The inland taipan (''Oxyuranus microlepidotus''), also commonly known as the western taipan, small-scaled snake, or fierce snake,White, Julian (November 1991)
''Oxyuranus microlepidotus''
"Neurotoxic paralysis usually takes 2-4 hours to become clinically detectable. Coagulopathy however may become well established within 30 minutes of a bite"

International Programme on Chemical Safety The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) was formed in 1980 and is a collaboration between three United Nations bodies, the World Health Organization, the International Labour Organization and the United Nations Environment Programme, ...

. Retrieved 8 November 2013. is a

species A species () is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. It is the basic unit of Taxonomy (biology), ...

of extremely

venomous snake ''Venomous snakes'' are species of the suborder Serpentes that are capable of producing venom, which they use for killing prey, for defense, and to assist with digestion of their prey. The venom is typically delivered by injection using hollow ...

in the

family Family (from ) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). It forms the basis for social order. Ideally, families offer predictabili ...

Elapidae Elapidae (, commonly known as elapids , from , variant of "sea-fish") is a family of snakes characterized by their permanently erect fangs at the front of the mouth. Most elapids are venomous, with the exception of the genus '' Emydocephalus ...

. The species is

endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found only in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also foun ...

to semiarid regions of central east

Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising mainland Australia, the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and list of islands of Australia, numerous smaller isl ...

.Cecilie Beatson (29 November 2011)
Animal Species: Inland Taipan

Australian Museum The Australian Museum, originally known as the Colonial Museum or Sydney Museum. is a heritage-listed museum at 1 William Street, Sydney, William Street, Sydney central business district, Sydney CBD, New South Wales. It is the oldest natural ...

. Retrieved 14 October 2013.

Aboriginal Australians Aboriginal Australians are the various indigenous peoples of the Mainland Australia, Australian mainland and many of its islands, excluding the ethnically distinct people of the Torres Strait Islands. Humans first migrated to Australia (co ...

living in those regions named it ''dandarabilla''.Queensland Snakes
History & Discovery
(archived)

Queensland Museum The Queensland Museum Kurilpa is the state museum of Queensland, funded by the government, and dedicated to natural history, cultural heritage, science and human achievement. The museum currently operates from its headquarters and general museu ...

. Retrieved 15 November 2013. It was formally described by Frederick McCoy in 1879 and

William John Macleay Sir William John Macleay (13 June 1820 – 7 December 1891) was a Scottish-Australian politician, naturalist, zoologist, and herpetologist. Early life Macleay was born at Wick, Caithness, Scotland, second son of Kenneth Macleay of Keiss and h ...

in 1882, but for the next 90 years, it was a mystery to the scientific community; no further specimens were found, and virtually nothing was added to the knowledge of the species until its rediscovery in 1972.Rediscovery
The Rediscovery of the Western Taipan
(archived)

. Retrieved 15 November 2013. Based on the

median lethal dose In toxicology, the median lethal dose, LD50 (abbreviation for " lethal dose, 50%"), LC50 (lethal concentration, 50%) or LCt50 is a toxic unit that measures the lethal dose of a given substance. The value of LD50 for a substance is the dose re ...

value in mice, the

venom Venom or zootoxin is a type of toxin produced by an animal that is actively delivered through a wound by means of a bite, sting, or similar action. The toxin is delivered through a specially evolved ''venom apparatus'', such as fangs or a sti ...

of the inland taipan is by far the most toxic of any snake – much more even than

sea snake Sea snakes, or coral reef snakes, are Elapidae, elapid snakes that inhabit Marine (ocean), marine environments for most or all of their lives. They belong to two subfamilies, Hydrophiinae and Sea krait, Laticaudinae. Hydrophiinae also includes ...

s* The Australian venom research unit (25 August 2007)
"Which snakes are the most venomous?"
.

University of Melbourne The University of Melbourne (colloquially known as Melbourne University) is a public university, public research university located in Melbourne, Australia. Founded in 1853, it is Australia's second oldest university and the oldest in the state ...

. Retrieved 14 October 2013. * Venom Immunochemistry, Pharmacology and Emergency Response (VIPER) Institute
Frequently Asked Questions -What is the most venomous snake?
. "Many experts answer that it is the Inland Taipan of Australia, because its drop-by-drop concentration of venom has great potency when measured by its ability to kill rodents".

University of Arizona The University of Arizona (Arizona, U of A, UArizona, or UA) is a Public university, public Land-grant university, land-grant research university in Tucson, Arizona, United States. Founded in 1885 by the 13th Arizona Territorial Legislature, it ...

. Retrieved 14 October 2013. * Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation
Frequently Asked Questions About Venomous Snakes
"A comparative study found that the snake venom that is most toxic to mice (of the species tested) is that of the Inland Taipan (''Oxyuranus microlepidotus''), found in Australia".

University of Florida The University of Florida (Florida or UF) is a public university, public land-grant university, land-grant research university in Gainesville, Florida, United States. It is a senior member of the State University System of Florida and a preem ...

. Retrieved 5 November 2013. * * * Journal of Herpetology Vol.17 no.1 (1983
Ecology of Highly Venoumous Snakes: the Australian Genus ''Oxyuranus''
"..the number of mouse LD50 doses per bite is much higher for ''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'' (218,000 mice)...than for any other snakes, including sea snakes, investigated to date (Broad, Sutherland and Coulter, 1979)." (page 1)

University of Sydney The University of Sydney (USYD) is a public university, public research university in Sydney, Australia. Founded in 1850, it is the oldest university in both Australia and Oceania. One of Australia's six sandstone universities, it was one of the ...

. Retrieved 8 November 2013. * LISTS
Nine of the World's Deadliest Snakes
"#1: The snake with the world's deadliest venom - ''Oxyuranus microlepidotus''".

Encyclopædia Britannica The is a general knowledge, general-knowledge English-language encyclopaedia. It has been published by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. since 1768, although the company has changed ownership seven times. The 2010 version of the 15th edition, ...

. Retrieved 5 November 2013. * BBC Nature Wildlife
Inland Taipan page
"Australia's inland taipan is considered to be the most venomous snake in the world".

BBC The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is a British public service broadcaster headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, England. Originally established in 1922 as the British Broadcasting Company, it evolved into its current sta ...

. Retrieved 15 October 2013. * Cecilie Beatson (29 November 2011)
Animal Species: Inland Taipan
"The venom of the Inland Taipan is extremely potent and is rated as the most toxic of all snake venoms in LD50 tests on mice".

. Retrieved 14 October 2013. *

Steve Irwin Stephen Robert Irwin (22 February 19624 September 2006), known as "the Crocodile Hunter", was an Australian zookeeper, Conservation movement, conservationist, television personality, wildlife educator, and environmentalist. Irwin grew up ar ...

presentation
Australia Zoo Tour with Steve Irwin
(1m54s) "..the number 1 most venomous snake in the entire world, the fierce snake". Australia Zoo (official Youtube Channel). Retrieved 14 October 2013.Inland Taipan Venom vs. Sea Snakes Venom (most notable Belcher's sea snake) * Oakley, Cecily (2011)
Interview with Associate Professor Bryan Fry Biochemist and molecular biologist
. "...For my PhD, I worked on the inland taipan, which is the world's most venomous snake...".

Australian Academy of Science The Australian Academy of Science was founded in 1954 by a group of distinguished Australians, including Australian Fellows of the Royal Society of London. The first president was Sir Mark Oliphant. The academy is modelled after the Royal Soci ...

. Retrieved 14 October 2013. * Fry, Brian site admin (10 April 2005
Most Venomous
, Question: " ...I was talking to another herpatolagist and he said the hook nosed sea snake was the most venomous of all" Fry Answers: "The hook nosed myth was due to a fundamental error in a book called 'Snakes in question'. In there, all the toxicity testing results were lumped in together, regardless of the mode of testing (e.g. subcutaneous vs. intramuscular vs intravenous vs intraperitoneal). As the mode can influence the relative number, venoms can only be compared within a mode. Otherwise, its apples and rocks." Venomdoc forums. Retrieved 25 February 2015. * kingsnake.com September Guest Chatter (16 September 2006

. "Q: In retrospect to the LD50 charts, what do you personally feel is the hottest snake, in regards to potency, defensiveness, means of injection, etc.? A: It is the inland taipan (''Oxyuranus microlepidotus''). Not, as is popularised, any of the sea snakes." connectedbypets.com. Retrieved 14 October 2013. * Garden of Eden Exotics (2 May 2012

"...The inland taipan (''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'') is far and away the most toxic, much more so than even sea snakes." nyexotics.blogspot.com. Retrieved 14 October 2013. – and it has the most toxic venom of any reptile when tested on human heart

cell culture Cell culture or tissue culture is the process by which cell (biology), cells are grown under controlled conditions, generally outside of their natural environment. After cells of interest have been Cell isolation, isolated from living tissue, ...

