Indonesian Cuisine
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Indonesian cuisine is a collection of various regional
culinary Culinary arts are the cuisine arts of food preparation, cooking, and presentation of food, usually in the form of meals. People working in this field – especially in establishments such as restaurants – are commonly called chefs or ...
traditions by various ethnic groups that formed in the archipelagic nation of
Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian Ocean, Indian and Pacific Ocean, Pacific oceans. Comprising over List of islands of Indonesia, 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, ...
. There are a wide variety of recipes and cuisines in part because Indonesia is composed of approximately 6,000 populated
islands This is a list of the lists of islands in the world grouped by country, by continent, by body of water, and by other classifications. For rank-order lists, see the #Other lists of islands, other lists of islands below. Lists of islands by count ...
of the total 17,508 in the world's largest
archipelago An archipelago ( ), sometimes called an island group or island chain, is a chain, cluster, or collection of islands. An archipelago may be in an ocean, a sea, or a smaller body of water. Example archipelagos include the Aegean Islands (the o ...
,"Indonesian Cuisine."Epicurina.com
. Accessed July 2011.
with more than 600 ethnic groups. There are many regional cuisines, often based upon indigenous culture with some foreign influences.


Tradition and characteristics

Indonesia has around 5,350 traditional recipes, with 30 of them considered the most important. Indonesia's cuisine may include
rice Rice is a cereal grain and in its Domestication, domesticated form is the staple food of over half of the world's population, particularly in Asia and Africa. Rice is the seed of the grass species ''Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice)—or, much l ...
,
noodle Noodles are a type of food made from unleavened dough which is either rolled flat and cut, stretched, or extruded, into long strips or strings. Noodles are a staple food in many cultures and made into a variety of shapes. The most common noo ...
and
soup Soup is a primarily liquid food, generally served warm or hot – though it is sometimes served chilled – made by cooking or otherwise combining meat or vegetables with Stock (food), stock, milk, or water. According to ''The Oxford Compan ...
dishes in modest local eateries to street-side
snack A snack is a small portion of Human food, food generally Eating, eaten between meals. Snacks come in a variety of forms including Food packaging, packaged snack foods and other processed foods, as well as items made from fresh ingredients at ho ...
s and top-dollar plates. Indonesian cuisine varies greatly by region and has many different influences."Indonesian food."Belindo.com
. Accessed July 2011.
Sumatra Sumatra () is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the list of islands by area, sixth-largest island in the world at 482,286.55 km2 (182,812 mi. ...
n cuisine, for example, often has
Middle Eastern The Middle East (term originally coined in English language) is a geopolitical region encompassing the Arabian Peninsula, the Levant, Turkey, Egypt, Iran, and Iraq. The term came into widespread usage by the United Kingdom and western Eur ...
and Indian influences, featuring curried meat and
vegetable Vegetables are edible parts of plants that are consumed by humans or other animals as food. This original meaning is still commonly used, and is applied to plants collectively to refer to all edible plant matter, including edible flower, flo ...
s such as '' gulai'' and
curry Curry is a dish with a sauce or gravy seasoned with spices, mainly derived from the interchange of Indian cuisine with European taste in food, starting with the Portuguese, followed by the Dutch and British, and then thoroughly internatio ...
, while
Javanese cuisine Javanese cuisine () is the cuisine of Javanese people, a major Native Indonesian, ethnic group in Indonesia in the provinces of Central Java, Yogyakarta, and East Java. Definition Javanese cuisine refers exclusively to the cuisine of Javan ...
is mostly indigenous, with some hint of Chinese influence. The cuisines of
Eastern Indonesia Eastern Indonesia (or East Indonesia) is one of the two main geographical regions of Indonesia, the other being Western Indonesia. It comprises four geographical units: Lesser Sunda Islands, Sulawesi, Maluku Islands and Papua. Central Indone ...
are similar to Polynesian and Melanesian cuisine. Elements of Chinese cuisine can be seen in Indonesian cuisine: foods such as
noodles Noodles are a type of food made from unleavened dough which is either rolled flat and cut, stretched, or extruded, into long strips or strings. Noodles are a staple food in many cultures and made into a variety of shapes. The most common noo ...
, meat balls, spring rolls, and wontons have been completely assimilated. Throughout its history, Indonesia has been involved in trade due to its location and natural resources. Additionally, Indonesia's indigenous techniques and ingredients were influenced by
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
, the
Middle East The Middle East (term originally coined in English language) is a geopolitical region encompassing the Arabian Peninsula, the Levant, Turkey, Egypt, Iran, and Iraq. The term came into widespread usage by the United Kingdom and western Eur ...
,
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
, and finally
Europe Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east ...
. Spanish and Portuguese traders brought
New World The term "New World" is used to describe the majority of lands of Earth's Western Hemisphere, particularly the Americas, and sometimes Oceania."America." ''The Oxford Companion to the English Language'' (). McArthur, Tom, ed., 1992. New York: ...
produce In American English, produce generally refers to wikt:fresh, fresh List of culinary fruits, fruits and Vegetable, vegetables intended to be Eating, eaten by humans, although other food products such as Dairy product, dairy products or Nut (foo ...
even before the Dutch came to colonise most of the
archipelago An archipelago ( ), sometimes called an island group or island chain, is a chain, cluster, or collection of islands. An archipelago may be in an ocean, a sea, or a smaller body of water. Example archipelagos include the Aegean Islands (the o ...
. The Indonesian islands the Moluccas (Maluku), which are famed as "the Spice Islands", also contributed to the introduction of native spices, such as cloves and
nutmeg Nutmeg is the seed, or the ground spice derived from the seed, of several tree species of the genus '' Myristica''; fragrant nutmeg or true nutmeg ('' M. fragrans'') is a dark-leaved evergreen tree cultivated for two spices derived from its fru ...
, to Indonesian and global cuisine. Indonesian cuisine often demonstrates complex flavour, acquired from certain ingredients and '' bumbu'' spices mixture. Indonesian dishes have rich flavours; most often described as savory, hot and
spicy Pungency ( ) is the taste of food commonly referred to as spiciness, hotness or heat, found in foods such as chili peppers. Highly pungent tastes may be experienced as unpleasant. The term piquancy ( ) is sometimes applied to foods with a lower ...
