Johns Hopkins Hospital (JHH) is the teaching hospital and

biomedical research Medical research (or biomedical research), also known as health research, refers to the process of using scientific methods with the aim to produce knowledge about human diseases, the prevention and treatment of illness, and the promotion of ...

facility of

Johns Hopkins School of Medicine The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine (JHUSOM) is the medical school of Johns Hopkins University, a private research university in Baltimore, Maryland. Established in 1893 following the construction of the Johns Hopkins Hospital, th ...

Baltimore Baltimore is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Maryland. With a population of 585,708 at the 2020 census and estimated at 568,271 in 2024, it is the 30th-most populous U.S. city. The Baltimore metropolitan area is the 20th-large ...

, Maryland. Founded in 1889, Johns Hopkins Hospital and its school of medicine are considered to be the founding institutions of modern American medicine and the birthplace of numerous famed medical traditions, including rounds, residents, and house staff. Several medical specialties were founded at the hospital, including

neurosurgery Neurosurgery or neurological surgery, known in common parlance as brain surgery, is the specialty (medicine), medical specialty that focuses on the surgical treatment or rehabilitation of disorders which affect any portion of the nervous system ...

Harvey Cushing Harvey Williams Cushing (April 8, 1869 – October 7, 1939) was an American neurosurgery, neurosurgeon, pathologist, writer, and draftsman. A pioneer of brain surgery, he was the first exclusive neurosurgeon and the first person to describe Cush ...

and

Walter Dandy Walter Edward Dandy (April 6, 1886 – April 19, 1946) was an American neurosurgeon and scientist. He is considered one of the founding fathers of neurosurgery, along with Victor Horsley and Harvey Cushing. Dandy is credited with numerous neuros ...

, cardiac surgery by Alfred Blalock and Vivien Thomas, and child

psychiatry Psychiatry is the medical specialty devoted to the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of deleterious mental disorder, mental conditions. These include matters related to cognition, perceptions, Mood (psychology), mood, emotion, and behavior. ...

Leo Kanner Leo Kanner (; born Chaskel Leib Kanner; June 13, 1894 – April 3, 1981) was an Austrian-American psychiatrist, physician, and social activist best known for his work related to infantile autism. Before working at the Henry Phipps Psychiatric C ...

Johns Hopkins Children's Center Johns Hopkins Children's Center (JHCC) is a nationally ranked, pediatric acute care children's teaching hospital located in Baltimore, Maryland, United States, adjacent to Johns Hopkins Hospital. The hospital has 196 pediatric beds and is affi ...

, which serves infants, children, teens, and young adults aged 0–21, is attached to the hospital. Johns Hopkins Hospital is widely regarded as one of the world's greatest hospitals and medical institutions. For 21 consecutive years from 1991 to 2020, it was ranked as the best overall hospital in the

United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...

by '' U.S. News & World Report''. In its 2019–2020 edition, ''U.S. News & World Report'' ranked the hospital on 15 adult specialties and 10 children's specialties; the hospital came in 1st in

Maryland Maryland ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. It borders the states of Virginia to its south, West Virginia to its west, Pennsylvania to its north, and Delaware to its east ...

and third nationally behind the

Mayo Clinic Mayo Clinic () is a Nonprofit organization, private American Academic health science centre, academic Medical centers in the United States, medical center focused on integrated health care, healthcare, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science ...

Rochester, Minnesota Rochester is a city in Olmsted County, Minnesota, United States, and its county seat. It is located along rolling bluffs on the Zumbro River's south fork in Southeast Minnesota. At the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, the city had a popul ...

and

Massachusetts General Hospital Massachusetts General Hospital (Mass General or MGH) is a teaching hospital located in the West End neighborhood of Boston, Massachusetts. It is the original and largest clinical education and research facility of Harvard Medical School/Harvar ...

Boston Boston is the capital and most populous city in the Commonwealth (U.S. state), Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. The city serves as the cultural and Financial centre, financial center of New England, a region of the Northeas ...

. In 2021, the hospital marked 32 consecutive years of placing in the top five hospitals in the nation. The hospital's founding in 1889 was made possible from a philanthropic bequest of over $7 million by city merchant, banker, financier, civic leader, and philanthropist

Johns Hopkins Johns Hopkins (May 19, 1795 – December 24, 1873) was an American merchant, investor, and philanthropist. Born on a plantation, he left his home to start a career at the age of 17, and settled in Baltimore, Maryland, where he remained for mos ...

, which at the time was the largest bequest in the history of the

. The hospital is located at 600 North Broadway in Baltimore.

History

Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore 1900s

Founding

(1795–1873), a

merchant and banker, left an estate of approximately $7 million (

US$ The United States dollar (Currency symbol, symbol: Dollar sign, $; ISO 4217, currency code: USD) is the official currency of the United States and International use of the U.S. dollar, several other countries. The Coinage Act of 1792 introdu ...

173.84 million in 2022Inflation Calculator
/ref>) when he died on December 24, 1873, in his city mansion on West Saratoga Street, just west of North Charles Street, at the age of 78. In his will, he asked that his fortune be used to found three institutions that would bear his name: "

Johns Hopkins University The Johns Hopkins University (often abbreviated as Johns Hopkins, Hopkins, or JHU) is a private university, private research university in Baltimore, Maryland, United States. Founded in 1876 based on the European research institution model, J ...

", "The Johns Hopkins Hospital", and "Johns Hopkins Colored Orphan Asylum." At the time that it was made, Hopkins' gift was the largest

philanthropic Philanthropy is a form of altruism that consists of "private initiatives for the public good, focusing on quality of life". Philanthropy contrasts with business initiatives, which are private initiatives for private good, focusing on material ...

bequest in the history of the nation. Toward the end of his life, Hopkins selected 12 prominent Baltimore residents as trustees for the project. A year prior to his death, he sent each a letter telling them that he was giving "thirteen acres of land, situated in the city of Baltimore, and bounded by Broadway, Wolfe, Monument, and Jefferson streets upon which I desire you to erect a hospital." He wished for a hospital that "shall, in construction and arrangement, compare favorably with any other institution of like character in this country or in Europe" and directed his trustees to "secure for the service of the Hospital, physicians and surgeons of the highest character and greatest skill." Hopkins instructed the trustees to "bear constantly in mind that it is my wish and purpose that the hospital shall ultimately form a part of the Medical School of that university for which I have made ample provision in my will." By calling for this integral relationship between patient care, as embodied in the hospital, and teaching and research, as embodied in the university, Hopkins laid the groundwork for a revolution in American medicine. Johns Hopkins' vision, of two institutions in which the practice of medicine would be wedded to medical research and medical education was revolutionary.