. The inland taipan is a specialist hunter of mammals, so its venom is specially adapted to kill warm-blooded species.* Shorter, Damon
Great Australian bites – Three of the worst

Australian Broadcasting Corporation The Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) is Australia’s principal public service broadcaster. It is funded primarily by grants from the federal government and is administered by a government-appointed board of directors. The ABC is ...

. Retrieved 16 October 2013.
Inland Taipan ''Oxyuranus microlepidotus''
. venomsupplies.com. Retrieved 18 October 2013. One bite possesses enough

lethality Lethality (also called deadliness or perniciousness) is how capable something is of causing death. Most often it is used when referring to diseases, chemical weapons, biological weapons, or their toxic chemical components. The use of this term ...

to kill more than 100 men.* Journal of Herpetology Vol.17 no.1 (1983
Ecology of Highly Venoumous Snakes: the Australian Genus ''Oxyuranus''
"..the number of mouse LD50 doses per bite is much higher for ''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'' (218,000 mice)...than for any other snakes, including sea snakes, investigated to date (Broad, Sutherland and Coulter, 1979)." (page 1)

. Retrieved 8 November 2013.
"Reptiles – Fierce Snake"
. Australia Zoo. Retrieved 14 October 2013. * Martin, Stella (January 2004)
Newsletter No. 80
"It has been calculated that there is enough venom in just one bite of an Inland taipan to kill more than 100 men of average size."

Environmental Protection Agency (Queensland) Queensland's Environmental Protection Agency (abbreviated to EPA) was for some time a separate department of the Queensland Government, and, following 2009 state elections, became a part of the Government's larger Department of Environment and ...

. Retrieved 18 October 2013. * News (28 September 2012
Meet the world's deadliest snake in safety
, Taronga Conservation Society. Retrieved 23 September 2014 * Carbone, Nick reporting on

(4 September 2011)
Remembering Steve Irwin: The 5 Most Memorable Crocodile Hunter Videos
"Steve Irwin Plays with Inland Taipan (Fierce Snake)". ''

Time Time is the continuous progression of existence that occurs in an apparently irreversible process, irreversible succession from the past, through the present, and into the future. It is a component quantity of various measurements used to sequ ...

''. Retrieved 15 October 2013. It is extremely fast, agile, and can strike instantly with extreme accuracy,* (29 November 2011)
Snake Bite

Raymond Hoser Raymond Terrence Hoser (born 1962) is an Australian snake-catcher and author. Hoser's work on herpetology is controversial, including his advocacy of the surgical alteration of captive snakes to remove their venom glands and his self-published ...

(Official YouTube channel). Retrieved 31 March 2014. *Carbone, Nick reporting on

(4 September 2011)
Remembering Steve Irwin: The 5 Most Memorable Crocodile Hunter Videos
"Steve Irwin Plays with Inland Taipan (Fierce Snake)". ''

''. Retrieved 15 October 2013. * News (10 October 2013
Street's Corner: Houdini Heir Tries To Escape World's Deadliest Snake

KABB KABB (channel 29) is a television stationin San Antonio, Texas, United States, affiliated with the Fox network. It is owned by Sinclair Broadcast Group alongside dual NBC and CW affiliate WOAI-TV (channel 4); Sinclair also provides certain ...

. (KABB "Fox San Antonio" official YouTube Channel). Retrieved 11 November 2013. * Clinical Toxinology Resources
Snakebite Protocols – ''Oxyuranus microlepidotus''
. "Signs and Symptoms of Envenomation: ''E. Fang Marks:'' The snake strikes with extraordinary speed and accuracy, often snapping its jaws fiercely several times which can result in multiple punctures in the same attack.", "Special Considerations: ''A. Multiple Bites:'' The Inland Taipan is an extremely fast and agile snake which can strike instantly with extreme accuracy. It is possible for a Taipan to deliver more than one bite in a single attack."

University of Adelaide The University of Adelaide is a public university, public research university based in Adelaide, South Australia. Established in 1874, it is the third-oldest university in Australia. Its main campus in the Adelaide city centre includes many Sa ...

. Retrieved 18 October 2013. often striking multiple times in the same attack,* Seymour, Jamie
Venom deathmatch
The snake demonstrates striking multiple times (min 1:49)

National Geographic Channel National Geographic (formerly National Geographic Channel; abbreviated and trademarked as Nat Geo or Nat Geo TV) is an American pay television network and flagship channel owned by the National Geographic Global Networks unit of Disney Enter ...

, Retrieved 17 April 2014. * Cecilie Beatson (29 November 2011)
Animal Species: Inland Taipan

. Retrieved 14 October 2013. * Clinical Toxinology Resources
Snakebite Protocols – ''Oxyuranus microlepidotus''
. "Signs and Symptoms of Envenomation: ''E. Fang Marks:'' The snake strikes with extraordinary speed and accuracy, often snapping its jaws fiercely several times which can result in multiple punctures in the same attack.", "Special Considerations: ''A. Multiple Bites:'' The Inland Taipan is an extremely fast and agile snake which can strike instantly with extreme accuracy. It is possible for a Taipan to deliver more than one bite in a single attack."

. Retrieved 18 October 2013. and it envenomates in almost every case.ABC News 24 (27 September 2012)
Teen hospitalised after bite from deadly Taipan
(Quoting toxicologist

.

. Retrieved 13 November 2013. Although the most venomous and a capable striker, in contrast to the coastal taipan, which many experts cite as an extremely dangerous snake due to its behaviour when it encounters humans, the inland taipan is usually a shy and reclusive snake, with a placid disposition,* Cecilie Beatson (29 November 2011)
Animal Species: Inland Taipan
"The venom of the Inland Taipan is extremely potent and is rated as the most toxic of all snake venoms in LD50 tests on mice".

. Retrieved 14 October 2013. * South Australia Arid Lands Natural Resources Management Board
Biodiversity studies, Student fact sheet
.

Government of South Australia The Government of South Australia, also referred to as the South Australian Government or the SA Government, is the executive branch of the state government, state of South Australia. It is modelled on the Westminster system, meaning that the h ...

. Retrieved 15 October 2013. * Clinical Toxinology Resources
"''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'' -General Details, Taxonomy and Biology, Venom, Clinical Effects, Treatment, First Aid, Antivenoms"

. Retrieved 14 October 2013. * ABC News 24 (28 September 2012)
'Placid' taipan in safe hands
(Quoting licensed reptile handler
Judith Martin
.

. Retrieved 13 November 2013. and prefers to escape from trouble. * Carbone, Nick reporting on

(4 September 2011)
Remembering Steve Irwin: The 5 Most Memorable Crocodile Hunter Videos
"Steve Irwin Plays with Inland Taipan (Fierce Snake)". ''

''. Retrieved 15 October 2013. * Threatened species 10 October 2012
Fierce Snake – profile

Office of Environment and Heritage (New South Wales) The New South Wales Office of Environment and Heritage (OEH), a former Government department, division of the Government of New South Wales between April 2011 and July 2019, was responsible for the care and protection of the environment and ...

. Retrieved 15 October 2013. However, it will defend itself and strike if provoked, * Cecilie Beatson (29 November 2011)
Animal Species: Inland Taipan
"The venom of the Inland Taipan is extremely potent and is rated as the most toxic of all snake venoms in LD50 tests on mice".

. Retrieved 14 October 2013. * News (10 October 2013)
Street's Corner: Houdini Heir Tries To Escape World's Deadliest Snake

. (KABB "Fox San Antonio" official YouTube Channel). Retrieved 11 November 2013. *

Steve Backshall Stephen James Backshall (born 21 April 1973) is a British naturalist, explorer, presenter and writer, best known for BBC Television, BBC TV's ''Deadly (franchise), Deadly...'' franchise. His other BBC work includes being part of the expedition ...

(19 May 2013) film clip
The most venomous snake on earth! - Deadly 60 - BBC

BBC Earth BBC Earth is a brand used by BBC Studios since 2009 to market and distribute the BBC's natural history content to countries other than the United Kingdom. BBC Studios is the commercial arm of the public service broadcaster. BBC Earth commercia ...

(official YouTube channel). Retrieved 14 November 2013. mishandled, * ABC News 24 (28 September 2012)
'Placid' taipan in safe hands
(Quoting licensed reptile handler
Judith Martin
.

. Retrieved 13 November 2013. * (29 November 2011)
Snake Bite

(Official YouTube channel). Retrieved 31 March 2014. or prevented from escaping.Carbone, Nick reporting on

(4 September 2011)
Remembering Steve Irwin: The 5 Most Memorable Crocodile Hunter Videos
"Steve Irwin Plays with Inland Taipan (Fierce Snake)". ''

''. Retrieved 15 October 2013. Because it lives in such remote locations, the inland taipan seldom comes in contact with people; therefore it is not considered the deadliest snake, especially in terms of disposition and human deaths per year.* Venomous Snakes
World's Deadliest Snakes – Ranking scale
. Reptile Gardens. Retrieved 18 October 2013. * Walls, Jerry G
Deadly Snakes: What are the world's most deadly venomous snakes?