, and also combination of basic
taste The gustatory system or sense of taste is the sensory system that is partially responsible for the perception of taste. Taste is the perception stimulated when a substance in the mouth biochemistry, reacts chemically with taste receptor cells l ...
s such as
sweet Sweetness is a basic taste most commonly perceived when eating foods rich in sugars. Sweet tastes are generally regarded as pleasurable. In addition to sugars like sucrose, many other chemical compounds are sweet, including aldehydes, ketones, ...
, salty,
sour The gustatory system or sense of taste is the sensory system that is partially responsible for the perception of taste. Taste is the perception stimulated when a substance in the mouth biochemistry, reacts chemically with taste receptor cells l ...
and bitter. Most Indonesians favour hot and spicy food, thus '' sambal'', Indonesian hot and spicy
chili sauce Chili sauce and chili paste are condiments prepared with chili peppers. Chili sauce may be hot, sweet or a combination thereof, and may differ from hot sauce in that many sweet or mild varieties exist, which is typically lacking in hot sauce ...
with various optional ingredients, notably shrimp paste,
shallot The shallot is a cultivar group of the onion. Until 2010, the (French red) shallot was classified as a separate species, ''Allium ascalonicum''. The taxon was synonymized with '' Allium cepa'' (the common onion) in 2010, as the difference was t ...
s, and others, is a staple condiment at all Indonesian tables. Seven main Indonesian
cooking Cooking, also known as cookery or professionally as the culinary arts, is the art, science and craft of using heat to make food more palatable, digestible, nutritious, or Food safety, safe. Cooking techniques and ingredients vary widely, from ...
methods are
frying Frying is the cooking of food in cooking oil, oil or another fat. Similar to sautéing, pan-fried foods are generally turned over once or twice during cooking to make sure that the food is evenly cooked, using tongs or a spatula, whilst sautéed ...
,
grilling Grilling is a form of cooking that involves heat applied to the surface of food, commonly from above, below or from the side. Grilling usually involves a significant amount of direct, radiant heat, and tends to be used for cooking meat and v ...
,
roasting Roasting is a cooking method that uses dry heat where hot air covers the food, cooking it evenly on all sides with temperatures of at least from an open flame, oven, or other heat source. Roasting can enhance the flavor through caramelizat ...
, dry roasting,
sautéing Sautéing or sauteing (, ; , , 'jumped', 'bounced', in reference to tossing while cooking) is a method of cooking that uses a relatively small amount of oil or fat in a shallow pan over relatively high heat. Various sauté methods exist. Descr ...
,
boiling Boiling or ebullition is the rapid phase transition from liquid to gas or vapor, vapour; the reverse of boiling is condensation. Boiling occurs when a liquid is heated to its boiling point, so that the vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to ...
and
steaming Steaming is a method of cooking using steam. This is often done with a food steamer, a kitchen appliance made specifically to cook food with steam, but food can also be steamed in a wok. In the American Southwest, steam pits used for cooking ha ...
. Some popular Indonesian dishes such as ''
nasi goreng ''Nasi goreng'' (English pronunciation: ), (Indonesian language, Indonesian and Malay language, Malay for 'fried rice') is a Southeast Asian rice dish with pieces of meat and vegetables added. It can refer simply to fried pre-cooked rice, a me ...
'', '' gado-gado'',
satay Satay ( , in the US also ), or sate in Indonesia, is a Javanese cuisine, Javanese dish of seasoned, skewered and grilled meat, served with a sauce. Satay originated in Java, but has spread throughout Indonesia, into Southeast Asia, Europe, ...
, and '' soto'' are ubiquitous in the country and are considered national dishes. The official
national dish A national dish is a culinary Dish (food), dish that is strongly associated with a particular country. A dish can be considered a national dish for a variety of reasons: * It is a staple food, made from a selection of locally available foodstuffs ...
of Indonesia is ''
tumpeng Tumpeng (Javanese script, Javanese: ; Balinese script, Balinese: ) is an Indonesian cuisine, Indonesian cone-shaped rice dish with side dishes of vegetables and meat originating from Javanese cuisine. Traditionally featured in the ''slametan'' ...
'', chosen in 2014 by Indonesian Ministry of Tourism and Creative Economy as the dish that binds the diversity of Indonesia's various culinary traditions. Later in 2018, the same ministry has chosen 5 national dish of Indonesia; they are ''soto, rendang, satay, nasi goreng'', and ''gado-gado''. Today, some popular dishes that originated in Indonesia are now common to neighbouring countries, Malaysia and Singapore. Indonesian dishes such as
satay Satay ( , in the US also ), or sate in Indonesia, is a Javanese cuisine, Javanese dish of seasoned, skewered and grilled meat, served with a sauce. Satay originated in Java, but has spread throughout Indonesia, into Southeast Asia, Europe, ...
, beef '' rendang'', and '' sambal'' are favoured in
Malaysia Malaysia is a country in Southeast Asia. Featuring the Tanjung Piai, southernmost point of continental Eurasia, it is a federation, federal constitutional monarchy consisting of States and federal territories of Malaysia, 13 states and thre ...
and
Singapore Singapore, officially the Republic of Singapore, is an island country and city-state in Southeast Asia. The country's territory comprises one main island, 63 satellite islands and islets, and one outlying islet. It is about one degree ...
. Soy-based dishes, such as variations of
tofu or bean curd is a food prepared by Coagulation (milk), coagulating soy milk and then pressing the resulting curds into solid white blocks of varying softness: ''silken'', ''soft'', ''firm'', and ''extra (or super) firm''. It originated in Chin ...
and
tempeh Tempe or tempeh (; , ) is a traditional Indonesian food made from fermented soybeans. It is made by a natural culturing and controlled fermentation process that binds soybeans into a cake form. A fungus, '' Rhizopus oligosporus'' or '' Rhizopu ...
, are also very popular. Tempeh is regarded as a Javanese invention, a local adaptation of soy-based food fermentation and production. Another fermented food is ''
oncom Oncom ( IPA: ) is a fermented food which is one of the traditional staples of the Sundanese cuisine of Indonesia. There are two kinds of oncom: red oncom and black oncom. The food is closely related to tempeh; both are fermented using mold. U ...
'', similar in some ways to tempeh but using a variety of bases (not only soy), created by different fungi, and particularly popular in
West Java West Java (, ) is an Indonesian Provinces of Indonesia, province on the western part of the island of Java, with its provincial capital in Bandung. West Java is bordered by the province of Banten and the country's capital region of Jakarta to t ...
.