19th century

Initial plans for the hospital were drafted by surgeon

John Shaw Billings John Shaw Billings (April 12, 1838 – March 11, 1913) was an American librarian, building designer, and surgeon who modernized the Library of the Surgeon General's Office in the United States Army. His work with Andrew Carnegie led to the de ...

, and the architecture designed by John Rudolph Niernsee and completed by Edward Clarke Cabot of the Boston firm of Cabot and Chandler in a Queen Anne style. When completed in 1889 at a cost of $2,050,000 (

50.8 million in 2022), the hospital included what was then state-of-the-art concepts in heating and ventilation to check the spread of disease. The trustees obtained the services of four outstanding physicians, known as the "Big Four," to serve as the founding staff of the hospital when it opened on May 7, 1889. They were pathologist

William Henry Welch William is a masculine given name of Germanic origin. It became popular in England after the Norman conquest in 1066,All Things William"Meaning & Origin of the Name"/ref> and remained so throughout the Middle Ages and into the modern era. It is ...

, surgeon

William Stewart Halsted William Stewart Halsted, M.D. (September 23, 1852 – September 7, 1922) was an American surgeon who emphasized strict aseptic technique during surgical procedures, was an early champion of newly discovered anesthetics, and introduced severa ...

, internist

William Osler Sir William Osler, 1st Baronet, (; July 12, 1849 – December 29, 1919) was a Canadian physician and one of the "Big Four" founding professors of Johns Hopkins Hospital. Osler created the first Residency (medicine), residency program for speci ...

, and gynecologist

Howard Atwood Kelly Howard Atwood Kelly (February 20, 1858 – January 12, 1943) was an American gynecologist. He obtained his Bachelor of Arts, B.A. degree and Doctor of Medicine, M.D. degree from the University of Pennsylvania. He, William Osler, William Stewart ...

. In 1893, Johns Hopkins University was one of the first medical schools to admit women. The decision to begin coeducation was a result of a shortage of funds, as the

Baltimore and Ohio Railroad The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad was the oldest railroads in North America, oldest railroad in the United States and the first steam engine, steam-operated common carrier. Construction of the line began in 1828, and it operated as B&O from 1830 ...

stock that was supposed to cover cost was used up in building the hospital in 1889 and the medical school had not yet been built. Four of the original trustees' daughters offered to raise the money needed to open the school, but only if the school agreed to admit qualified women to the university. After several discussions, the trustees agreed to their terms and accepted the financial help of these four women with only one of the doctors,

William H. Welch William Henry Welch (April 8, 1850 – April 30, 1934) was an American physician, pathologist, bacteriologist, and medical-school administrator. He was one of the "Big Four" founding professors at the Johns Hopkins Hospital. Osler, the first chief of the Department of Medicine, is credited with originating the idea of a residency, in which recently graduated physicians receive advanced training in their specialty while treating patients under supervision; then, as now, residents comprise most of the medical staff of the hospital. He also introduced the idea of bringing medical students into actual patient care early in their training; at the time medical school consisted almost entirely of lectures. Osler's contribution to practical education extends to the creation of "

grand rounds Grand rounds are a methodology of medical education and inpatient care, consisting of presenting the medical problems and treatment of a particular patient to an audience consisting of doctors, pharmacists, residents, and medical students. It w ...

", the practice of leading physicians discussing the most difficult cases in front of assembled medical students, for the benefit of patients and students. The term "rounds" derives from the circular ward where bedside teaching occurred. He once said he hoped his tombstone would say only, "He brought medical students into the wards for bedside teaching." Halsted, the first chief of the Department of Surgery, established many other medical and surgical achievements at Johns Hopkins including modern surgical principles of control of bleeding, accurate anatomical dissection, complete sterility, and the first radical

mastectomy Mastectomy is the medical term for the surgical removal of one or both breasts, partially or completely. A mastectomy is usually carried out to treat breast cancer. In some cases, women believed to be at high risk of breast cancer choose to have ...

for

breast cancer Breast cancer is a cancer that develops from breast tissue. Signs of breast cancer may include a Breast lump, lump in the breast, a change in breast shape, dimpling of the skin, Milk-rejection sign, milk rejection, fluid coming from the nipp ...

(before this time, such a diagnosis was a virtual death sentence). His other achievements included the introduction of the surgical glove and advances in

thyroid The thyroid, or thyroid gland, is an endocrine gland in vertebrates. In humans, it is a butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck below the Adam's apple. It consists of two connected lobes. The lower two thirds of the lobes are connected by ...

biliary tree The biliary tract (also biliary tree or biliary system) refers to the liver, gallbladder and bile ducts, and how they work together to make, store and secrete bile. Bile consists of water, electrolytes, bile acids, cholesterol, phospholipids a ...

hernia A hernia (: hernias or herniae, from Latin, meaning 'rupture') is the abnormal exit of tissue or an organ (anatomy), organ, such as the bowel, through the wall of the cavity in which it normally resides. The term is also used for the normal Devel ...

, intestinal and arterial

aneurysm An aneurysm is an outward :wikt:bulge, bulging, likened to a bubble or balloon, caused by a localized, abnormal, weak spot on a blood vessel wall. Aneurysms may be a result of a hereditary condition or an acquired disease. Aneurysms can also b ...

surgeries. Halsted also established the first formal surgical residency training program in the United States. Kelly is credited with establishing

gynecology Gynaecology or gynecology (see American and British English spelling differences) is the area of medicine concerned with conditions affecting the Female reproductive system, female reproductive system. It is often paired with the field of obste ...

as a true

medical specialty A medical specialty is a branch of medical practice that is focused on a defined group of patients, diseases, skills, or philosophy. Examples include those branches of medicine that deal exclusively with children (pediatrics), cancer (oncology), ...