Reptiles (magazine) ''Reptiles'' magazine is a North American magazine devoted to the reptile and amphibian pet hobby, specializing in the keeping and breeding of these animals. It is based in Irvine, California History Fancy Publications, later BowTie Inc., intr ...

. Retrieved 5 November 2013. *

, (Dangerous Encounters with

Brady Barr Brady Robert Barr (born January 4, 1963) is a herpetologist and host of Nat Geo Wild's '' Dangerous Encounters with Brady Barr''. He began working with National Geographic in 1997. Barr has also been the host for two other series, ''Reptile Wil ...

), video clip
Deadliest Snakes / Inland Taipan
"in Deadliest Snakes, Brady approaches seven of the world's most dangerous and venomous snakes to determine which snake is the deadliest. He will scientifically investigate each species of snake by grading them on five basic criteria: size, volume and toxicity of venom, personality, and number of human deaths." Reptile Gardens (video host). Retrieved 6 November 2013. The word "fierce" from its alternative name describes its venom, not its temperament.Threatened species 10 October 2012
Fierce Snake – profile

. Retrieved 15 October 2013.

Taxonomy

To the Aboriginal people from the place now called

Goyder Lagoon __NOTOC__ The Goyder Lagoon is a large ephemeral swamp in the Australian state of South Australia in the state's Far North region. The lake is part of the Diamantina River floodplain, lying beside the Birdsville Track close to the state borde ...

in north-east

South Australia South Australia (commonly abbreviated as SA) is a States and territories of Australia, state in the southern central part of Australia. With a total land area of , it is the fourth-largest of Australia's states and territories by area, which in ...

, the inland taipan was called ''dandarabilla''. The inland taipan was first described scientifically in 1879. Two specimens of the fierce snake were discovered at the junction of the Murray and

Darling River The Darling River (or River Darling; Paakantyi: ''Baaka'' or ''Barka''), is the third-longest river in Australia, measuring from its source in northern New South Wales to its confluence with the Murray River at Wentworth. Including its long ...

s in northwestern Victoria and described by Frederick McCoy, who called the species ''Diemenia microlepidota'', or small- scaled brown snake. In 1882, a third specimen was found near

Bourke, New South Wales Bourke is a town in the north-west of New South Wales, Australia. The administrative centre and largest town in Bourke Shire, Bourke is approximately north-west of the state capital, Sydney, on the south bank of the Darling River. It is also si ...

, and

described the same snake under the name ''Diemenia ferox'' (thinking it was a different species). No more specimens were collected until 1972. In 1896,

George Albert Boulenger George Albert Boulenger (19 October 1858 – 23 November 1937) was a Belgian-British zoologist who described and gave scientific names to over 2,000 new animal species, chiefly fish, reptiles, and amphibians. Boulenger was also an active botani ...

classified both as belonging to the same

genus Genus (; : genera ) is a taxonomic rank above species and below family (taxonomy), family as used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In bino ...

, '' Pseudechis'' (black snakes), referring to them as ''Pseudechis microlepidotus'' and ''P. ferox''. In 1956, relying only on published descriptions and notes,Kinghorn, J. Roy (1 September 1955)
Herpetological notes. No. 5
(page 284).

Scientific Publications. Retrieved 14 November 2013. James Roy Kinghorn regarded ''ferox'' as a

synonym A synonym is a word, morpheme, or phrase that means precisely or nearly the same as another word, morpheme, or phrase in a given language. For example, in the English language, the words ''begin'', ''start'', ''commence'', and ''initiate'' are a ...

for ''microlepidotus'' and proposed the

''Parademansia''. In 1963, Eric Worrell considered ''Parademansia microlepidotus'' and '' Oxyuranus scutellatus'' (coastal taipan, named simply "taipan" in those days) to be the same

. In September 1972, after receiving an unclassified snake head sample from a grazier from one of the

Channel Country The Channel Country is a region of outback Australia mostly in the state of Queensland but also in parts of South Australia, Northern Territory and New South Wales. The name comes from the numerous Braided river, intertwined rivulets that cro ...

stations west of Windorah of the far southwest Queensland,

herpetologist Herpetology (from Ancient Greek ἑρπετόν ''herpetón'', meaning "reptile" or "creeping animal") is a branch of zoology concerned with the study of amphibians (including frogs, salamanders, and caecilians (Gymnophiona)) and reptiles (in ...

s Jeanette Covacevich (then working for the

) and Charles Tanner travelled to the site and found 13 living specimens, and rediscovered the lost snake ''Parademansia microlepidotus''. In 1976, Covacevich and Wombey argued that ''Parademansia microlepidotus'' belongs to a distinct genus, and this was also the opinion of Harold Cogger. Covacevich, McDowell, Tanner & Mengden (1981) successfully argued, by comparing anatomical features,

chromosomes A chromosome is a package of DNA containing part or all of the genetic material of an organism. In most chromosomes, the very long thin DNA fibers are coated with nucleosome-forming packaging proteins; in eukaryotic cells, the most importa ...

, and behaviours of the two species then known as ''Oxyuranus scutellatus'' (taipan) and ''Parademansia microlepidota'', that they belonged in a single genus. '' Oxyuranus'' (1923), the more senior name, was adopted for the combined genus. ''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'' has been the fierce snake's

binomial name In taxonomy, binomial nomenclature ("two-term naming system"), also called binary nomenclature, is a formal system of naming species of living things by giving each a name composed of two parts, both of which use Latin grammatical forms, altho ...

since the early 1980s.Two Taipans
Two Taipans - Coastal and Western
(archived)

. Retrieved 15 November 2013.Covacevich, J., McDowell, S.B., Tanner, C. & Mengdon, G. (Aust. Herp. Symposium, 1980)
The relationship of the taipan (''Oxyuranus scutellatus'') and the small-scaled snake (''O. microlepidotus''), Serpentes: Elapidae
(page 32). kingsnake.com. Retrieved 15 November 2013. The generic name ''Oxyuranus'' is from Greek ''oxys'' "sharp, needle-like", and ''ouranos'' "an arch" (specifically the arch of the heavens) and refers to the needle-like anterior process on the arch of the palate. The

specific name Specific name may refer to: * in Database management systems, a system-assigned name that is unique within a particular database In taxonomy, either of these two meanings, each with its own set of rules: * Specific name (botany), the two-part (bino ...

''microlepidotus'' means "small- scaled" (Latin). Hence the common name, "small-scaled snake".Welton, Ronelle Ellen (2005) PhD thesis
Proteomic and genomic characterisation of venom proteins from ''Oxyuranus'' species
(microlepidotus).

James Cook University James Cook University (JCU) is a public university in North Queensland, Australia. The second oldest university in Queensland, JCU is a teaching and research institution. The university's main campuses are located in the tropical cities of Cair ...

. Retrieved 15 November 2013. Since Covacevich et al., 1981, determined that the fierce snake (formerly: ''Parademansia microlepidota'') is actually part of the genus ''Oxyuranus'' (taipan), another species, ''Oxyuranus scutellatus'', which was previously known simply as the "taipan" (coined from the aboriginal snake's name ''dhayban''), was renamed the " coastal taipan" (or "eastern taipan"), while the now newly classified ''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'' became commonly known as the "inland taipan" (or "western taipan").

Distribution and habitat

The inland taipan inhabits the black soil

plain In geography, a plain, commonly known as flatland, is a flat expanse of land that generally does not change much in elevation, and is primarily treeless. Plains occur as lowlands along valleys or at the base of mountains, as coastal plains, and ...

s in the semiarid regions where the

Queensland Queensland ( , commonly abbreviated as Qld) is a States and territories of Australia, state in northeastern Australia, and is the second-largest and third-most populous state in Australia. It is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Austr ...

and South Australia borders converge. In Queensland, the snake has been observed in

regionWildlife of Channel Country (CHC) bioregion
(western taipan) Department of Environment and Heritage Protection (Queensland). Retrieved 10 November 2013. (e.g., Diamantina National Park, Durrie Station, Morney Plains StationDesert Channels region Natural resource management
Desert Channels Queensland's Biodiversity Plan
. (Channel country, page 24 /special fauna areas)

Government of Queensland The Queensland Government is the state government of Queensland, Australia, a parliamentary constitutional monarchy. Government is formed by the party or coalition that has gained a majority in the state Legislative Assembly, with the governo ...

. Retrieved 10 November 2013. and Astrebla Downs National ParkWildlife of Astrebla Downs National Park
(western taipan) Department of Environment and Heritage Protection (Queensland). Retrieved 10 November 2013.) and in South Australia it has been observed in the Marree- Innamincka NRM DistrictSouth Australia arid lands natural resources management board
Birdsville Strzelecki - Legendary tracks of the Marree Innamincka District
(Archived) (map of district on second page) (Inland taipan page 7)

. Retrieved 10 November 2013.South Australia arid lands natural resources management board
Marree – Innamincka Natural Resources Management Group
(Archived).

