,805 and has a geographic area of . Nara Prefecture borders Kyoto Prefecture to the north, Osaka Prefecture to the ...
. Claimed to have originally been founded as a temple to the deity Achala (Fudō Myōō) by the ascetic En no Gyōja in the year 664, it was reestablished in 1678 by the monk Tankai, who designated Kangiten as the guardian (鎮守, ''chinju'') of the temple complex. While Achala is still officially the temple's main deity (''honzon''), Hōzan-ji is more famous as a cult center of Shōten, with business people and other worshipers coming to worship him at his sanctuary (聖天堂, ''Shōten-dō'') in the precincts. Other notable temples to Shōten include: * Kangi-in ( 歓喜院) / Menuma Shōden-zan (妻沼聖天山) (Menuma, Kumagaya,
Saitama Prefecture is a Landlocked country, landlocked Prefectures of Japan, prefecture of Japan located in the Kantō region of Honshu. Saitama Prefecture has a population of 7,338,536 (January 1, 2020) and has a geographic area of 3,797 Square kilometre, km2 ( ...
) –
Kōyasan Shingon-shū is a Japanese sect of Shingon Buddhism. Headquartered on Mount Kōya in Wakayama Prefecture is a prefecture of Japan located in the Kansai region of Honshu. Wakayama Prefecture has a population of 876,030 () and a geographic area of . Wakaya ...
:Founded in 1179 by military commander Saitō Sanemori. The temple's ''honzon'' – donated to it in 1197 by Sanemori's nephew Miyaji no Kunihira – takes the form of a monastic staff ('' khakkhara'', ''shakujō'') head with an image of the dual Kangiten flanked by two attendants. *Shinjō-in ( 心城院) / Yushima Shōden (湯島聖天) (
Bunkyō is a Special wards of Tokyo, special ward in the Tokyo, Tokyo Metropolis in Japan. Situated in the middle of the ward area, Bunkyō is a residential and educational center. Beginning in the Meiji period, literati like Natsume Sōseki, as well as ...
, Tokyo) – Tendai *Daifukushō-ji (大福生寺) / Ōi Shōten (大井聖天) (Higashi-Ōi,
Shinagawa is a special ward in the Tokyo Metropolis in Japan. The Ward refers to itself as Shinagawa City in English. The Ward is home to ten embassies. , the Ward had an estimated population of 380,293 and a population density of 16,510 persons per ...
, Tokyo) – Tendai *Fukushō-in ( 福生院) / Fukuromachi O-Shōten (袋町お聖天) ( Naka-ku,
Nagoya is the largest city in the Chūbu region of Japan. It is the list of cities in Japan, fourth-most populous city in Japan, with a population of 2.3million in 2020, and the principal city of the Chūkyō metropolitan area, which is the List of ...
,
Aichi Prefecture is a Prefectures of Japan, prefecture of Japan located in the Chūbu region of Honshū. Aichi Prefecture has a population of 7,461,111 () and a geographic area of with a population density of . Aichi Prefecture borders Mie Prefecture to the ...
) – Shingon ( Chisan-ha) *Daifukuden-ji ( 大福田寺) / Kuwana Shōten (桑名聖天) (Higashikata, Kuwana,
Mie Prefecture is a Prefectures of Japan, prefecture of Japan located in the Kansai region of Honshu. Mie Prefecture has a population of 1,781,948 () and has a geographic area of . Mie Prefecture is bordered by Gifu Prefecture to the north, Shiga Prefecture an ...
) – Kōyasan Shingon-shū *Sōrin-in ( 双林院) / Yamashina Shōten (山科聖天) ( Yamashina-ku,
Kyoto Kyoto ( or ; Japanese language, Japanese: , ''Kyōto'' ), officially , is the capital city of Kyoto Prefecture in the Kansai region of Japan's largest and most populous island of Honshu. , the city had a population of 1.46 million, making it t ...
) – Tendai *Uhō-in ( 雨宝院) / Nishijin Shōten-gū (西陣聖天宮) ( Kamigyō-ku, Kyoto) – Shingon ( Sennyū-ji-ha) *Ryōtoku-in ( 了徳院) / Urae Shōten (浦江聖天) ( Fukushima-ku,
Osaka is a Cities designated by government ordinance of Japan, designated city in the Kansai region of Honshu in Japan. It is the capital of and most populous city in Osaka Prefecture, and the List of cities in Japan, third-most populous city in J ...
) –
Tō-ji , also known as is a Shingon Buddhist temple in the Minami-ku, Kyoto, Minami-ku ward of Kyoto, Japan. Founded in 796, Tō-ji Temple was one of the only three Buddhist temples allowed in the city at the time it became the capital of Japan. As s ...
Shingon-shū * Shōen-ji ( 正圓寺) ( Abeno-ku, Osaka) – Shingon (independent) *Hōan-ji ( 法案寺) / Nipponbashi Shōten (日本橋聖天) ( Chūō-ku, Osaka) – Kōyasan Shingon-shū *Saikō-ji ( 西江寺) ( Minoh, Osaka) – Kōyasan Shingon-shū


See also

* Uchchhishta Ganapati *
Acala or Achala (, "The Immovable", ), also known as (, "Immovable Lord") or (, "Noble Immovable Lord"), is a Fierce deities, wrathful deity and ''dharmapala'' (protector of the Dharma) prominent in Vajrayana, Vajrayana Buddhism and East Asian Budd ...
*
Benzaiten is an East Asian Buddhism, East Asian Buddhist Dharmapala, goddess who originated from the Hindu Saraswati, the patroness of speech, the arts, and learning. Worship of Benzaiten arrived in Japan during the sixth through eighth centuries, mai ...
* Daikokuten * Ganesha in world religions *
Guanyin Guanyin () is a common Chinese name of the bodhisattva associated with Karuṇā, compassion known as Avalokiteśvara (). Guanyin is short for Guanshiyin, which means " he One WhoPerceives the Sounds of the World". Originally regarded as m ...
* Modak *
Skanda (Buddhism) Skanda (), also known as Weituo () and Idaten (Japanese language, Japanese: 韋駄天), is a Mahayana bodhisattva regarded as a devoted guardian of vihara, Buddhist monasteries who protects the teachings of Buddhism. He is also sometimes called ...


Notes


References


Citations


Works cited

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


External links


Ikoma Shōten (Hōzan-ji) Official Website
(in Japanese)
Matsuchiyama Shōden (Matsuchiyama Honryū-in) Official Website
(in Japanese)
Nishijin Shōten (Hokkō-zan Uhō-in) Official Website
(in Japanese)
Nishinomiya Shōten-ji Official Website
(in Japanese)
Yushima Shōden (Ryusei-dō Shinjō-in)
(in Japanese) {{Avalokiteśvara Forms of Ganesha Japanese gods Animal gods Buddhist gods Buddhism and sexuality Elephants in Buddhism Fortune gods Mythological human–animal hybrids Buddhism and Hinduism