. He created new surgical approaches to women's diseases and invented numerous medical devices, including a urinary cystoscope. He was one of the first to use radium to treat cancer, with his first patient being his own aunt in 1904, who died shortly after surgery. Kelly was known to use excessive amounts of radium to treat various cancers and tumors. As a result, some of his patients died from radium exposure. His method of radium application was inserting a radium capsule near the affected area, then sewing the radium "points" directly to the

tumor A neoplasm () is a type of abnormal and excessive growth of tissue. The process that occurs to form or produce a neoplasm is called neoplasia. The growth of a neoplasm is uncoordinated with that of the normal surrounding tissue, and persists ...

. Welch was responsible for training many of the outstanding physicians of the day, such as

Walter Reed Walter Reed (September 13, 1851 – November 23, 1902) was a United States Army, U.S. Army physician who in 1901 led the team that confirmed the theory of Cuban doctor Carlos Finlay that yellow fever is transmitted by a particular mosquito ...

. He also founded at Hopkins the nation's first Public Health school, now known as the

Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health The Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health is the public health graduate school of Johns Hopkins University, a private university, private research university primarily based in Baltimore, Maryland. It was founded as the Johns Hopkins ...

. A notable sight at the hospital is the marble statue '' Christus'', a

Carrara marble Carrara marble, or Luna marble (''marmor lunense'') to the Romans, is a type of white or blue-grey marble popular for use in sculpture and building decor. It has been quarried since Roman times in the mountains just outside the city of Carrara ...

statue in the Billings Administration Building rotunda of the resurrected

Jesus Jesus (AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ, Jesus of Nazareth, and many Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament, other names and titles, was a 1st-century Jewish preacher and religious leader. He is the Jesus in Chris ...

based on the 1833 original by

Bertel Thorvaldsen Albert Bertel Thorvaldsen (; sometimes given as Thorwaldsen; 19 November 1770 – 24 March 1844) was a Danes, Danish-Icelanders, Icelandic Sculpture, sculptor and medallist, medalist of international fame, who spent most of his life (1797–183 ...

, which was a gift by

merchant William Wallace Spence; it is a replica of the original by Danish sculptor Bertel Thorwaldsen in

Copenhagen Copenhagen ( ) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark, with a population of 1.4 million in the Urban area of Copenhagen, urban area. The city is situated on the islands of Zealand and Amager, separated from Malmö, Sweden, by the ...

. Unveiled in 1896, the statue brings comfort to many, the hospital has said.

20th century

In 1903,

Harriet Lane Harriet Rebecca Lane Johnston (May 9, 1830 – July 3, 1903) acted as first lady of the United States during the administration of her uncle, lifelong bachelor president James Buchanan, from 1857 to 1861. She has been described as the first o ...

left a sum of over $400,000 at her death in 1903 to establish the ''Harriet Lane Home for Invalid Children'' as a memorial to two sons who had died in childhood. In October 1912 the ''Harriet Lane Home'' officially opened. It was the first children's clinic in the United States that was associated with a medical school, first run by John Howland. Eventually treating over 60,000 children a year, the ''Harriet Lane Home'' became a pioneer treatment, teaching, and research clinic, and the first to have subspecialties in pediatrics as created by Edwards A. Park. In 1912, Diamond Jim Brady donated $220,000 to the hospital, which created the James Buchanan Brady Urological Institute.

Ophthalmologist Ophthalmology (, ) is the branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis, treatment, and surgery of eye diseases and disorders. An ophthalmologist is a physician who undergoes subspecialty training in medical and surgical eye care. Following a ...

William Holland Wilmer opened the Wilmer Eye Institute at the hospital in 1925, and its building was completed four years later. Wilmer received a

medical degree A medical degree is a professional degree admitted to those who have passed coursework in the fields of medicine and/or surgery from an accredited medical school. Obtaining a degree in medicine allows for the recipient to continue on into special ...

from the

University of Virginia School of Medicine The University of Virginia School of Medicine (UVA SOM or more commonly known as UVA Medicine) is the graduate medical school of the University of Virginia. The school's facilities are on the University of Virginia grounds adjacent to The Lawn, ...

in 1885 and later worked in

New York City New York, often called New York City (NYC), is the most populous city in the United States, located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each coextensive w ...

Washington D.C. Washington, D.C., formally the District of Columbia and commonly known as Washington or D.C., is the capital city and federal district of the United States. The city is on the Potomac River, across from Virginia, and shares land borders with ...

, and

, where he established the institute. Between 1930 and 1963, Helen B. Taussig, who helped to develop the blue baby operation, headed the pediatric cardiac clinic. Child psychiatrist

did studies of autistic children. Lawson Wilkins established an endocrine clinic that developed procedures used universally to treat children with certain glandular disorders, including dwarfism. John E. Bordley and William G. Hardy made strides in detecting hearing impairments in very young children.

Achievements

Medical achievements at Johns Hopkins include the first male-to-female sex reassignment surgery in the United States that took place in 1966 at the Hopkins Gender Identity Clinic. Two of the most far-reaching advances in medicine during the last 25 years were also made at Hopkins. First, the

Nobel Prize The Nobel Prizes ( ; ; ) are awards administered by the Nobel Foundation and granted in accordance with the principle of "for the greatest benefit to humankind". The prizes were first awarded in 1901, marking the fifth anniversary of Alfred N ...

-winning discovery of restriction enzymes gave birth to the genetic engineering industry. Second, the discovery of the brain's natural

opiates An opiate is an alkaloid substance derived from opium (or poppy straw). It differs from the similar term ''opioid'' in that the latter is used to designate all substances, both natural and synthetic, that bind to opioid receptors in the brain ( ...

has triggered an explosion of interest in

neurotransmitter A neurotransmitter is a signaling molecule secreted by a neuron to affect another cell across a Chemical synapse, synapse. The cell receiving the signal, or target cell, may be another neuron, but could also be a gland or muscle cell. Neurotra ...

pathways and functions. Other accomplishments of the hospital include the development of

HeLa HeLa () is an immortalized cell line used in scientific research. It is the oldest human cell line and one of the most commonly used. HeLa cells are durable and prolific, allowing for extensive applications in scientific study. The line is ...

by George Otto Gey, head of tissue culture research in 1951, the first and arguably most important line of human cells grown in culture, identification of the three types of

polio virus Poliovirus, the causative agent of polio (also known as poliomyelitis), is a serotype of the species '' Enterovirus C'', in the family of '' Picornaviridae''. There are three poliovirus serotypes, numbered 1, 2, and 3. Poliovirus is composed ...