History

Indonesian cuisine has a long history—although most of it is not well-documented, and relied heavily on local practice and oral traditions. A rare instance is demonstrated by
Javanese cuisine Javanese cuisine () is the cuisine of Javanese people, a major Native Indonesian, ethnic group in Indonesia in the provinces of Central Java, Yogyakarta, and East Java. Definition Javanese cuisine refers exclusively to the cuisine of Javan ...
that somewhat has quite a well-documented culinary tradition. The diversity ranges from ancient ''bakar batu'' or stone-grilled yams and boar practiced by Papuan tribes of eastern Indonesia, to sophisticated contemporary Indonesian fusion cuisine. The ethnic diversity of Indonesian archipelago provides an eclectic combination — mixing local Javanese, Sundanese, Balinese, Minang, Malay and other native cuisine traditions, with centuries worth of foreign contacts with Indian traders, Chinese migrants and Dutch colonials. Rice has been an essential staple for Indonesian society, as bas-reliefs of 9th century
Borobudur Borobudur, also transcribed Barabudur (, ), is a 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple in Magelang Regency, near the city of Magelang and the town of Muntilan, in Central Java, Indonesia. Constructed of gray andesite-like stone, the temple consi ...
and
Prambanan Prambanan (, , Javanese script, Hanacaraka: ꦫꦫꦗꦺꦴꦁꦒꦿꦁ) is a 9th-century Hindu temple, Hindu Candi of Indonesia, temple compound in the Special Region of Yogyakarta, in southern Java, Indonesia, dedicated to the Trimurti, Trimūr ...
describes rice farming in ancient Java. Ancient dishes were mentioned in many Javanese inscriptions and historians have succeeded in deciphering some of them. The inscriptions from Kingdom of Mataram era circa 8th to 10th century mentioned several ancient dishes, among others are ''hadaŋan haraŋ'' (minced water buffalo meat satay, similar with today Balinese ''sate lilit''), ''hadaŋan madura'' (water buffalo meat simmered with sweet palm sugar), and ''dundu puyengan'' (eel seasoned with lemon basil). Also various ''haraŋ-haraŋ'' (grilled meats) either ''celeṅ/wök'' (pork), ''hadahan/kbo'' (water buffalo), ''kidaŋ/knas'' (deer) or ''wḍus'' (goat). Ancient beverages include ''nalaka rasa'' (
sugarcane juice Sugarcane juice is the liquid extracted from pressed sugarcane. It is consumed as a beverage in many places, especially where sugarcane is commercially grown, such as Southeast Asia, the Indian subcontinent, North Africa, mainly Egypt, and also ...
), ''jati wangi'' (jasmine beverage), and ''kinca'' (tamarind juice). Also various '' kuluban'' (boiled vegetables served in spices, similar with today '' urap'') and ''phalamula'' (boiled yams and tubers served with liquid palm sugar). Other ancient vegetable dishes include ''rumwah-rumwah'' ('' lalap''), ''dudutan'' (raw vegetables) and ''tetis''. The 9th century Old Javanese Kakawin Ramayana mentioned cooking technique as Trijata offered
Sita Sita (; ), also known as Siya, Jānaki and Maithili, is a Hindu goddess and the female protagonist of the Hindu epic ''Ramayana''. Sita is the consort of Rama, the avatar of god Vishnu, and is regarded as an avatar of goddess Lakshmi. She is t ...
some food (canto 17.101); scrumptious food of ''landuga tatla-tila'' (cooked with oil) and ''modakanda sagula'' (
sugar Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. Simple sugars, also called monosaccharides, include glucose Glucose is a sugar with the Chemical formula#Molecular formula, molecul ...
ed delicacies). Several foods were mentioned in several Javanese inscriptions dated from the 10th to 15th centuries. Some of this dishes are identified with present-day Javanese foods. Among others are '' pecel'', '' pindang'', ''rarawwan'' ( rawon), ''rurujak'' ( rujak), ''kurupuk'' (
krupuk ' (Javanese language, Javanese) is an Indonesian cuisine, Indonesian deep frying, deep-fried Cracker (food), cracker made from starch and other ingredients that serve as flavouring. They are a popular snack in parts of Southeast Asia, but are ...
), sweets like ''wajik'' and ''dodol'', also beverages like ''dawet''. In the 15th century Sundanese manuscript
Sanghyang Siksa Kandang Karesian ''Sanghyang Siksa Kandang Karesian'' is a didactic text, providing the reader with religious and moralistic rules, prescriptions and lessons. The title means something like “the book of rules with guidance to be a '' resi'' (wise or holy man)”. ...
, it was mentioned the common Sundanese food flavours of that times which includes; ''lawana'' (salty), ''kaduka'' (hot and spicy), ''tritka'' (bitter), ''amba'' (sour), ''kasaya'' (savoury), and ''madura'' (sweet). By the 13th to 15th century, coastal Indonesian polities began to absorb culinary influences from
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
and the Middle East, as evidence with the adoption of
curry Curry is a dish with a sauce or gravy seasoned with spices, mainly derived from the interchange of Indian cuisine with European taste in food, starting with the Portuguese, followed by the Dutch and British, and then thoroughly internatio ...
-like recipes in the region. This was especially affirmative in the coastal towns of
Aceh Aceh ( , ; , Jawi script, Jawoë: ; Van Ophuijsen Spelling System, Old Spelling: ''Atjeh'') is the westernmost Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia. It is located on the northern end of Sumatra island, with Banda Aceh being its capit ...
, Minangkabau lands of West Sumatra, and Malay ports of Sumatra and Malay peninsula. Subsequently, those culinary traditions displayed typical Indian culinary influences, such as ''kare'' (curry), ''roti cane'' and '' gulai''. This also went hand in hand with the adoption of Islamic faith, thus encouraged ''
halal ''Halal'' (; ) is an Arabic word that translates to in English. Although the term ''halal'' is often associated with Islamic dietary laws, particularly meat that is slaughtered according to Islamic guidelines, it also governs ethical practices ...
'' Muslim dietary law that omits pork. On the other hand, the indigenous inhabitant that resides inland—such as the Bataks and Dayaks, retains their older Austronesian culinary traditions, which incorporate
bushmeat Bushmeat is meat from wildlife species that are Hunting, hunted for human consumption. Bushmeat represents a primary source of animal protein and a cash-earning commodity in poor and rural communities of humid tropical forest regions of the worl ...
, pork and
blood Blood is a body fluid in the circulatory system of humans and other vertebrates that delivers necessary substances such as nutrients and oxygen to the cells, and transports metabolic waste products away from those same cells. Blood is com ...
in their daily diet. According to the 17th century account of Rijklof van Goens, the ambassador of the VOC for Sultan Agung's Javanese Mataram court, the techniques of meat processing (sheep, goats, and buffalo) during celebration in Java, was by grilling and frying the seasoned meat. Unlike European, the Javanese primarily use coconut oil instead of butter. Chinese immigrants has settled in Indonesian archipelago as early as
Majapahit Majapahit (; (eastern and central dialect) or (western dialect)), also known as Wilwatikta (; ), was a Javanese people, Javanese Hinduism, Hindu-Buddhism, Buddhist thalassocracy, thalassocratic empire in Southeast Asia based on the island o ...
period circa 15th century CE, and accelerated during Dutch colonial period. The Chinese settlers introduced stir-frying technique that required the use of Chinese wok and small amount of cooking oil. They also introduced some new Chinese cuisine—including soy sauce, noodles and soybean processing technique to make tofu. Subsequently, soybean processing led to the possibly accidental discovery of ''
tempeh Tempe or tempeh (; , ) is a traditional Indonesian food made from fermented soybeans. It is made by a natural culturing and controlled fermentation process that binds soybeans into a cake form. A fungus, '' Rhizopus oligosporus'' or '' Rhizopu ...
'' (fermented soybean cake). The earliest known reference to tempeh appeared in 1815 in the Javanese manuscript of
Serat Centhini ''Serat Centhini'' is a twelve-volume compilation of Javanese tales and teachings, written in verse and published in 1814. The work was commissioned, directed, and partially written by Crown Prince Mangkunegoro, later enthroned as Pakubuwono V o ...
. The vigor of
spice trade The spice trade involved historical civilizations in Asia, Northeast Africa and Europe. Spices, such as cinnamon, cassia, cardamom, ginger, pepper, nutmeg, star anise, clove, and turmeric, were known and used in antiquity and traded in t ...
during the
Age of Discovery The Age of Discovery (), also known as the Age of Exploration, was part of the early modern period and overlapped with the Age of Sail. It was a period from approximately the 15th to the 17th century, during which Seamanship, seafarers fro ...
has brought European traders to Indonesian shores. Subsequently, European colonialism was established in the 19th century
Dutch East Indies The Dutch East Indies, also known as the Netherlands East Indies (; ), was a Dutch Empire, Dutch colony with territory mostly comprising the modern state of Indonesia, which Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, declared independence on 17 Au ...
. The influences of European cuisine—most notably the Portuguese and Dutch, has introduced European techniques, especially in bread-making, pastries, cookies and cake-baking. Indonesian culinary tradition has been exposed to various influences. Regarding the method of food processing techniques, each region has developed a specificity that ultimately leads to localization of regional taste.