. Retrieved 10 November 2013. (e.g.,

Toxicon ''Toxicon'' is a peer-reviewed scientific journal of toxinology and the official journal of the International Society on Toxinology and the North American Society of Toxinology. It is published by Elsevier and the editor-in-chief is Ray Norton ...

journal (January 1999
The smooth muscle relaxant effects of venom from the inland taipan (''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'')
(page 1)

ResearchGate ResearchGate is a European commercial social networking site for scientists and researchers to share papers, ask and answer questions, and find collaborators. According to a 2014 study by ''Nature'' and a 2016 article in ''Times Higher Education' ...

. Retrieved 10 November 2013.

Tirari Desert The Tirari Desert is a desert in the eastern part of the Far North region of South Australia. It stretches 212 km from north to south and 153 km from east to west. Location and description The Tirari Desert features salt lakes and ...

Sturt Stony Desert Sturt Stony Desert (previously Sturt's Stony Desert) is an area in the north-east of South Australia, far south western border area of Queensland and the far west of New South Wales. It was named by Charles Sturt in 1844, while he was trying ...

, Coongie Lakes, Innamincka Regional Reserve and

Oodnadatta Oodnadatta is a small, remote outback town and locality in the Australian state of South Australia, located north-north-west of the state capital of Adelaide city centre, Adelaide by road or direct, at an altitude of . The unsealed Oodnadatta ...

(Last updated: 19 July 2013)
SAAL Regional Species Conservation Assessment Project
(PDF sheet download, pages 50, 67).

Department of Environment, Water and Natural Resources (South Australia) The Department for Environment and Water (DEW) is a department of the Government of South Australia. It is responsible for ensuring that the state of South Australia's natural resources are managed productively and sustainably, while improving ...

. Retrieved 8 November 2013.). An isolated population also occurs near Coober Pedy, South Australia.South Australia arid lands natural resources management board
Biodiversity studies, Student fact sheet
.

. Retrieved 15 October 2013. Two old records exist for localities further south-east, i.e., the junction of the Murray and Darling Rivers in northwestern Victoria (1879) and Bourke, New South Wales (1882), but the species has not been observed in either state since then.

Conservation status

Like every Australian snake, the inland taipan is protected by law.Aussie Animal
Inland Taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus)
. Billabong Sanctuary. Retrieved 18 October 2013.

Conservation status The conservation status of a group of organisms (for instance, a species) indicates whether the group still exists and how likely the group is to become extinct in the near future. Many factors are taken into account when assessing conservation ...

for the snake was assessed for the

IUCN Red List The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species, also known as the IUCN Red List or Red Data Book, founded in 1964, is an inventory of the global conservation status and extinction risk of biological ...

for the first time in July 2017, and in 2018, was designated as

least concern A least-concern species is a species that has been evaluated and categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as not being a focus of wildlife conservation because the specific species is still plentiful in the wil ...

, stating, "This species is listed as least concern, as it is widespread and overall, it is not considered to be declining. Although the impact of potential threats requires further research, these are likely to be localized within the snake's range." The inland taipan's conservation status has also been designated by Australian official sources:Wildlife and ecosystems section
Threatened species criteria
Department of Environment and Heritage Protection (Queensland). Retrieved 8 November 2013. * South Australia: (

Outback The Outback is a remote, vast, sparsely populated area of Australia. The Outback is more remote than Australian bush, the bush. While often envisaged as being arid, the Outback regions extend from the northern to southern Australian coastli ...

regional status) - least concern * Queensland: Rare (before 2010),

near threatened A near-threatened species is a species which has been Conservation status, categorized as "Near Threatened" (NT) by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as that may be vulnerable to Endangered species, endangerment in the ne ...

(May 2010-December 2014), least concern (December 2014 – present) * New South Wales: Presumed

extinct Extinction is the termination of an organism by the death of its Endling, last member. A taxon may become Functional extinction, functionally extinct before the death of its last member if it loses the capacity to Reproduction, reproduce and ...

, because it "hasn't been recorded in its habitat...despite surveys in a time frame appropriate to their life cycle and type" * Victoria: Regionally extinct, based on the criterion: "As for Extinct but within a defined region (in this case the state of Victoria) that does not encompass the entire geographic range of the taxon. A taxon is presumed Regionally Extinct when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate ), throughout the region have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon’s life cycle and life form."Conservation status (March 2013)
Advisory List of Threatened Vertebrate Fauna in Victoria
(Small-scaled Snake, page 14)

Department of Sustainability and Environment The Department of Sustainability and Environment (DSE) was a state government department that managed water resources, climate change, bushfires, public land, forests and eco systems in the state of Victoria, Australia. It was created in 2002 wh ...

. Retrieved 12 January 2019. The

lists it as ''presumed extinct''.

In captivity

Inland taipans are held in several zoo collections in Australia and overseas including the

Adelaide Zoo Adelaide Zoo is a zoo in Adelaide, Australia. It is the country's second oldest zoo (after Melbourne Zoo) opening in 1883, and is operated on a non-profit basis. It is located in the Adelaide Parklands, parklands just north of the Adelaide cit ...

and

Taronga Zoo Taronga Zoo Sydney is a government-run public zoo located in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia, in the Lower North Shore suburb of Mosman, New South Wales, Mosman, on the shores of Port Jackson, Sydney Harbour. It offers great views of Sydney ...

in Sydney. The inland taipan is also on public display in Australia at the Australia Zoo,"Reptiles – Fierce Snake"
. Australia Zoo. Retrieved 14 October 2013. Australian Reptile Park,Our Animals
Fierce Snake (Inland Taipan)
. Australian Reptile Park. Retrieved 11 November 2013. Billabong Sanctuary, Cairns Tropical Zoo, Lone Pine Koala Sanctuary and Shoalhaven Zoo. The snake is also on display at several locations outside of Australia. In the United States, inland taipans are held at the Reptile Gardens in South Dakota, at Kentucky Reptile ZooHelp support KRZ
Adopt a Zoo Animal / Australian Inland Taipan
Kentucky Reptile Zoo. Retrieved 11 November 2013. and at Animal World & Snake Farm Zoo in

Texas Texas ( , ; or ) is the most populous U.S. state, state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. It borders Louisiana to the east, Arkansas to the northeast, Oklahoma to the north, New Mexico to the we ...

.News (10 October 2013
Street's Corner: Houdini Heir Tries To Escape World's Deadliest Snake

. (KABB "Fox San Antonio" official YouTube Channel). Retrieved 11 November 2013.Maloney, Ron (9 October 2013)
Houdini descendant to perform in Seguin
Seguin Gazette. Retrieved 11 November 2013.Patoski, Joe Nick (14 July 2011)
Snake Farm's Charms Still Casting Spells

The New York Times ''The New York Times'' (''NYT'') is an American daily newspaper based in New York City. ''The New York Times'' covers domestic, national, and international news, and publishes opinion pieces, investigative reports, and reviews. As one of ...

. Retrieved 11 November 2013. In Europe, inland taipans are held in Sweden at the Stockholm

Skansen Skansen (; "the Sconce") is the oldest open-air museum and zoo in Sweden located on the island Djurgården in Stockholm, Sweden. It was opened on 11 October 1891 by Artur Hazelius (1833–1901) to show the way of life in the different parts ...

Zoo and Gothenburg Universeum

Moscow Zoo The Moscow Zoo or Moskovsky Zoopark () is a zoo, the largest in Russia. History The Moscow Zoo was founded in 1864 by professor-biologists, K.F. Rulje, S.A. Usov and A.P. Bogdanov, from the Moscow State University. In 1919, the zoo was natio ...

in Russia,AEZA news (January–March, 2004)
Births and Hatchings / Moscow - Russian federation
. (page 17)

European Association of Zoos and Aquaria The European Association of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA) is an organisation for the European zoo and aquarium community that links over 340 member organisations in 41 countries. EAZA membership is open to all zoos and aquaria across Europe that compl ...

Magazine. Retrieved 11 November 2013. (in the Moscow Zoo they are kept in the House of Reptiles, which is not usually open to the general public.)(1 May 2007)
Amazing World of Amphibians and Reptiles exhibition opens
.

. Retrieved 11 November 2013.UK Independent Zoo Enthusiasts Society, "Zoo Grapevine" newsletter (Fall, 2012)
MOSCOW, Unique Zoo - Article from the "Zoo Grapevine" / "Behind the Scenes"
(English translation via Google)

. Retrieved 11 November 2013. and in the UK at the

London Zoo London Zoo, previously known as ZSL London Zoo or London Zoological Gardens and sometimes called Regent's Park Zoo, is the world's oldest scientific zoo. It was opened in London on 27 April 1828 and was originally intended to be used as a colle ...

Amateur An amateur () is generally considered a person who pursues an avocation independent from their source of income. Amateurs and their pursuits are also described as popular, informal, autodidacticism, self-taught, user-generated, do it yourself, DI ...

zoo listings also report the snake at the ''tropicarium park'' in

Jesolo Jesolo (; ) is a seaside resort town and ''comune'' of 26,873 inhabitants in the Metropolitan City of Venice, Italy. With around 5.5 million visitors per year, Jesolo ranks second among beach resorts in the country for number of tourists, and t ...