, and the first " blue baby" operation, which was done by surgeon Alfred Blalock in collaboration with Helen Taussig, a Hopkins graduate specializing in pediatric cardiology and surgical technician Vivien Thomas that opened the way to modern cardiac surgery. Contributions to heart surgery were brought on by the discovery of

heparin Heparin, also known as unfractionated heparin (UFH), is a medication and naturally occurring glycosaminoglycan. Heparin is a blood anticoagulant that increases the activity of antithrombin. It is used in the treatment of myocardial infarction, ...

and the Blalock-Thomas-Taussig Shunt. Johns Hopkins has also published ''The Harriet Lane Handbook'', an indispensable tool for pediatricians, for over 60 years.

Operations

The hospital occupies approximately 20 of the 60 buildings on the Johns Hopkins Medical Campus. The complex has over 80 entrances and receives 80,000 visitors weekly. It houses over 1,000 beds and has a staff of over 1,700 doctors with over 30,000 total employees. From 1982 to 1992, then CEO Robert Heyssel established the hospital's first Oncology Center, the Nelson Patient Tower, the Clayton Heart Center and the Johns Hopkins Outpatient Center which bears Heyssel's name. In May 2012, the Johns Hopkins Hospital opened two new towers as part of a major campus redevelopment effort. The opening of the new $1.1 billion Charlotte R. Bloomberg Children's Center tower and the new Sheikh Zayed Tower marked the highpoint of this effort. In addition to the main hospital, the system operates four other hospitals and several outpatient care facilities in the Baltimore and Washington metro areas and All Children's Hospital in St. Petersburg, Florida. In May, 2019, the hospital completed an $80 million expansion project at its Green Spring Station campus in Brooklandville, Maryland, offering out-patient surgery, imaging, and oncology treatment at the 3-story, ''Pavilion III''. Johns Hopkins also provides remote consultations worldwide through the Grand Round platform, and uses the same platform to help patients find the ideal specialist for their unique needs.

Johns Hopkins Children's Center

Johns Hopkins Children's Center (JHCC) is a nationally ranked, pediatric acute care

children's A child () is a human being between the stages of birth and puberty, or between the developmental period of infancy and puberty. The term may also refer to an unborn human being. In English-speaking countries, the legal definition of ''child ...

teaching hospital A teaching hospital or university hospital is a hospital or medical center that provides medical education and training to future and current health professionals. Teaching hospitals are almost always affiliated with one or more universities a ...

located in Baltimore, Maryland, adjacent to Johns Hopkins Hospital. The hospital has 196 pediatric beds and is affiliated with the

. The hospital is the flagship pediatric member of Johns Hopkins Medicine and is 1 of 2 children's hospital in the network. The hospital provides comprehensive pediatric specialties and subspecialties to infants, children, teens, and young adults aged 0–21 throughout Baltimore and the wider United States. Johns Hopkins Children's Center also sometimes treats adults that require pediatric care. Johns Hopkins Children's Center also features one of the only ACS verified Level 1 Pediatric Trauma Centers in the state. The hospital is directly attached to Johns Hopkins Hospital and is situated near the Ronald McDonald House of Maryland.

Rankings

Johns Hopkins Hospital was ranked as the top overall hospital in the United States for 21 consecutive years by '' U.S. News & World Report'' until 2012, when it moved to second place behind

. In 2013, it was reinstated as the top hospital in the United States. In the 2016-2017 edition, Johns Hopkins ranks third-best nationally.

Ethical controversies and criticism

Johns Hopkins School of Medicine and Johns Hopkins Hospital (JHH) have faced criticism over ethics and research methodologies. JHH has established a pattern of targeting the working-class, poor, and marginalized in order to escape legal repercussions for unethical action.

STD research in Guatemala

From 1946 to 1948, Johns Hopkins researchers (notably Harry Eagle, Lowell Reed, and Thomas Turner) aided the United States government in a campaign of illegal experimentation in

Guatemala Guatemala, officially the Republic of Guatemala, is a country in Central America. It is bordered to the north and west by Mexico, to the northeast by Belize, to the east by Honduras, and to the southeast by El Salvador. It is hydrologically b ...

in the pursuit of developing potential prophylactic measures against various sexually transmitted diseases (STD's). Without information or consent, over 5000 Guatemalan civilians were intentionally infected with bacteria causing STD's including

syphilis Syphilis () is a sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium ''Treponema pallidum'' subspecies ''pallidum''. The signs and symptoms depend on the stage it presents: primary, secondary, latent syphilis, latent or tertiary. The prim ...

gonorrhea Gonorrhoea or gonorrhea, colloquially known as the clap, is a sexually transmitted infection (STI) caused by the bacterium ''Neisseria gonorrhoeae''. Infection may involve the genitals, mouth, or rectum. Gonorrhea is spread through sexual c ...

, and

chancroid Chancroid ( ) is a bacterial sexually transmitted infection characterized by painful sores on the genitalia. Chancroid is known to spread from one individual to another solely through sexual contact. However, there have been reports of accidenta ...

. This research program was a follow-up to a similar

experiment An experiment is a procedure carried out to support or refute a hypothesis, or determine the efficacy or likelihood of something previously untried. Experiments provide insight into cause-and-effect by demonstrating what outcome occurs whe ...

conducted on prisoners in

Terre Haute, Indiana Terre Haute ( ) is a city in Vigo County, Indiana, United States, and its county seat. As of the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, the city had a population of 58,389 and Terre Haute metropolitan area, its metropolitan area had a populati ...

, from 1943 to 1944. However, when researchers were unable to successfully infect the prisoners with a degree of regularity necessary for testing, the program was terminated and an effort was initiated to investigate the "natural method of infection" (i.e. sexual intercourse) in a less confined setting. Guatemala was chosen as the primary research site specifically to reduce concern for legal consequences and bad publicity. The study involved at least 5,128 vulnerable people, including children, orphans, child and adult prostitutes, Guatemalan Indians,

leprosy Leprosy, also known as Hansen's disease (HD), is a Chronic condition, long-term infection by the bacteria ''Mycobacterium leprae'' or ''Mycobacterium lepromatosis''. Infection can lead to damage of the Peripheral nervous system, nerves, respir ...

patients, mental patients, prisoners, and soldiers.