Customs, serving and consumption

Indonesian traditional meals usually consists of steamed rice as staple, surrounded by vegetables and soup and meat or fish side dishes. In a typical family meal, the family members gather around the table filled with steamed rice and several other dishes. Each dish is placed in a separate communal large plate or in bowls. Each of these dishes has its own serving spoons, used only to take parts of the dishes from the communal plate into one's own personal plate. Each of the family members has their own personal plate that is first filled with steamed rice. Usually the oldest family member or the husband has the right to initiate the meal, followed by the rest of the family to help themselves with the dishes. Each of them take some portion of dishes from the communal plates into their own individual plates. On their personal plate, the steamed rice will soon be surrounded by two, three or more dishes; vegetables and fish or meat, and maybe some fried dishes, '' sambal'' and ''
krupuk ' (Javanese language, Javanese) is an Indonesian cuisine, Indonesian deep frying, deep-fried Cracker (food), cracker made from starch and other ingredients that serve as flavouring. They are a popular snack in parts of Southeast Asia, but are ...
''. In Indonesian customs — unlike in Japanese counterpart — it is quite acceptable to be seen to mix the different flavoured dishes in a single personal plate during consumption. A practice commonly found in ''
nasi campur Nasi campur (Indonesian language, Indonesian and Malay language, Malay for 'mixed rice'; ), also known as nasi rames () or sego campur (; ) in Java, refers to an Indonesian cuisine, Indonesian and Malay cuisine, Malay dish of a scoop of ''nasi p ...
'', '' nasi Padang'', or during a buffet. The soupy dish might be served in a separate small personal bowl. Today in contemporary Indonesian restaurants, the set menu is often offered. This has led to the personal serving practice, in a similar fashion to those of
Japanese cuisine Japanese cuisine encompasses the regional and traditional foods of Japan, which have developed through centuries of political, economic, and social changes. The traditional cuisine of Japan (Japanese language, Japanese: ) is based on rice with m ...
, with a personal plate on a tray, a rattan or bamboo container each with a separate small portion of dishes surrounding the rice. This can be found in the presentation of nasi Bali. Indonesian meals are commonly eaten with the combination of a
spoon A spoon (, ) is a utensil consisting of a shallow bowl (also known as a head), oval or round, at the end of a handle. A type of cutlery (sometimes called flatware in the United States), especially as part of a table setting, place setting, it ...
in the right hand and fork in the left hand (to push the food onto the spoon). Unlike the European dining custom, knives are absent from the dining table, thus most of the ingredients such as vegetables and meat are already cut into bite-size pieces prior to cooking. Although, in many parts of the country, such as
West Java West Java (, ) is an Indonesian Provinces of Indonesia, province on the western part of the island of Java, with its provincial capital in Bandung. West Java is bordered by the province of Banten and the country's capital region of Jakarta to t ...
, Gorontalo and
West Sumatra West Sumatra () is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia. It is on the west coast of the island of Sumatra and includes the Mentawai Islands off that coast. West Sumatra borders the Indian Ocean to the west, as well as the provinces of ...
, it is also common to eat with one's bare hands. In restaurants or households that commonly use bare hands to eat, such as seafood food stalls, traditional Sundanese and Minangkabau restaurants, or East Javanese '' pecel lele'' (fried
catfish Catfish (or catfishes; order (biology), order Siluriformes or Nematognathi) are a diverse group of ray-finned fish. Catfish are common name, named for their prominent barbel (anatomy), barbels, which resemble a cat's whiskers, though not ...
with '' sambal'') and '' ayam goreng'' (fried chicken) food stalls, ''kobokan'' is usually served along with the food. ''Kobokan'' is a bowl of tap water with a slice of lime in it to give a fresh scent, this bowl of water is not intended for consumption, rather it is used to wash one's hand before and after eating. Eating with chopsticks is generally only found in food stalls or restaurants serving Indonesian adaptations of Chinese cuisine, such as ''bakmie'' or ''mie ayam'' (chicken noodle) with ''pangsit'' (wonton), ''mie goreng'' (fried noodles), and '' kwetiau goreng'' (fried flat rice noodles).