, Italy, in ''Gifttierhaus'' Eimsheim, ''Welt der Gifte''

Greifswald Greifswald (), officially the University and Hanseatic City of Greifswald (, Low German: ''Griepswoold'') is the fourth-largest city in the German state of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania after Rostock, Schwerin and Neubrandenburg. In 2021 it surpa ...

, and ''Terra Zoo'' Rheinberg, Germany, in ''Lausanne vivarium''

Lausanne Lausanne ( , ; ; ) is the capital and largest List of towns in Switzerland, city of the Swiss French-speaking Cantons of Switzerland, canton of Vaud, in Switzerland. It is a hilly city situated on the shores of Lake Geneva, about halfway bet ...

, Switzerland, in Randers Tropical Zoo Denmark, in

Plzeň Zoo Plzeň Zoo (''Zoologická a botanická zahrada města Plzně'') is a Czech zoo, located in Plzeň in Czech Republic. After Liberec Zoo it is the second oldest zoo in the Czech Republic, founded in 1926 on the river banks of the river Radbuza. Plze ...

Czech Republic, and in ''Reptilienzoo Nockalm'' Patergassen Austria. In Asia, inland taipans are held in the

Singapore Zoo The Singapore Zoo, formerly known as the Singapore Zoological Gardens or Mandai Zoo, is a zoo located on the margins of Upper Seletar Reservoir within Singapore's heavily forested central catchment area. It is operated by the Mandai Wildl ...

Private ownership law

In New South Wales, private ownership of an inland taipan is legal only with the highest class of venomous reptile licence.

Description

The inland taipan is dark tan, ranging from a rich, dark hue to a brownish light green, depending on the season. Its back, sides, and tail may be different shades of brown and grey, with many scales having a wide, blackish edge. These dark-marked scales occur in diagonal rows so that the marks align to form broken chevrons of variable length that are inclined backward and downward. The lowermost lateral scales often have an anterior yellow edge. The dorsal scales are smooth and without keels. The round-snouted head and neck are usually noticeably darker than the body (glossy black in winter; dark brown in summer), the darker colour allowing the snake to heat itself while exposing only a smaller portion of the body at the burrow entrance. The eyes are of average size with blackish-brown irises and without a noticeable coloured rim around the pupils. It has 23 rows of

dorsal scales In snakes, the dorsal scales are the longitudinal series of plates that encircle the body, but do not include the ventral scales. Campbell JA, Lamar WW (2004). ''The Venomous Reptiles of the Western Hemisphere''. Ithaca and London: Comstock Publis ...

at midbody, between 55 and 70 divided

subcaudal scales In snakes, the subcaudal scales are the enlarged plates on the underside of the tail. Wright AH, Wright AA (1957). ''Handbook of Snakes of the United States and Canada''. Comstock Publishing Associates, a Division of Cornell University Press. (7t ...

, and one anal scale. The inland taipan averages about in total length, although larger specimens can reach total lengths of . Its

fangs A fang is a long, pointed tooth. In mammals, a fang is a modified maxillary tooth, used for biting and tearing flesh. In snakes, it is a specialized tooth that is associated with a venom gland (see snake venom). Spiders also have external Chelic ...

are between 3.5 and 6.2 mm long (shorter than those of the coastal taipan).

Seasonal adaptation

Inland taipans adapt to their environments by changing the colour of their skin during seasonal changes. They tend to become lighter during the summer and darker during the winter. This seasonal colour change facilitates thermoregulation, allowing the snake to absorb more radiant heat in the colder months.

Breeding

Inland taipans produce clutches of one to two dozen eggs. The eggs hatch in about two months. They are usually laid in abandoned animal burrows and deep crevices. Reproduction rate depend in part on their diet: if not enough food is available, then the snake reproduces less. Captive snakes generally live for 10 to 15 years. An inland taipan at the Australia Zoo lived to be over 20 years old.

Feeding

In the wild, the inland taipan consumes only

mammal A mammal () is a vertebrate animal of the Class (biology), class Mammalia (). Mammals are characterised by the presence of milk-producing mammary glands for feeding their young, a broad neocortex region of the brain, fur or hair, and three ...

s, mostly

rodent Rodents (from Latin , 'to gnaw') are mammals of the Order (biology), order Rodentia ( ), which are characterized by a single pair of continuously growing incisors in each of the upper and Mandible, lower jaws. About 40% of all mammal specie ...

s, such as the long-haired rat (''Rattus villosissimus''), the plains rat (''Pseudomys australis''), the introduced

house mouse The house mouse (''Mus musculus'') is a small mammal of the rodent family Muridae, characteristically having a pointed snout, large rounded ears, and a long and almost hairless tail. It is one of the most abundant species of the genus '' Mus''. A ...

(''Mus musculus''), and other

dasyurid The Dasyuridae are a family of marsupials native to Australia and New Guinea, including 71 extant species divided into 17 genera. Many are small and mouse-like or shrew-like, giving some of them the name marsupial mice or marsupial shrews, but th ...

s. In captivity, it may also eat day-old chicks. Unlike other venomous snakes that strike with a single, accurate bite then retreat while waiting for the prey to die, the fierce snake subdues the prey with a series of rapid, accurate strikes. It is known to deliver up to eight venomous bites in a single attack, often snapping its jaws fiercely several times to inflict multiple punctures in the same attack. Its more risky attack strategy entails holding its prey with its body and biting it repeatedly. This injects the extremely toxic venom deep into the prey. The venom acts so rapidly that its prey does not have time to fight back.* Cecilie Beatson (29 November 2011)
Animal Species: Inland Taipan

. Retrieved 14 October 2013. * Martin, Stella (January 2004)
Newsletter No. 80

. Retrieved 18 October 2013. * Clinical Toxinology Resources
"''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'' -General Details, Taxonomy and Biology, Venom, Clinical Effects, Treatment, First Aid, Antivenoms"

. Retrieved 14 October 2013. * Aussie Animal
Inland Taipan (Oxyuranus microlepidotus)
. Billabong Sanctuary. Retrieved 18 October 2013.

Natural threats

The mulga snake (''

Pseudechis australis The king brown snake (''Pseudechis australis'') is a species of highly venomous snake of the family Elapidae, native to northern, western, and Central Australia. The king brown snake is the largest terrestrial venomous snake in Australia.Razavi, ...

'') is immune to most Australian snake

, and is known to also eat young inland taipans.Animal Weapons: Episode 1 – Chemical Warfare / Inland Taipan (5m25s)
Absolutely Wild Visuals Youtube channel,
AWV stock footage library
/ FOCAL International). Retrieved 18 October 2013. The perentie (''Varanus giganteus''), a large

monitor lizard Monitor lizards are lizards in the genus ''Varanus,'' the only extant genus in the family Varanidae. They are native to Africa, Asia, and Oceania, and West African Nile monitor, one species is also found in south America as an invasive species. A ...

, shares the same

habitat In ecology, habitat refers to the array of resources, biotic factors that are present in an area, such as to support the survival and reproduction of a particular species. A species' habitat can be seen as the physical manifestation of its ...

. As it grows large enough, it readily tackles large venomous snakes as

prey Predation is a biological interaction in which one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. It is one of a family of common feeding behaviours that includes parasitism and micropredation (which usually do not ki ...

Interaction with humans

Many reptile keepers consider it a placid snake to handle. Inland taipans are rarely encountered in the wild by the average person because of their remoteness and brief above-ground appearance during the day. So long as a person is not creating much vibration and noise, the inland taipan may not feel alarmed or bothered by a human presence.* South Australia arid lands natural resources management board
Biodiversity studies, Student fact sheet
.

. Retrieved 15 October 2013. * Clinical Toxinology Resources
"''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'' -General Details, Taxonomy and Biology, Venom, Clinical Effects, Treatment, First Aid, Antivenoms"

. Retrieved 14 October 2013. However, caution should be exercised and a safe distance maintained as it can inflict a potentially fatal bite. The inland taipan will defend itself and strike if provoked, mishandled, or prevented from escaping. Firstly, but not always, it makes a threat display by raising its forebody in a tight low S-shaped curve with its head facing the threat. Should the person choose to ignore the warning, the inland taipan will strike. It is an extremely fast and agile snake that can

strike Strike may refer to: People *Strike (surname) * Hobart Huson, author of several drug related books Physical confrontation or removal *Strike (attack), attack with an inanimate object or a part of the human body intended to cause harm * Airstrike, ...

instantly with extreme accuracy, and it envenoms in almost every case. Clinical toxicologist, venom researcher,

, and

family physician Family medicine is a medical specialty that provides continuing and comprehensive health care for the individual and family across all ages, genders, diseases, and parts of the body. The specialist, who is usually a primary care physician, i ...