Baltimore Lead Paint Study

Starting in 1993, researchers at the Johns Hopkins Kennedy Krieger Institute (KKI) attempted to develop less expensive lead-abatement methods to benefit Baltimore landlords of homes that contained lead-based paint. KKI sought to treat homes with these different methods and observe how much lead accumulated in young children when living in these homes, even actively finding new families to live in these apartments, bringing the total number of children evaluated to 140, and even offered incentives for doing so. Knowingly exposing families to toxic levels of lead, the researchers measured lead content of homes and took periodic blood tests over a two-year period. After the study ended, many poor, African-American children ended up with neurological disabilities as a result, often incurring permanent nervous damage.

Medical debt lawsuits

The Baltimore Sun ''The Baltimore Sun'' is the largest general-circulation daily newspaper based in the U.S. state of Maryland and provides coverage of local, regional, national, and international news. Founded in 1837, the newspaper was owned by Tribune Publi ...

reported in 2008 that JHH had filed approximately 14,000 debt collection lawsuits since 2003. A 2019 joint report from the

AFL-CIO The American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO) is a national trade union center that is the largest federation of unions in the United States. It is made up of 61 national and international unions, together r ...

, National Nurses United (NNU), and community-advocacy group Coalition for a Humane Hopkins found that since 2009, Johns Hopkins Hospital (JHH) filed more than 2,400 lawsuits in Maryland courts seeking the repayment of alleged medical debt from former patients. The median amount sought in each lawsuit was $1,089 per patient (after costs covered by insurance, including Medicare and

Medicaid Medicaid is a government program in the United States that provides health insurance for adults and children with limited income and resources. The program is partially funded and primarily managed by U.S. state, state governments, which also h ...

), for which JHH engaged in tactics such as wage and property

garnishment Garnishment is a legal process for collecting a monetary judgment on behalf of a plaintiff from a defendant. Garnishment allows the plaintiff (the "garnishor") to take the money or property of the debtor from the person or institution that holds t ...

resulting in exacerbated hardship for patients often already suffering from financial instability and economic oppression (more than 40 cases involved patients filing for bankruptcy due to medical costs). More concerning is that of the cases sampled in the NNU/AFL-CIO report (n=273), 86% of defendants were African-American, and all lived within three miles of JHH. The areas immediately surrounding JHH are economically distressed neighborhoods that experience poorer health outcomes than the rest of Baltimore City and the state of Maryland, indicating that JHH disproportionately preys on marginalized populations in its debt-collection crusades. The neighborhood with the most suits was the 21213 zip code, which has a 28.2% poverty rate and 36.5% child poverty rate (almost triple the state averages). In 2018, the debt repayment JHH ''sought'' (though not even necessarily granted) in court accounted for less than 0.05% of its operating revenue. Further, as a not-for-profit hospital, JHH receives tax subsidies and charity care provisions from the

State of Maryland Maryland ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic region of the United States. It borders the states of Virginia to its south, West Virginia to its west, Pennsylvania to its north, and Delaware to its east ...

so that it may provide medical care at no or reduced cost to low-income or uninsured patients. However, JHH continually provides less in charity care than it receives in provisions - i.e. JHH has been fully reimbursed for its charity care costs by state funding nearly every year it has provided such care, continuing to sue patients for negligible medical debts while receiving millions of surplus dollars from public funding. The majority of patients pursued in court for medical debt repayment also qualify for charity care under Maryland state law, but such cost reductions were not made available. JHH sues its own employees for medical debt more than those of any other employer, in many cases seeking repayments that exceed their Employee Health Program's annual out-of-pocket maximum .

Death of Ellen Roche

In 2001, Ellen Roche, a 24-year old laboratory technician at the Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center's Asthma & Allergy Center, volunteered as part of a research study investigating bronchiolar reflexes during asthmatic reactions between asthmatic and non-asthmatic subjects. The study was already controversial, as it was specifically pursuing the theory that people with and without asthma both react similarly to inhaled irritants, but non-asthmatics are able to recover through deep breathing. Ms. Roche was provided with details on possible side effects of the treatment, including wheezing, chest tightness, and transient

dyspnoea Shortness of breath (SOB), known as dyspnea (in AmE) or dyspnoea (in BrE), is an uncomfortable feeling of not being able to breathe well enough. The American Thoracic Society defines it as "a subjective experience of breathing discomfort that c ...

. Death, however, was ''not'' presented as a possibility in the consent form. In the first phase of the experiment, involving four to five visits, participants were asked to inhale

methacholine Methacholine ( INN, USAN) (trade name Provocholine), also known as acetyl-β-methylcholine, is a synthetic choline ester that acts as a non-selective muscarinic receptor agonist in the parasympathetic nervous system. Medical uses Methacholine ...

with and without taking deep breaths before inhalation. In the second phase, starting with the sixth visit, some of the participants, including Ms. Roche, were administered

hexamethonium Hexamethonium is a non-depolarising ganglionic blocker, a neuronal nicotinic ( nAChR) receptor antagonist that acts in autonomic ganglia by binding mostly in or on the nAChR receptor, and not the acetylcholine binding site itself. It does no ...

before inhaling methacholine and breathing deeply. Hexamethonium, however, is not approved by the Food and Drug Administration. Dr. Togias reported to the

institutional review board An institutional review board (IRB), also known as an independent ethics committee (IEC), ethical review board (ERB), or research ethics board (REB), is a committee at an institution that applies research ethics by reviewing the methods proposed ...

, or I.R.B., an ethics group overseeing his work, that had concluded that the drug's main risk was in causing a temporary drop in blood pressure. A handful of cases of adverse pulmonary reactions to hexamethonium were reported in medical journals in the 1950s. These reactions included the development of bronchiolitis obliterans organising pneumonia (BOOP) and the

acute respiratory distress syndrome Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is a type of respiratory failure characterized by rapid onset of widespread inflammation in the lungs. Symptoms include shortness of breath (dyspnea), rapid breathing (tachypnea), and bluish skin co ...