Staples


Rice

Rice is a staple for all classes in contemporary
Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian Ocean, Indian and Pacific Ocean, Pacific oceans. Comprising over List of islands of Indonesia, 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, ...
, and it holds the central place in Indonesian culture: it shapes the landscape; is sold at markets; and is served in most meals both as a savoury and a sweet food. The importance of rice in Indonesian culture is demonstrated through the reverence of Dewi Sri, the rice goddess of ancient
Java Java is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea (a part of Pacific Ocean) to the north. With a population of 156.9 million people (including Madura) in mid 2024, proje ...
and
Bali Bali (English:; Balinese language, Balinese: ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia and the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. East of Java and west of Lombok, the province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller o ...
. Traditionally the agricultural cycles linked to rice cultivations were celebrated through rituals, such as '' Seren Taun'' rice harvest festival. Rice is most often eaten as plain rice with just a few protein and vegetable dishes as side dishes. It is also served as '' nasi uduk'' (rice cooked in
coconut milk Coconut milk is a plant milk extracted from the grated pulp of mature coconuts. The opacity and rich taste of the milky-white liquid are due to its high oil content, most of which is saturated fat. Coconut milk is a traditional food ingred ...
), '' nasi kuning'' (rice cooked with coconut milk and
turmeric Turmeric (), or ''Curcuma longa'' (), is a flowering plant in the ginger family Zingiberaceae. It is a perennial, rhizomatous, herbaceous plant native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia that requires temperatures between and high ...
), '' ketupat'' (rice steamed in woven packets of coconut fronds), ''
lontong ''Lontong'' () is an Indonesian cuisine, Indonesian dish made of compressed rice cake in the form of a Cylinder (geometry), cylinder wrapped inside a banana leaf, commonly found in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore. Rice is rolled inside a bana ...
'' (rice steamed in
banana A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large treelike herbaceous flowering plants in the genus '' Musa''. In some countries, cooking bananas are called plantains, distinguishing the ...
leaves), ''intip'' or '' rengginang'' (rice crackers), desserts, ''
vermicelli Vermicelli (, ; , literally "little worms"), is a traditional type of pasta round in section similar to spaghetti. In Anglosphere, English-speaking regions it is usually thinner than spaghetti, while in Italy it is thicker. It is typically made ...
'', ''
noodles Noodles are a type of food made from unleavened dough which is either rolled flat and cut, stretched, or extruded, into long strips or strings. Noodles are a staple food in many cultures and made into a variety of shapes. The most common noo ...
'', ''arak beras'' (rice wine), and ''
nasi goreng ''Nasi goreng'' (English pronunciation: ), (Indonesian language, Indonesian and Malay language, Malay for 'fried rice') is a Southeast Asian rice dish with pieces of meat and vegetables added. It can refer simply to fried pre-cooked rice, a me ...
'' ( fried rice). ''Nasi goreng'' is omnipresent in Indonesia and considered a
national dish A national dish is a culinary Dish (food), dish that is strongly associated with a particular country. A dish can be considered a national dish for a variety of reasons: * It is a staple food, made from a selection of locally available foodstuffs ...
. Rice was only incorporated into diets as either the technology to grow it, or the ability to buy it from elsewhere, was gained. Evidence of wild rice on the island of
Sulawesi Sulawesi ( ), also known as Celebes ( ), is an island in Indonesia. One of the four Greater Sunda Islands, and the List of islands by area, world's 11th-largest island, it is situated east of Borneo, west of the Maluku Islands, and south of Min ...
dates from 3000 BCE. Evidence for the earliest cultivation come from the eighth century stone inscriptions from the central island of
Java Java is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea (a part of Pacific Ocean) to the north. With a population of 156.9 million people (including Madura) in mid 2024, proje ...
, which shows that kings levied taxes in rice. The images of rice cultivation, rice barns, and pest
mice A mouse (: mice) is a small rodent. Characteristically, mice are known to have a pointed snout, small rounded ears, a body-length scaly tail, and a high breeding rate. The best known mouse species is the common house mouse (''Mus musculus' ...
infesting a ricefield is evident in Karmawibhanga bas-reliefs of
Borobudur Borobudur, also transcribed Barabudur (, ), is a 9th-century Mahayana Buddhist temple in Magelang Regency, near the city of Magelang and the town of Muntilan, in Central Java, Indonesia. Constructed of gray andesite-like stone, the temple consi ...
. Divisions of labour between men, women, and animals that are still in place in Indonesian rice cultivation, were carved into relief friezes on the ninth century Prambanan temples in
Central Java Central Java (, ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia, located in the middle of the island of Java. Its administrative capital is Semarang. It is bordered by West Java in the west, the Indian Ocean and the Special Region of Yogya ...
: a
water buffalo The water buffalo (''Bubalus bubalis''), also called domestic water buffalo, Asian water buffalo and Asiatic water buffalo, is a large bovid originating in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Today, it is also kept in Italy, the Balkans ...
attached to a plough; women planting seedlings and pounding grain; and a man carrying sheaves of rice on each end of a pole across his shoulders (''pikulan''). In the sixteenth century, Europeans visiting the Indonesian islands saw rice as a new prestige food served to the aristocracy during ceremonies and feasts. Rice production in Indonesian history is linked to the development of
iron Iron is a chemical element; it has symbol Fe () and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earth's o ...
tools and the domestication of
wild Asian water buffalo The wild water buffalo (''Bubalus arnee''), also called Asian buffalo, Asiatic buffalo and wild buffalo, is a large bovine native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. It has been listed as ''Endangered'' in the IUCN Red List since 19 ...
as
water buffalo The water buffalo (''Bubalus bubalis''), also called domestic water buffalo, Asian water buffalo and Asiatic water buffalo, is a large bovid originating in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Today, it is also kept in Italy, the Balkans ...
for cultivation of fields and
manure Manure is organic matter that is used as organic fertilizer in agriculture. Most manure consists of animal feces; other sources include compost and green manure. Manures contribute to the fertility of soil by adding organic matter and nut ...
for fertiliser. Rice production requires exposure to the sun. Once covered in dense forest, much of the Indonesian landscape has been gradually cleared for permanent fields and settlements as rice cultivation developed over the last fifteen hundred years.


Wheat

Wheat Wheat is a group of wild and crop domestication, domesticated Poaceae, grasses of the genus ''Triticum'' (). They are Agriculture, cultivated for their cereal grains, which are staple foods around the world. Well-known Taxonomy of wheat, whe ...
is not a native plant to Indonesia. Through imports and foreign influences — most notably Chinese and Dutch — Indonesians began to develop a taste for wheat-based foodstuff, especially Chinese
noodle Noodles are a type of food made from unleavened dough which is either rolled flat and cut, stretched, or extruded, into long strips or strings. Noodles are a staple food in many cultures and made into a variety of shapes. The most common noo ...
s, Indian
roti Roti is a round flatbread originating from the Indian subcontinent. It is commonly consumed in many South Asian, Southeast Asian, Caribbean, East African, and Southeast African countries. It is made from stoneground whole-wheat flour, kno ...
, and Dutch
bread Bread is a baked food product made from water, flour, and often yeast. It is a staple food across the world, particularly in Europe and the Middle East. Throughout recorded history and around the world, it has been an important part of many cu ...
. Other than common steamed rice, the Chinese in Indonesia also considered noodles, bakpao and '' cakwe'' as staples. Yet in Indonesia, especially in Java and Sumatra, the rice culture was so prevalent that sometimes these wheat-based dishes, such as noodles are treated as side dishes and are consumed with rice, while others such as Chinese buns and ''cakwe'' are treated as snacks. The European, especially the Portuguese and the Dutch, introduced bread and various type of bakery and pastry. These European staples have now become alternatives for a quick breakfast. The Indonesian wheat consumption reached a new height after the advent of Indonesian
instant noodle Instant noodles, or instant ramen, is a type of food consisting of noodles sold in a precooked and dried block with flavoring powder and/or seasoning oil. The dried noodle block was originally created by Deep frying, flash-frying cooked noodles, ...
industry back in the 1970s. Since then Indonesia has become one of the world's major producers and consumers of instant noodles. Indonesia is the world's second largest instant noodle market only after China, with demand reaching 12.54 billion servings in 2018, Today, instant noodles have become a staple in Indonesian households for quick hot meals. Certain brands such as Indomie have become household names.