Scott A. Weinstein et al. have stated in ''

'' journal (October 2017) "There have been 11 previously well-documented envenomings by ''O. microlepidotus'', but only 2 were inflicted by wild snakes. When clinically indicated, prompt provision of adequate antivenom is the cornerstone of managing ''O. microlepidotus'' envenoming. Rapid application of pressure-bandage immobilization and efficient retrieval of victims envenomed in remote locales, preferably by medically well-equipped aircraft, probably improves the likelihood of a positive outcome."

Snakebite victims

A case of survival without antivenom was recorded in 1967; on 15 September, a tour guide was bitten while trying to capture a snake for a tour group in the Channel Country. He was conveyed to Broken Hill Hospital and then to Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Adelaide, but was not given antivenom, as he reported he was severely allergic to horse serum and believed he had been bitten by a brown snake. He spent four weeks in the hospital overall; his condition was likened to severe

myasthenia gravis Myasthenia gravis (MG) is a long-term neuromuscular junction disease that leads to varying degrees of skeletal muscle weakness. The most commonly affected muscles are those of the eyes, face, and swallowing. It can result in double vision, ...

. Meanwhile, the snake was sent to Eric Worrell, who confirmed it was a coastal taipan. After its rediscovery in 1972, it was identified as an inland taipan. In 1984, Australian toxicologist Peter Mirtschin was bitten by a 3-week-old inland taipan. He was the first to be treated with Taipan antivenom. In September 2012, in the small city of Kurri Kurri, New South Wales, north of Sydney, more than 1000 km away from the snake's natural environment, a teenaged boy was bitten on the finger by an inland taipan. The teenager's rapid self-application of a

compression bandage A bandage is a piece of material used either to support a medical device such as a dressing or splint, or on its own to provide support for the movement of a part of the body. When used with a dressing, the dressing is applied directly on ...

above the woundBreakfast News Program (27 September 201
A teenage boy has survived being bitten by the world's most venomous snake.

Sunrise (Australian TV program) Sunrise (or sunup) is the moment when the upper rim of the Sun appears on the horizon in the morning, at the start of the Sun path. The term can also refer to the entire process of the solar disk crossing the horizon. Terminology Although the ...

(official Youtube channel). Retrieved 16 October 2013. and the availability and administration of a polyvalent (broad-spectrum)

antivenom Antivenom, also known as antivenin, venom antiserum, and antivenom immunoglobulin, is a specific treatment for envenomation. It is composed of antibodies and used to treat certain venomous bites and stings. Antivenoms are recommended only if ...

in the local hospital saved his life. The police worked to find out how the inland taipan got to this part of Australia. The snake was most likely a stolen or illegal pet and the boy had tried to feed it. In December 2013, reptile handler Scott Grant (age 40+), who was conducting a demonstration in front of 300 people at the annual building union's picnic in

Portland, Victoria Portland ( ) is a city in Victoria (Australia), Victoria, Australia, and is the oldest European settlement in the state. It is also the main urban centre in the Shire of Glenelg and is located on Portland Bay. As of the 2021 Australian census, 20 ...

, had just finished showing the crowd an inland taipan and was trying to put it into a bag when it struck him. He got into his utility and tied a bandage around his arm. A few minutes later, however, he was lying on the ground and convulsing. He was flown in a serious condition to Essendon Airport and driven to the Royal Melbourne Hospital, where his condition was stabilised, and over time, he recovered. Only a tiny amount of venom from the inland taipan had entered his body, and the adverse reaction he felt shortly after was an allergic one, presumably due to his past snake bites. In October 2017, Weinstein et al. published a

case report In medicine, a case report is a detailed report of the symptoms, signs, diagnosis, treatment, and follow-up of an individual patient. Case reports may contain a demographic profile of the patient, but usually describe an unusual or novel occurrenc ...

in ''

'', writing, "The victim was seeking to observe members of an isolated population of this species and was envenomed while attempting to photograph an approximately 1.5 m specimen. He reported feeling “

drowsiness Somnolence (alternatively sleepiness or drowsiness) is a state of strong desire for sleep, or sleeping for unusually long periods (compare hypersomnia). It has distinct meanings and causes. It can refer to the usual state preceding falling asleep ...

” and

blurred vision Blurred vision is an ocular symptom where vision becomes less precise and there is added difficulty to resolve fine details. Temporary blurred vision may involve dry eyes, eye infections, alcohol poisoning, hypoglycemia, or low blood pressur ...

that progressed to ptosis; he later developed

dysphagia Dysphagia is difficulty in swallowing. Although classified under " symptoms and signs" in ICD-10, in some contexts it is classified as a condition in its own right. It may be a sensation that suggests difficulty in the passage of solids or l ...

and

dysarthria Dysarthria is a speech sound disorder resulting from neurological injury of the motor component of the motor–speech system and is characterized by poor articulation of phonemes. It is a condition in which problems effectively occur with the ...

. The patient was treated with one vial of polyvalent antivenom, which was later followed by an additional two vials of taipan monovalent. He was intubated during retrieval, and recovered after 3 days of intensive care. He had a right

ophthalmoplegia Ophthalmoparesis refers to weakness (-paresis) or paralysis (-plegia) of one or more extraocular muscles which are responsible for eye movements. It is a physical finding in certain neurologic, ophthalmologic, and endocrine disease. Internal ...

that persisted for approximately 1 week post-envenoming.". According to Rob Bredl, "the Barefoot Bushman", in an isolated area of South Australia, his father, Joe Bredl, was bitten while catching an inland taipan and barely survived. A more recent victim was his friend John Robinson, bitten while cleaning an inland taipan's cage at his reptile display on the

Sunshine Coast, Queensland The Sunshine Coast is a peri-urbanisation, peri-urban region in South East Queensland, Australia. In 1967, it was defined as "the area contained in the ormerShires of Shire of Landsborough, Landsborough, Shire of Maroochy, Maroochy and Shire ...

. He weathered the bite without antivenom, but sustained considerable muscle damage, as well as heart damage. Rob Bredl website
The Taipans
(archived) barefootbushman.com. Retrieved 15 November 2013. Almost all positively identified inland taipan bite victims have been herpetologists handling the snakes for study or snake handlers, such as people who catch snakes to extract their venom, or keepers in wildlife parks. All were treated successfully with antivenom. No recorded incidents have been fatal since the advent of monovalent (specific) antivenom therapy, though weeks are needed to recover from such a severe bite.

Venom

The average quantity of venom delivered by this species is 44 mg, and the maximum dose recorded is 110 mg, compared to the

Indian cobra The Indian cobra (''Naja naja /na''dʒa nadʒa/), also known Common name, commonly as the spectacled cobra, Asian cobra, or binocellate cobra, is a species of Naja, cobra, a venomous snake in the Family (biology), family Elapidae. The species is ...

(''Naja naja'') 169 mg/max 610 mg, and the North American eastern diamondback rattlesnake ('' Crotalus adamanteus'') 410 mg/max 848 mg.The Australian venom research unit (25 August 2007)
"Which snakes are the most venomous?"
(Archived).

. Retrieved 14 October 2013. The

(LD₅₀), subcutaneous (the most applicable to actual bites) for mice is 0.025 mg/kg (0.01 mg/kg subcutaneous, in

bovine serum albumin Bovine serum albumin (BSA or "Fraction V") is a serum albumin protein derived from cows. It is often used as a protein concentration standard in lab experiments. The nickname "Fraction V" refers to albumin being the fifth fraction of the origin ...

). Compared to the beaked sea snake (''Enhydrina schistosa'') 0.164 mg/kg, Indian cobra 0.565 mg/kg, North American eastern diamondback rattlesnake 11.4 mg/kg, the inland taipan has a smaller venom yield than its cousin the coastal taipan yet its venom is almost four times as toxic.Martin, Stella (January 2004)
Newsletter No. 80

. Retrieved 18 October 2013. One bite's worth of venom is enough to kill 100 fully grown men.

Intravenous Intravenous therapy (abbreviated as IV therapy) is a medical technique that administers fluids, medications and nutrients directly into a person's vein. The intravenous route of administration is commonly used for rehydration or to provide nutr ...

intraperitoneal The peritoneum is the serous membrane forming the lining of the abdominal cavity or coelom in amniotes and some invertebrates, such as annelids. It covers most of the intra-abdominal (or coelomic) organs, and is composed of a layer of mesothe ...

, and

intramuscular Intramuscular injection, often abbreviated IM, is the injection of a substance into a muscle. In medicine, it is one of several methods for parenteral administration of medications. Intramuscular injection may be preferred because muscles hav ...