(ARDS). Ms. Roche reportedly became ill—complaining of shortness of breath, dry cough, wheezing, and

myalgia Myalgia or muscle pain is a painful sensation evolving from muscle tissue. It is a symptom of many diseases. The most common cause of acute myalgia is the overuse of a muscle or group of muscles; another likely cause is viral infection, espec ...

s—within a day of entering the experiment. Laboratory tests showed a 35% reduction in lung function. Her course rapidly declined, with the development of the acute respiratory distress syndrome and renal failure. She died within a month of entering the experiment. The study was suspended. Later that year, JHH stated that it accepted full responsibility for the recent death of a volunteer in an experiment. In a report on its investigation into the death, the university said the researcher who conducted the experiment and the ethics committee that approved it had failed to take adequate precautions to protect research subjects. Dean of JHH Edward B. Miller, however, also claimed "...we are unlikely ever to know precisely how or why this happened... Ellen sacrificed her life in an important study." An external review report from Hopkins called the consent form "inadequate" and stated it referred to hexamethonium as a "medication" despite it having been unlicensed for medical use in the U.S. since 1972. The report also found "little evidence of rigorous pharmacological review" and inappropriate "safety and purity standards", yet still stated the death of Ellen Roche was "unavoidable".

Sex reassignment of David Reimer

In 1965,

David Reimer David Reimer (born Bruce Peter Reimer; 22 August 1965 – 4 May 2004) was a Canadian man raised as a girl following medical advice and intervention after his penis was severely injured during a botched circumcision in infancy. The psychologis ...

and his twin brother Brian were both diagnosed with

phimosis Phimosis (from Greek language, Greek φίμωσις ''phimōsis'' 'muzzling') is a condition in which the foreskin of the Human penis, penis cannot stretch to allow it to be pulled back past the Glans penis, glans. A balloon-like swelling under ...

, and referred for circumcision at the age of seven months.

Colapinto, John John Colapinto (born in 1958) is a Canadian journalist, author and novelist and a staff writer at ''The New Yorker''. In 2000, he wrote the ''New York Times'' bestseller '' As Nature Made Him: The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl'', which exposed t ...

(2001a). ''As Nature Made Him: The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl''. New York: HarperCollins. . General practitioner Jean-Marie Huot performed the operation using the unconventional method of electrocauterization, and the procedure burned David's penis beyond surgical repair. The doctors chose not to operate on Brian, and his phimosis resolved naturally. David's parents took him to see

John Money John William Money (8 July 1921 – 7 July 2006) was a New Zealand American psychologist, sexologist and professor at Johns Hopkins University known for his research on human sexual behavior and gender. Money advanced the use of more accur ...

at JHH in 1967, based on his reputation in the field of sexual development. Money believed that gender identity developed primarily as a result of social learning from early childhood and that it could be changed with the appropriate behavioral interventions. Money and the Hopkins family team persuaded David's parents that

sex reassignment surgery Gender-affirming surgery (GAS) is a surgical procedure, or series of procedures, that alters a person's physical appearance and sexual characteristics to resemble those associated with their gender identity. The phrase is most often associat ...

would be in his best interest. At the age of 22 months, David underwent a bilateral

orchiectomy Orchiectomy (also named orchidectomy) is a surgery, surgical procedure in which one or both testicles are removed. The surgery can be performed for various reasons: *treatment for testicular cancer *as part of gender-affirming surgery for trans ...

, in which his

testes A testicle or testis ( testes) is the gonad in all male bilaterians, including humans, and is homologous to the ovary in females. Its primary functions are the production of sperm and the secretion of androgens, primarily testosterone. The ...

were surgically removed and a rudimentary

vulva In mammals, the vulva (: vulvas or vulvae) comprises mostly external, visible structures of the female sex organ, genitalia leading into the interior of the female reproductive tract. For humans, it includes the mons pubis, labia majora, lab ...

was constructed by genital plastic surgery. David was reassigned to be raised as female and given the name Brenda (similar to his birth name, "Bruce"). Psychological support for the reassignment and surgery was provided by John Money, who continued to see Reimer annually for consultations and to assess the outcome. The sessions with Money included what Money called "childhood sexual rehearsal play". Money theorized that reproductive behaviour formed the foundation of gender, and that "play at thrusting movements and copulation" was a key aspect of gender development in all primates. Starting at age six, according to Brian, the twins were forced to act out sexual acts, with David playing the female role—Money made David get down on all fours, and Brian was forced to "come up behind imand place his crotch against isbuttocks". Money also forced David, in another sexual position, to have his "legs spread" with Brian on top. On "at least one occasion" Money took a photograph of the two children doing these activities. Both David and Brian recall that Money was mild-mannered around their parents, but ill-tempered when alone with them. When they resisted inspecting each other's genitals, Money got very aggressive. These experiences severely traumatized both David and Brian.

Estrogen Estrogen (also spelled oestrogen in British English; see spelling differences) is a category of sex hormone responsible for the development and regulation of the female reproductive system and secondary sex characteristics. There are three ...

was given to David during adolescence, therefore inducing

breast development Breast development, also known as mammogenesis, is a complex biological process in primates that takes place throughout a female's life. It occurs across several phases, including prenatal development, puberty, and pregnancy. At menopause, breas ...

. By the age of 13 years, Reimer was experiencing suicidal depression and he told his parents he would take his own life if they made him see Money again. Finally, on 14 March 1980, Reimer's parents told him the truth about his sex reassignment, following advice from Reimer's

endocrinologist Endocrinology (from ''endocrine'' + '' -ology'') is a branch of biology and medicine dealing with the endocrine system, its diseases, and its specific secretions known as hormones. It is also concerned with the integration of developmental events ...

and

psychiatrist A psychiatrist is a physician who specializes in psychiatry. Psychiatrists are physicians who evaluate patients to determine whether their symptoms are the result of a physical illness, a combination of physical and mental ailments or strictly ...