Other staples

Other staple foods in Indonesia include a number of starchy
tuber Tubers are a type of enlarged structure that plants use as storage organs for nutrients, derived from stems or roots. Tubers help plants perennate (survive winter or dry months), provide energy and nutrients, and are a means of asexual reproduc ...
s such as yam,
sweet potato The sweet potato or sweetpotato (''Ipomoea batatas'') is a dicotyledonous plant in the morning glory family, Convolvulaceae. Its sizeable, starchy, sweet-tasting tuberous roots are used as a root vegetable, which is a staple food in parts of ...
,
potato The potato () is a starchy tuberous vegetable native to the Americas that is consumed as a staple food in many parts of the world. Potatoes are underground stem tubers of the plant ''Solanum tuberosum'', a perennial in the nightshade famil ...
,
taro Taro (; ''Colocasia esculenta'') is a root vegetable. It is the most widely cultivated species of several plants in the family Araceae that are used as vegetables for their corms, leaves, stems and Petiole (botany), petioles. Taro corms are a ...
and
cassava ''Manihot esculenta'', common name, commonly called cassava, manioc, or yuca (among numerous regional names), is a woody shrub of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, native to South America, from Brazil, Paraguay and parts of the Andes. Although ...
. Starchy fruit such as
breadfruit Breadfruit (''Artocarpus altilis'') is a species of flowering tree in the mulberry and jackfruit family ( Moraceae) believed to have been selectively bred in Polynesia from the breadnut ('' Artocarpus camansi''). Breadfruit was spread into ...
and
jackfruit The jackfruit or ''nangka'' (''Artocarpus heterophyllus'') is a species of tree in the Common fig, fig, mulberry, and breadfruit family (Moraceae). The jackfruit is the largest tree fruit, reaching as much as in weight, in length, and in d ...
and grains such as
maize Maize (; ''Zea mays''), also known as corn in North American English, is a tall stout grass that produces cereal grain. It was domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago from wild teosinte. Native American ...
are eaten. A
sago Sago () is a starch extracted from the pith, or spongy core tissue, of various tropical palm stems, especially those of ''Metroxylon sagu''. It is a major staple food for the lowland peoples of New Guinea and the Maluku Islands, where it is c ...
congee Congee ( , derived from Tamil language, Tamil ), is a form of savoury rice porridge made by boiling rice in a large amount of water until the rice softens. Depending on rice–water ratio, the thickness of congee varies from a Western oatmeal ...
called '' papeda'' is a staple food especially in Maluku and Papua. Sago is often mixed with water and cooked as a simple pancake. Next to sago, people of eastern Indonesia consume wild tubers as staple food. Many types of tubers such as ''talas'' (a type of taro but larger and more bland) and breadfruit are native to Indonesia, while others were introduced from elsewhere. Yam was introduced from Africa; while potato, sweet potato, cassava and maize were introduced from the Americas through Spanish influence and reached Java in the 17th century. Cassava is usually boiled, steamed, fried or processed as a popular snack ''kripik singkong'' (cassava crackers). Dried cassava, locally known as ''tiwul'', is an alternate staple food in arid areas of Java such as Gunung Kidul and Wonogiri, while other roots and tubers are eaten especially in hard times. Maize is eaten in drier regions such as
Madura is an list of islands of Indonesia, Indonesian island off the northeastern coast of Java. The island comprises an area of approximately (administratively including various smaller islands to the east, southeast and north that are administratively ...
and islands east of the
Wallace Line The Wallace Line or Wallace's Line is a faunal boundary line drawn in 1859 by the British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace and named by the English biologist Thomas Henry Huxley. It separates the biogeographic realms of Asia and 'Wallacea', a ...
, such as the Lesser Sunda Islands.