LD₅₀s for the inland taipan venom have not been tested.Fry, Bryan, Deputy Director, Australian Venom Research Unit, University of Melbourne (9 March 2002)
50 – list of the available data and sorted by route of injection "">"Snakes Venom LD₅₀ – list of the available data and sorted by route of injection "
venomdoc.com. (archived). Retrieved 14 October 2013. Belcher's sea snake (''Hydrophis belcheri''), which many times is mistakenly called the hook-nosed sea snake ('' Enhydrina schistosa''), has been erroneously popularized as the most venomous snake in the world, due to Ernst and Zug's published book ''Snakes in Question: The Smithsonian Answer Book'' from 1996. Bryan Grieg Fry, a prominent venom expert, has clarified the error: "The hook-nosed myth was due to a fundamental error in a book called ''Snakes in Question''. In there, all the toxicity testing results were lumped in together, regardless of the mode of testing (e.g. subcutaneous vs. intramuscular vs. intravenous vs. intraperitoneal). As the mode can influence the relative number, venoms can only be compared within a mode. Otherwise, it's apples and rocks." Belcher's sea snake's actual LD₅₀ (recorded only intramuscularly) is 0.24 mg/kg and 0.155 mg/kg, less lethal than other sea snakes such as the olive sea snake (''Aipysurus laevis'') 0.09 mg/kg and the most toxic intramuscularly, recorded of the sea snakes – the black-banded robust sea snake (''Hydrophis melanosoma'') 0.082 mg/kg. The black-banded robust sea snake has also been tested subcutaneously registering at 0.111 mg/kg, which is in line with the coastal taipan and thus more than four times ''less'' toxic than the inland taipan's venom. In the LD₅₀ subcutaneous test, it is actually Dubois' sea snake (''Aipysurus duboisii'') which has the most toxic venom of any of the sea snakes tested, registering at 0.044 mg/kg. This is still nearly half as lethal as the inland taipan's venom. The biological properties and toxicity of a baby inland taipan's venom are not significantly different from or weaker than those of an adult's. The inland taipan's venom consists of:Clinical Toxinology Resources
"''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'' -General Details, Taxonomy and Biology, Venom, Clinical Effects, Treatment, First Aid, Antivenoms"

. Retrieved 14 October 2013. *

Neurotoxin Neurotoxins are toxins that are destructive to nervous tissue, nerve tissue (causing neurotoxicity). Neurotoxins are an extensive class of exogenous chemical neurological insult (medical), insultsSpencer 2000 that can adversely affect function ...

Presynaptic In the nervous system, a synapse is a structure that allows a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another neuron or a target effector cell. Synapses can be classified as either chemical or electrical, depending o ...

neurotoxins; paradoxin (PDX), and

postsynaptic Chemical synapses are biological junctions through which neurons' signals can be sent to each other and to non-neuronal cells such as those in muscles or glands. Chemical synapses allow neurons to form circuits within the central nervous syste ...

neurotoxins; Oxylepitoxin-1, alpha-oxytoxin 1, alpha-scutoxin 1 – affecting the

nervous system In biology, the nervous system is the complex system, highly complex part of an animal that coordinates its behavior, actions and sense, sensory information by transmitting action potential, signals to and from different parts of its body. Th ...

. *

Hemotoxin Haemotoxins, hemotoxins or hematotoxins are toxins that destroy red blood cells, disrupt blood clotting, and/or cause organ degeneration and generalized tissue damage. The term ''haemotoxin'' is to some degree a misnomer since toxins that damag ...

s ( procoagulants) – affecting the blood *

Myotoxin Myotoxins are small, basic peptides found in snake venoms (e.g. rattlesnakes) and lizard venoms (e.g. Mexican beaded lizard). This involves a non-enzymatic mechanism that leads to severe muscle necrosis. These peptides act very quickly, causing i ...

s – affecting the muscles * Possibly

nephrotoxin Nephrotoxicity is toxicity in the kidneys. It is a poisonous effect of some chemical substance, substances, both toxic chemicals and pharmaceutical drug, medications, on kidney function. There are various forms, and some drugs may affect kidney fun ...

s – affecting the kidneys * Possibly haemorrhagins – affecting the blood vessels (

endothelium The endothelium (: endothelia) is a single layer of squamous endothelial cells that line the interior surface of blood vessels and lymphatic vessels. The endothelium forms an interface between circulating blood or lymph in the lumen and the r ...

) *

Hyaluronidase Hyaluronidases are a family of enzymes that catalyse the degradation of hyaluronic acid. Karl Meyer classified these enzymes in 1971, into three distinct groups, a scheme based on the enzyme reaction products. The three main types of hyaluroni ...

enzyme – increases the rate of absorption of venom Paradoxin (PDX) appears to be one of the most potent, if not ''the'' most potent, beta-neurotoxins yet discovered. Beta-neurotoxins keep nerve endings from liberating the neurotransmitter

acetylcholine Acetylcholine (ACh) is an organic compound that functions in the brain and body of many types of animals (including humans) as a neurotransmitter. Its name is derived from its chemical structure: it is an ester of acetic acid and choline. Par ...

. According to researcher Ronelle Welton of

, most of the contents in the venom have not been characterized and little

molecular A molecule is a group of two or more atoms that are held together by attractive forces known as chemical bonds; depending on context, the term may or may not include ions that satisfy this criterion. In quantum physics, organic chemistry, ...

research has been undertaken on taipan (''Oxyuranus'') species at large. As of 2005, the

amino acid Amino acids are organic compounds that contain both amino and carboxylic acid functional groups. Although over 500 amino acids exist in nature, by far the most important are the 22 α-amino acids incorporated into proteins. Only these 22 a ...

sequences of only seven

proteins Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, re ...

from inland taipan have been submitted to

SWISS-PROT UniProt is a freely accessible database of protein sequence and functional information, many entries being derived from genome sequencing projects. It contains a large amount of information about the biological function of proteins derived from ...

databases.

Clinical effects

The

mortality rate Mortality rate, or death rate, is a measure of the number of deaths (in general, or due to a specific cause) in a particular Statistical population, population, scaled to the size of that population, per unit of time. Mortality rate is typically ...

is high in untreated cases:Geoffrey K Isbister (2006). . Australian Prescriber. Retrieved 14 October 2013. * Dangerousness of bite: severe envenomation likely, high

potential * Rate of envenoming: >80% * Untreated lethality rate: >80% Clinically, envenomation may represent a complex scenario of multiple organ-system poisoning, with

neurotoxic Neurotoxicity is a form of toxicity in which a biological, chemical, or physical agent produces an adverse effect on the structure or function of the central and/or peripheral nervous system. It occurs when exposure to a substance – specifical ...

symptoms typically dominating.

Acute kidney injury Acute kidney injury (AKI), previously called acute renal failure (ARF), is a sudden decrease in renal function, kidney function that develops within seven days, as shown by an increase in serum creatinine or a decrease in urine output, or both. ...

rhabdomyolysis Rhabdomyolysis (shortened as rhabdo) is a condition in which damaged skeletal muscle breaks down rapidly. Symptoms may include muscle pains, weakness, vomiting, and confusion. There may be tea-colored urine or an irregular heartbeat. Some o ...

, and disseminated coagulopathy may also complicate the setting.Clinical Toxinology Resources
Snakebite Protocols – ''Oxyuranus microlepidotus''
.

. Retrieved 18 October 2013. The first local and general symptoms of a bite are local pain and variable nonspecific effects, which may include headache, nausea, vomiting,

abdominal pain Abdominal pain, also known as a stomach ache, is a symptom associated with both non-serious and serious medical issues. Since the abdomen contains most of the body's vital organs, it can be an indicator of a wide variety of diseases. Given th ...

, diarrhea, dizziness, collapse, or

convulsions A convulsion is a medical condition where the body muscles contract and relax rapidly and repeatedly, resulting in uncontrolled shaking. Because epileptic seizures typically include convulsions, the term ''convulsion'' is often used as a synony ...

leading to major organ effects -

neurotoxicity Neurotoxicity is a form of toxicity in which a biological, chemical, or physical agent produces an adverse effect on the structure or function of the central and/or peripheral nervous system. It occurs when exposure to a substance – specifical ...

, coagulopathy,

or kidney failure/damage, and finally death. Inland taipan snake venom contains potent presynaptic neurotoxins (toxins in venom that cause

paralysis Paralysis (: paralyses; also known as plegia) is a loss of Motor skill, motor function in one or more Skeletal muscle, muscles. Paralysis can also be accompanied by a loss of feeling (sensory loss) in the affected area if there is sensory d ...

or muscle weakness). Also present are postsynaptic neurotoxins, which are less potent, but more rapidly acting than the presynaptic neurotoxins.Clinical Toxinology Resources
Australian Taipan Snakes – Venom of Taipan snakes

. Retrieved 16 October 2013. Presynaptic neurotoxins disrupt

neurotransmitter A neurotransmitter is a signaling molecule secreted by a neuron to affect another cell across a Chemical synapse, synapse. The cell receiving the signal, or target cell, may be another neuron, but could also be a gland or muscle cell. Neurotra ...

release from the

axon terminal Axon terminals (also called terminal boutons, synaptic boutons, end-feet, or presynaptic terminals) are distal terminations of the branches of an axon. An axon, also called a nerve fiber, is a long, slender projection of a Neuron, nerve cell tha ...