. At the age of 14, having been informed of his past by his father, Reimer decided to assume a male gender identity, calling himself David. He underwent treatment to reverse the reassignment, including testosterone injections, a double

, and

phalloplasty Phalloplasty (also called penoplasty) is the construction or reconstruction of a penis or the artificial modification of the penis by surgery. The term is also occasionally used to refer to penis enlargement. History Russian surgeon Nikolaj B ...

operations. Contrary to Money's reports, when living as Brenda, Reimer did not identify as a girl. He was ostracized and bullied by peers (who dubbed him "cavewoman"), and neither frilly dresses nor female hormones made him feel female. In addition, Reimer was later chronically unemployed and experienced remorse due to the death of his brother Brian from an overdose of

antidepressant Antidepressants are a class of medications used to treat major depressive disorder, anxiety disorders, chronic pain, and addiction. Common side effects of antidepressants include Xerostomia, dry mouth, weight gain, dizziness, headaches, akathi ...

s on 1 July 2002. On 2 May 2004, his wife Jane told him she wanted to separate. On the morning of 4 May 2004, Reimer drove to a grocery store's parking lot in his hometown of Winnipeg and shot himself in the head. Money never commented publicly on Reimer's suicide, although colleagues said he was "mortified" by the case. Money claimed the (false) success of Reimer's case as support for the optimum gender rearing model for intersex children. Researcher Mary Anne Case argues that Money's view on gender also fueled the rise of the

anti-gender movement The anti-gender movement is a global phenomenon that opposes concepts often referred to as "gender ideology" or "gender theory". These loosely-defined terms are commonly used by the movement to critique a range of issues related to gender equ ...

Closure of the Gender Identity Clinic

JHH opened the Gender Identity Clinic (GIC), the first

gender-affirming surgery Gender-affirming surgery (GAS) is a surgical procedure, or series of procedures, that alters a person's physical appearance and sexual characteristics to resemble those associated with their gender identity. The phrase is most often associated ...

(GAS) clinic in the United States, in 1966. However, the clinic was closed and GAS was banned after a 1979 paper by Jon Meyer and Donna Reter claimed it "confers no objective advantage in terms of social rehabilitation", but "remains subjectively satisfying to those who have rigorously pursued a trial period and who have undergone it". Meyer wrote an editorial to the

American Journal of Psychiatry ''The American Journal of Psychiatry'' is a monthly peer-reviewed medical journal covering all aspects of psychiatry, and is the official journal of the American Psychiatric Association. The first volume was issued in 1844, at which time it was k ...

in 1981 to explain his study and the subsequent ban, citing "uncertainty of long-term gains, the genesis and dynamics of transsexualism, the performance of surgery of this magnitude for less than clear cut psychiatric indicators, and the allocation of surgical resources after 13 years devoted to transsexual surgery" as concerns precipitating the Clinic's closure. The paper, however, utilized samples from as early as the 1960's, while plastic surgical capabilities, and thus rates of satisfaction, had increased rapidly in the 1970's. In 2022, however, Johns Hopkins medical student Walker Magrath published an article that reviewed archival documentation from the Johns Hopkins and Harvard Medical School libraries. Magrath's article details the evolving attitude of plastic surgeon John Hoops, inaugural director of the GIC. While Hoops expressed optimism for GAS in 1966, by 1974 he had begun referring to GAS as "a facade" and to transgender patients as ""psychopath", "masochist", "hysterical", "freakish", and "artificial". Further, 1975 marked the appointment of Paul McHugh as Chief of Psychiatry at JHH. While McHugh is notorious for his

transphobic Transphobia consists of negative attitudes, feelings, or actions towards transgender or transsexual people, or transness in general. Transphobia can include fear, aversion, hatred, violence or anger towards people who do not conform to social ...

views and pathologizing of gender and sexual minorities as mentally ill, his was not a dissenting voice at the GIC by the time of his appointment. Magrath quotes Hoops requesting from Meyer a "strongly worded paper outlining our reasons for no longer participating in... the performance of transsexual surgery" as early as 1978, going so far as to say it would be a welcome submission to the '' Journal of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery'' for which Hoops was an editor. In 1974, Hoops ordered the GIC to be relocated to the JHH Woman's Clinic, which was already underfunded, overcrowded, and slated for demolition. This significantly constrained the capabilities of the GIC, limiting the number of patients it was able to maintain and the services it was able to offer in its final years. Magrath places the movement to end GAS within the context of rapid advancement in plastic surgery over the 1960's and 70's, wherein Hoops utilized the publicity from GAS to promote plastic surgery as a field, but felt pressured to sweep what he later saw as less-than-ideal surgical results of GAS under the rug so as not to detract from the overall public progress of plastic surgery in general. This history runs contrary to the public claims from JHH that the closure of the GIC was "evidence-based".

Notable patients

Deaths

* William W. Beck, Maryland State Senator (April 5, 1923) * Charles B. Bosley, Maryland State Delegate (January 22, 1959) *

Tom Clancy Thomas Leo Clancy Jr. (April 12, 1947 – October 1, 2013) was an American novelist. He is best known for his technically detailed espionage and military science, military-science storylines set during and after the Cold War. Seventeen of ...

, novelist (October 1, 2013) * John D. C. Duncan Jr., Maryland State Senator and State Delegate (August 13, 1958) * Evelyn Glick, golfer (October 14, 1998) *

Alexander Haig Alexander Meigs Haig Jr. (; 2 December 192420 February 2010) was United States Secretary of State under President Ronald Reagan and White House chief of staff under Presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford. Prior to and in between these cabine ...

, U.S. Secretary of State (February 20, 2010) * Thomas J. Hatem, Maryland State Delegate (March 19, 1985) * John F. Joesting, Maryland State Delegate (April 17, 1978) * Therese Bishagara Kagoyire, Rwandan Senator (July 8, 2019) * Robert R. Lawder, Maryland State Senator and

Havre de Grace, Maryland Havre de Grace (), abbreviated HdG, is a city in Harford County, Maryland, Harford County, Maryland, United States. It is situated at the mouth of the Susquehanna River and the head of Chesapeake Bay. It is named after the port city of Le Havre ...

mayor (September 3, 1967) * Walter Lively, civil rights activist (September 10, 1976) * Hooper S. Miles, Maryland State Treasurer and State Delegate (March 8, 1964) *

Art Modell Arthur Bertram Modell (June 23, 1925 – September 6, 2012) was an American businessman, entrepreneur and National Football League (NFL) team owner. He owned the Cleveland Browns franchise for 35 years and established the Baltimore Ravens f ...