Vegetables

A number of leaf vegetables are widely used in Indonesian cuisine, such as ''kangkung'',
spinach Spinach (''Spinacia oleracea'') is a leafy green flowering plant native to Central Asia, Central and Western Asia. It is of the order Caryophyllales, family Amaranthaceae, subfamily Chenopodioideae. Its leaves are a common vegetable consumed eit ...
, '' genjer'', '' melinjo'',
papaya The papaya (, ), papaw, () or pawpaw () is the plant species ''Carica papaya'', one of the 21 accepted species in the genus '' Carica'' of the family Caricaceae, and also the name of its fruit. It was first domesticated in Mesoamerica, within ...
and
cassava ''Manihot esculenta'', common name, commonly called cassava, manioc, or yuca (among numerous regional names), is a woody shrub of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, native to South America, from Brazil, Paraguay and parts of the Andes. Although ...
leaves. These are often sauteed with
garlic Garlic (''Allium sativum'') is a species of bulbous flowering plants in the genus '' Allium''. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chives, Welsh onion, and Chinese onion. Garlic is native to central and south Asia, str ...
. Spinach and corn are used simple clear watery vegetable soup like ''sayur bayam bening'' flavoured with ''temu kunci'', garlic and
shallot The shallot is a cultivar group of the onion. Until 2010, the (French red) shallot was classified as a separate species, ''Allium ascalonicum''. The taxon was synonymized with '' Allium cepa'' (the common onion) in 2010, as the difference was t ...
. Clear vegetable soup includes '' sayur oyong''. Other vegetables, like calabash, chayote, '' kelor'', yardlong bean,
eggplant Eggplant (American English, US, Canadian English, CA, Australian English, AU, Philippine English, PH), aubergine (British English, UK, Hiberno English, IE, New Zealand English, NZ), brinjal (Indian English, IN, Singapore English, SG, Malays ...
, '' gambas'' and '' belustru'', are cut and used in stir-fries, curries and soups like '' sayur asem'', '' sayur lodeh'' or '' laksa''. '' Daun ubi tumbuk'' is a pounded cassava leaves dish, commonly found in
Sumatra Sumatra () is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the list of islands by area, sixth-largest island in the world at 482,286.55 km2 (182,812 mi. ...
,
Kalimantan Kalimantan (; ) is the Indonesian portion of the island of Borneo. It constitutes 73% of the island's area, and consists of the provinces of Central Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, North Kalimantan, South Kalimantan, and West Kalimantan. The non-Ind ...
and
Sulawesi Sulawesi ( ), also known as Celebes ( ), is an island in Indonesia. One of the four Greater Sunda Islands, and the List of islands by area, world's 11th-largest island, it is situated east of Borneo, west of the Maluku Islands, and south of Min ...
. ''Sayur sop'' is
cabbage Cabbage, comprising several cultivars of '' Brassica oleracea'', is a leafy green, red (purple), or white (pale green) biennial plant grown as an annual vegetable crop for its dense-leaved heads. It is descended from the wild cabbage ( ''B.& ...
,
cauliflower Cauliflower is one of several vegetables cultivated from the species '' Brassica oleracea'' in the genus '' Brassica'', which is in the Brassicaceae (or mustard) family. Cauliflower usually grows with one main stem that carries a large, rou ...
,
potato The potato () is a starchy tuberous vegetable native to the Americas that is consumed as a staple food in many parts of the world. Potatoes are underground stem tubers of the plant ''Solanum tuberosum'', a perennial in the nightshade famil ...
,
carrot The carrot ('' Daucus carota'' subsp. ''sativus'') is a root vegetable, typically orange in colour, though heirloom variants including purple, black, red, white, and yellow cultivars exist, all of which are domesticated forms of the wild ...
, with macaroni spiced with
black pepper Black pepper (''Piper nigrum'') is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit (the peppercorn), which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning. The fruit is a drupe (stonefruit) which is about in diameter ...
, garlic and shallot in chicken or beef
broth Broth, also known as bouillon (), is a savory liquid made of water in which meat, fish, or vegetables have been simmered for a short period of time. It can be eaten alone, but it is most commonly used to prepare other dishes, such as soups ...
. Similar mixed vegetables are also stir-fried as '' cap cai'', a popular dish of the Chinese Indonesian cuisine. '' Tumis kangkung'' is a popular stir-fried water spinach dish. Vegetables like winged bean,
tomato The tomato (, ), ''Solanum lycopersicum'', is a plant whose fruit is an edible Berry (botany), berry that is eaten as a vegetable. The tomato is a member of the nightshade family that includes tobacco, potato, and chili peppers. It originate ...
,
cucumber The cucumber (''Cucumis sativus'') is a widely-cultivated creeping vine plant in the family Cucurbitaceae that bears cylindrical to spherical fruits, which are used as culinary vegetables.bitter melon ''Momordica charantia'' (commonly called bitter melon, cerassee, goya, bitter apple, bitter gourd, bitter squash, balsam-pear, karela, karavila and many more #Uses, names listed below) is a tropical and subtropical vine of the family Cucurbitac ...
are commonly eaten raw, like in '' lalab''. The large bitter melon variety is usually boiled. ''Kecombrang'' and
papaya The papaya (, ), papaw, () or pawpaw () is the plant species ''Carica papaya'', one of the 21 accepted species in the genus '' Carica'' of the family Caricaceae, and also the name of its fruit. It was first domesticated in Mesoamerica, within ...
flower buds are a common Indonesian vegetable. '' Urap'' is seasoned and spiced shredded
coconut The coconut tree (''Cocos nucifera'') is a member of the palm tree family (biology), family (Arecaceae) and the only living species of the genus ''Cocos''. The term "coconut" (or the archaic "cocoanut") can refer to the whole coconut palm, ...
mixed together with vegetables. '' Asinan betawi'' are preserved vegetables. '' Gado-gado'' and '' pecel'' are a salad of boiled vegetables dressed in a
peanut The peanut (''Arachis hypogaea''), also known as the groundnut, goober (US), goober pea, pindar (US) or monkey nut (UK), is a legume crop grown mainly for its edible seeds. It is widely grown in the tropics and subtropics by small and large ...
-based spicy sauce, while '' karedok'' is its raw version.


Vegetarianism in Indonesia

Vegetarianism Vegetarianism is the practice of abstaining from the Eating, consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, insects as food, insects, and the flesh of any other animal). It may also include abstaining from eating all by-products of animal slau ...
is well represented in Indonesia, as there is a wide selection of vegetarian dishes and meat substitutes that may be served. According to a Euromonitor International survey conducted in 2018, Indonesia has the third-highest rate of vegetarianism growth. Dishes such as '' gado-gado, karedok, ketoprak, tauge goreng, pecel, urap, rujak'' and '' asinan'' are vegetarian dishes. However, dishes that use
peanut sauce Peanut sauce, satay sauce (saté sauce), ''bumbu kacang'', ''sambal kacang'', or ''pecel'' is an Indonesian cuisine, Indonesian sauce made from ground roasted or fried peanuts, widely used in Indonesian cuisine and many other dishes throughout t ...
, such as ''gado-gado, karedok'' or ''ketoprak'', might contain small amounts of shrimp paste, called "terasi", for flavor. Shrimp paste is also often used to add flavour to spicy '' sambal'' chili paste served with '' lalap'', assorted fresh vegetables. Fermented soy products, such as
tempeh Tempe or tempeh (; , ) is a traditional Indonesian food made from fermented soybeans. It is made by a natural culturing and controlled fermentation process that binds soybeans into a cake form. A fungus, '' Rhizopus oligosporus'' or '' Rhizopu ...
, "tahu" (
tofu or bean curd is a food prepared by Coagulation (milk), coagulating soy milk and then pressing the resulting curds into solid white blocks of varying softness: ''silken'', ''soft'', ''firm'', and ''extra (or super) firm''. It originated in Chin ...
) and ''
oncom Oncom ( IPA: ) is a fermented food which is one of the traditional staples of the Sundanese cuisine of Indonesia. There are two kinds of oncom: red oncom and black oncom. The food is closely related to tempeh; both are fermented using mold. U ...
'' are prevalent as meat substitutes and as a source of vegetable
protein Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residue (biochemistry), residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including Enzyme catalysis, catalysing metab ...
. In contemporary fusion cuisine, tempeh is used to replace meat patties and served as tempeh burgers. Most Indonesians do not practice strict vegetarianism and may consume vegetables or vegetarian dishes for their taste, preference, economic and health reasons. Nevertheless, there are small numbers of Indonesian Buddhists that practice vegetarianism for religious reasons.


Meat and fish

The main animal
protein Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residue (biochemistry), residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including Enzyme catalysis, catalysing metab ...
sources in the Indonesian diet are mostly
poultry Poultry () are domesticated birds kept by humans for the purpose of harvesting animal products such as meat, Eggs as food, eggs or feathers. The practice of animal husbandry, raising poultry is known as poultry farming. These birds are most typ ...
and
fish A fish (: fish or fishes) is an aquatic animal, aquatic, Anamniotes, anamniotic, gill-bearing vertebrate animal with swimming fish fin, fins and craniate, a hard skull, but lacking limb (anatomy), limbs with digit (anatomy), digits. Fish can ...
, while meats such as
beef Beef is the culinary name for meat from cattle (''Bos taurus''). Beef can be prepared in various ways; Cut of beef, cuts are often used for steak, which can be cooked to varying degrees of doneness, while trimmings are often Ground beef, grou ...
,
water buffalo The water buffalo (''Bubalus bubalis''), also called domestic water buffalo, Asian water buffalo and Asiatic water buffalo, is a large bovid originating in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Today, it is also kept in Italy, the Balkans ...
,
goat The goat or domestic goat (''Capra hircus'') is a species of Caprinae, goat-antelope that is mostly kept as livestock. It was domesticated from the wild goat (''C. aegagrus'') of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe. The goat is a member of the ...
and mutton are commonly found in the Indonesian marketplaces.