. This takes days to resolve and does not respond to

. Postsynaptic neurotoxins competitively block

acetylcholine receptor An acetylcholine receptor (abbreviated AChR) or a cholinergic receptor is an integral membrane protein that responds to the binding of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter. Classification Like other transmembrane receptors, acetylcholine receptor ...

s, but the effect can be reversed by antivenom. Envenoming causes a progressive descending

flaccid paralysis Flaccid paralysis is a neurological condition characterized by weakness or paralysis and reduced muscle tone without other obvious cause (e.g., trauma). This abnormal condition may be caused by disease or by trauma affecting the nerves associ ...

; ptosis is usually the first sign, then facial (

) and

bulbar The medulla oblongata or simply medulla is a long stem-like structure which makes up the lower part of the brainstem. It is anterior and partially inferior to the cerebellum. It is a cone-shaped neuronal mass responsible for autonomic (involun ...

involvement occur, progressing to

dyspnea Shortness of breath (SOB), known as dyspnea (in AmE) or dyspnoea (in BrE), is an uncomfortable feeling of not being able to breathe well enough. The American Thoracic Society defines it as "a subjective experience of breathing discomfort that ...

and respiratory paralysis leading to

suffocation Asphyxia or asphyxiation is a condition of deficient supply of oxygen to the body which arises from abnormal breathing. Asphyxia causes generalized hypoxia, which affects all the tissues and organs, some more rapidly than others. There are m ...

and peripheral weakness. Because it can act so fast, it can kill a person within about 45 minutes. People experiencing effects of the venom within half an hour have been reported.Gardiner, Stephanie (27 September 2012)
"Mystery over boy bitten by world's most venomous snake"
(Quoting Julie Mendezona, Head keeper of Reptiles and Spiders, Australian Reptile Park)

The Sydney Morning Herald ''The Sydney Morning Herald'' (''SMH'') is a daily Tabloid (newspaper format), tabloid newspaper published in Sydney, Australia, and owned by Nine Entertainment. Founded in 1831 as the ''Sydney Herald'', the ''Herald'' is the oldest continuous ...

. Retrieved 14 October 2013.AFP (27 September 2012)
"Teenager bitten by inland taipan in Hunter Valley"
''

The Australian ''The Australian'', with its Saturday edition ''The Weekend Australian'', is a broadsheet daily newspaper published by News Corp Australia since 14 July 1964. As the only Australian daily newspaper distributed nationally, its readership of b ...

''. Retrieved 14 October 2013. The development of general or respiratory paralysis is of paramount concern in that these are often difficult to reverse once established, even with large amounts of antivenom. Prolonged

intubation Intubation (sometimes entubation) is a medical procedure involving the insertion of a tube into the body. Most commonly, intubation refers to tracheal intubation, a procedure during which an endotracheal tube is inserted into the trachea to supp ...

and ventilatory support (perhaps up to a week or longer) may be required. Early diagnosis of neurotoxic symptoms and prompt and adequate dosages of antivenom are critical to avoid these complications. The venom also contains a potent hemotoxin ( procoagulants), a

prothrombin Prothrombin (coagulation factor II) is encoded in the human by the F2-gene. It is proteolytically cleaved during the clotting process by the prothrombinase enzyme complex to form thrombin. Thrombin (Factor IIa) (, fibrose, thrombase, throm ...

activator that leads to the consumption of major

coagulation Coagulation, also known as clotting, is the process by which blood changes from a liquid to a gel, forming a thrombus, blood clot. It results in hemostasis, the cessation of blood loss from a damaged vessel, followed by repair. The process of co ...

factors, including

fibrinogen Fibrinogen (coagulation factor I) is a glycoprotein protein complex, complex, produced in the liver, that circulates in the blood of all vertebrates. During tissue and vascular injury, it is converted Enzyme, enzymatically by thrombin to fibrin ...

, leading to interference with

blood clotting Coagulation, also known as clotting, is the process by which blood changes from a liquid to a gel, forming a thrombus, blood clot. It results in hemostasis, the cessation of blood loss from a damaged vessel, followed by repair. The process of co ...

. This causes defibrination, with nonclottable blood, putting victims at risk of major bleeding from the bite site and can lead to more serious, sometimes fatal, internal

haemorrhaging Bleeding, hemorrhage, haemorrhage or blood loss, is blood escaping from the circulatory system from damaged blood vessels. Bleeding can occur internally, or externally either through a natural opening such as the mouth, nose, ear, urethra, va ...

, especially in the brain. Recovering from this takes many hours after venom neutralisation has been achieved with antivenom. Taipan snake procoagulants are among the most powerful snake venom procoagulants known, though mild coagulopathy has also been reported for inland taipan envenomation (Sutherland and Tibballs, 2001). No nephrotoxins (kidney toxins) have so far been isolated from inland taipan snake venoms, but renal (kidney) impairment or acute kidney failure can occur secondary to severe rhabdomyolysis. Taipan snake venom does contain myotoxins that cause myolysis (rhabdomyolysis, muscle damage); the urine of bite victims often turns reddish-brown as their muscles release myoglobin, which is passed through the kidneys ( myoglobinuria). The kidneys are often badly damaged by filtering so much tissue debris out of the blood, and kidney failure is a common complication in serious cases of significant envenoming.Shorter, Damon
Great Australian bites – Three of the worst

. Retrieved 16 October 2013. Causes of death: *

Paralysis Paralysis (: paralyses; also known as plegia) is a loss of Motor skill, motor function in one or more Skeletal muscle, muscles. Paralysis can also be accompanied by a loss of feeling (sensory loss) in the affected area if there is sensory d ...

– primary, e.g.,

respiratory failure Respiratory failure results from inadequate gas exchange by the respiratory system, meaning that the arterial oxygen, carbon dioxide, or both cannot be kept at normal levels. A drop in the oxygen carried in the blood is known as hypoxemia; a r ...

; secondary, e.g.,

pneumonia Pneumonia is an Inflammation, inflammatory condition of the lung primarily affecting the small air sacs known as Pulmonary alveolus, alveoli. Symptoms typically include some combination of Cough#Classification, productive or dry cough, ches ...

* Coagulopathy – primary, e.g., cerebral haemorrhage; secondary, e.g., kidney failure * Kidney failure – includes secondary complications such as

infections An infection is the invasion of tissue (biology), tissues by pathogens, their multiplication, and the reaction of host (biology), host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce. An infectious disease, also known as a transmis ...

Anaphylaxis Anaphylaxis (Greek: 'up' + 'guarding') is a serious, potentially fatal allergic reaction and medical emergency that is rapid in onset and requires immediate medical attention regardless of the use of emergency medication on site. It typicall ...

– acute

allergic reaction Allergies, also known as allergic diseases, are various conditions caused by hypersensitivity of the immune system to typically harmless substances in the environment. These diseases include Allergic rhinitis, hay fever, Food allergy, food al ...

to venom in a patient previously exposed to taipan snake venom (e.g., reptile keeper) * Cardiac complications – likely to be secondary

Antivenom

Until 1955, the only antivenom available for general distribution for Australian snakes was the monovalent (specific)

tiger snake The tiger snake (''Notechis scutatus'') is a large and highly venomous snake of southern Australia, including its coastal islands and Tasmania. These snakes are often observed and locally well known by their banding, black and yellow like a ti ...

(''Notechis'') antivenom, which gave varying degrees of cross-protection against the bites of most other dangerous Australian snakes. Thereafter followed specific antivenom for other common snakes, among them the coastal taipan, and finally, a polyvalent (broad-spectrum) antivenom for the bites of any unidentified snake from Australia. The coastal taipan antivenom, known as "taipan antivenom", Inland Taipan ''Oxyuranus microlepidotus''
. venomsupplies.com. Retrieved 18 October 2013. is effective against the inland taipan venom, as well, but it is not as effective in bite victims of the inland taipan as in those of the coastal taipan. Taipan antivenom is produced and manufactured by the Australian Reptile Park and the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories in

Melbourne Melbourne ( , ; Boonwurrung language, Boonwurrung/ or ) is the List of Australian capital cities, capital and List of cities in Australia by population, most populous city of the States and territories of Australia, Australian state of Victori ...

.Anti-Venom Program
Involvement with the Anti-Venom Program
. Reptile Gardens. Retrieved 18 October 2013.

References

External links

* *
International Programme on Chemical Safety, ''Oxyuranus microlepidotus'': Extended Review

James Cook University, Proteomic and genomic characterisation of venom proteins from ''Oxyuranus'' species (Extended Review)

Australian Reptile Park, Fierce Snake Fact File

Australia Zoo Fierce Snake Fact File
* ContentMint (Source
Absolutely Wild Visuals, stock footage library
) {{Taxonbar, from=Q72934 Oxyuranus Reptiles of Queensland Reptiles described in 1879 Reptiles of South Australia Snakes of Australia

Taxonomy

Distribution and habitat

Conservation status

In captivity

Private ownership law

Description

Seasonal adaptation

Breeding

Feeding

Natural threats

Interaction with humans

Snakebite victims

Venom

Clinical effects

Antivenom

References

Further reading

External links