, owner,

Baltimore Ravens The Baltimore Ravens are a professional American football team based in Baltimore. The Ravens compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member of the American Football Conference (AFC) AFC North, North division. The team plays its home g ...

and

Cleveland Browns The Cleveland Browns are a professional American football team based in Cleveland. The Browns compete in the National Football League (NFL) as a member of the American Football Conference (AFC) AFC North, North division. The team is named after ...

(September 6, 2012) *

Ogden Nash Frederic Ogden Nash (August 19, 1902 – May 19, 1971) was an American poet well known for his Light poetry, light verse, of which he wrote more than 500 pieces. With his unconventional rhyme, rhyming schemes, he was declared by ''The New York T ...

, poet (May 19, 1971) * Edward J. Pearson, railroad executive (December 7, 1928) * Virachai Plasai, Thailand's ambassador to the United States (March 16, 2019) * L. Welch Pogue,

Civil Aeronautics Board The Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB) was an agency of the federal government of the United States, formed in 1940 from a split of the Civil Aeronautics Authority and abolished in 1985, that regulated aviation services (including scheduled passe ...

chairman (May 10, 2003) * Paul Ts'o,

Hong Kong Hong Kong)., Legally Hong Kong, China in international treaties and organizations. is a special administrative region of China. With 7.5 million residents in a territory, Hong Kong is the fourth most densely populated region in the wor ...

biophysical chemist (December 2, 2009)

Hospitalizations

* Chaudhary Charan Singh, former

prime minister of India The prime minister of India (ISO 15919, ISO: ) is the head of government of the Republic of India. Executive authority is vested in the prime minister and his chosen Union Council of Ministers, Council of Ministers, despite the president of ...

(1986) * Paul Armstrong, former playwright (1915) *

Al Capone Alphonse Gabriel Capone ( ; ; January 17, 1899 – January 25, 1947), sometimes known by the nickname "Scarface", was an American organized crime, gangster and businessman who attained notoriety during the Prohibition era as the co-foun ...

, former organized crime figure (1939) * Elizabeth Coffey, actress and transgender activist (1972) * Omar D. Crothers Jr., former Maryland State Senator (1953) *

Larry Doby Lawrence Eugene Doby (December 13, 1923 – June 18, 2003) was an American professional baseball player in the Negro league baseball, Negro leagues and Major League Baseball (MLB) who was the second black player to break baseball color line, bas ...

, former professional baseball player,

Chicago White Sox The Chicago White Sox are an American professional baseball team based in Chicago. The White Sox compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) American League Central, Central Division. The club plays its ...

and

Cleveland Indians The Cleveland Guardians are an American professional baseball team based in Cleveland. The Guardians compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the American League (AL) American League Central, Central Division. Since , the team ...

(1959) * Jim Duquette, former general manager,

New York Mets The New York Mets are an American professional baseball team based in the Boroughs of New York City, New York City borough of Queens. The Mets compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as a member club of the National League (baseball), National ...

(2012) *

Zelda Fitzgerald Zelda Fitzgerald (; July 24, 1900 – March 10, 1948) was an American novelist, painter, and socialite. Born in Montgomery, Alabama, to a wealthy Southern family, she became locally famous for her beauty and high spirits. In 1920, she marri ...

, former novelist, socialite, and wife of F. Scott Fitzgerald (1932) *

Lynden Pindling Sir Lynden Oscar Pindling, Order of St Michael and St George, KCMG, Privy Council of the United Kingdom, PC, Order of National Hero (Bahamas), NH, Justice of the peace, JP (22 March 193026 August 2000) was a The Bahamas, Bahamian politician who ...

, first

Prime Minister of the Bahamas The prime minister of the Bahamas is the head of government of the Bahamas. The prime minister is formally appointed into office by the governor-general of the Bahamas, who represents Charles III, the King of the Bahamas (the Bahamian head ...

(1996) * John Reed, former journalist and author (1916) *

Ida Tarbell Ida Minerva Tarbell (November 5, 1857January 6, 1944) was an American writer, Investigative journalism, investigative journalist, List of biographers, biographer, and lecturer. She was one of the leading muckrakers and reformers of the Progre ...

, former writer (1917) * L. Frederick Wade, Progressive Labour Party leader in

Bermuda Bermuda is a British Overseas Territories, British Overseas Territory in the Atlantic Ocean, North Atlantic Ocean. The closest land outside the territory is in the American state of North Carolina, about to the west-northwest. Bermuda is an ...

(1996) * Taylor Winnett, para swimmer in

2024 Summer Paralympics The 2024 Summer Paralympics (), also known as the Paris 2024 Paralympic Games (), and branded as Paris 2024, were the 17th Summer Paralympic Games, an international Multi-sport event, multi-sport parasports event governed by the International P ...

(2016)

Notes

: /small> - See www.ehp.org/our-health-plans/johns-hopkins-university-2/. There are numerous plans covering university and hospital employees, with different annual out-of-pocket maximums, depending on income, and whether the plan is individual or family coverage. Johns Hopkins University employees currently have a $2,000 annual out-of-pocket maximum for individual coverage. JHH employees have a $1,500 annual out-of-pocket maximum if they earn less than $50,000.

References

External links

Johns Hopkins Hospital and Health System website

Johns Hopkins Medicine official website

Johns Hopkins Hospital
on Google Street View
Interview with Ronald Peterson about Johns Hopkins Hospital

C-SPAN Cable-Satellite Public Affairs Network (C-SPAN ) is an American Cable television in the United States, cable and Satellite television in the United States, satellite television network, created in 1979 by the cable television industry as a Non ...

, January 9, 2005 {{authority control 1889 establishments in Maryland Hospital buildings completed in 1889 Hospitals established in 1889 Hospital buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in Baltimore Hospitals in Baltimore Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions Teaching hospitals in Maryland Voluntary hospitals

History

Founding

19th century

20th century

Achievements

Operations

Johns Hopkins Children's Center

Rankings

Ethical controversies and criticism

STD research in Guatemala

Baltimore Lead Paint Study

Medical debt lawsuits

Death of Ellen Roche

Sex reassignment of David Reimer

Closure of the Gender Identity Clinic

Notable patients

Deaths

Hospitalizations

See also

Notes

References

Further reading

External links