Poultry

The most common poultry consumed is
chicken The chicken (''Gallus gallus domesticus'') is a domesticated subspecies of the red junglefowl (''Gallus gallus''), originally native to Southeast Asia. It was first domesticated around 8,000 years ago and is now one of the most common and w ...
and
duck Duck is the common name for numerous species of waterfowl in the family (biology), family Anatidae. Ducks are generally smaller and shorter-necked than swans and goose, geese, which are members of the same family. Divided among several subfam ...
to a lesser amount,
pigeon Columbidae is a bird family consisting of doves and pigeons. It is the only family in the order Columbiformes. These are stout-bodied birds with small heads, relatively short necks and slender bills that in some species feature fleshy ceres. ...
, quail and wild swamp bird such as watercock are also consumed. Traditionally, Indonesians breed free-range chickens in the villages known as '' ayam kampung'' (village chicken). Compared to common domesticated chickens, these village chickens are thinner and their meat are slightly firmer. Various recipes of '' ayam goreng'' (fried chicken) and '' ayam bakar'' (grilled chicken) are commonly found throughout Indonesia. Other than frying or grilling, chicken might be cooked as soup, such as ''sup ayam'' and '' soto ayam'', or cooked in
coconut milk Coconut milk is a plant milk extracted from the grated pulp of mature coconuts. The opacity and rich taste of the milky-white liquid are due to its high oil content, most of which is saturated fat. Coconut milk is a traditional food ingred ...
as '' opor ayam''. Chicken
satay Satay ( , in the US also ), or sate in Indonesia, is a Javanese cuisine, Javanese dish of seasoned, skewered and grilled meat, served with a sauce. Satay originated in Java, but has spread throughout Indonesia, into Southeast Asia, Europe, ...
is also commonly found in Indonesia; it is barbecued on skewers and served with peanut sauce. Popular chicken recipes include ''ayam goreng kalasan'' from
Yogyakarta Yogyakarta is the capital city of the Special Region of Yogyakarta in Indonesia, in the south-central part of the island of Java. As the only Indonesian royal city still ruled by Hamengkubuwono, a monarchy, Yogyakarta is regarded as an importan ...
, ''ayam bakar padang'' from
Padang Padang () is the Capital city, capital and largest city of the Indonesian Provinces of Indonesia, province of West Sumatra. It had a population of 833,562 at the 2010 CensusBiro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2011. and 909,040 at the 2020 Census;Bad ...
, '' ayam taliwang'' from Lombok, ''ayam betutu'' from
Bali Bali (English:; Balinese language, Balinese: ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia and the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. East of Java and west of Lombok, the province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller o ...
, and ''ayam goreng lengkuas'' (galangal fried chicken).


Meat

Beef Beef is the culinary name for meat from cattle (''Bos taurus''). Beef can be prepared in various ways; Cut of beef, cuts are often used for steak, which can be cooked to varying degrees of doneness, while trimmings are often Ground beef, grou ...
and
goat meat Goat meat is the meat of the domestic goat (''Capra hircus''). The term 'goat meat' denotes meat of older animals, while meat from young goats is called 'kid meat'. In South Asian cuisine, goat meat is called mutton, along with sheep meat.''O ...
are the most commonly consumed meats in Indonesia, while ''kerbau'' (
water buffalo The water buffalo (''Bubalus bubalis''), also called domestic water buffalo, Asian water buffalo and Asiatic water buffalo, is a large bovid originating in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. Today, it is also kept in Italy, the Balkans ...
) and
domestic sheep Sheep (: sheep) or domestic sheep (''Ovis aries'') are a domesticated, ruminant mammal typically kept as livestock. Although the term ''sheep'' can apply to other species in the genus '' Ovis'', in everyday usage it almost always refers to ...
are also consumed to a lesser degree, since water buffalo are more useful for ploughing the
rice Rice is a cereal grain and in its Domestication, domesticated form is the staple food of over half of the world's population, particularly in Asia and Africa. Rice is the seed of the grass species ''Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice)—or, much l ...
paddies, while sheep are kept for their wool or to be used for the traditional entertainment of ram fighting. As a country with an
Islamic Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...
majority, Indonesian Muslims follow the Islamic
halal ''Halal'' (; ) is an Arabic word that translates to in English. Although the term ''halal'' is often associated with Islamic dietary laws, particularly meat that is slaughtered according to Islamic guidelines, it also governs ethical practices ...
dietary law which forbids the consumption of
pork Pork is the culinary name for the meat of the pig (''Sus domesticus''). It is the most commonly consumed meat worldwide, with evidence of pig animal husbandry, husbandry dating back to 8000–9000 BCE. Pork is eaten both freshly cooke ...
. In other parts of Indonesia where there are significant numbers of non-Muslims, boar and pork are commonly consumed. Dishes made of non-halal meats can be found in provinces such as
Bali Bali (English:; Balinese language, Balinese: ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia and the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. East of Java and west of Lombok, the province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller o ...
,
North Sumatra North Sumatra () is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia located in the northern part of the island of Sumatra. Its capital and largest city is Medan on the east coast of the island. It borders Aceh to the northwest, Riau to the sou ...
,
North Sulawesi North Sulawesi () is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia. It is mainly located on the Minahasa Peninsula of the island of Sulawesi, south of the Philippines and southeast of Sabah, Malaysia, but also includes various small archipel ...
, East Nusa Tenggara, Maluku,
West Kalimantan West Kalimantan () is a province of Indonesia. It is one of five Indonesian provinces comprising Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of the island of Borneo. Its capital and largest city is Pontianak. It is bordered by East Kalimantan and Central ...
,
Central Kalimantan Central Kalimantan () is a provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia. It is one of five provinces in Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of Borneo. It is the largest province in Indonesia by area since 2022, bordered by West Kalimantan to the west ...
,
North Kalimantan North Kalimantan () is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia. It is located on the northernmost of Kalimantan, the Indonesian part of the island of Borneo. North Kalimantan borders the Malaysian states of Sabah to the north and Sarawa ...
, West Papua, Papua, and also in the
Chinatown Chinatown ( zh, t=唐人街) is the catch-all name for an ethnic enclave of Chinese people located outside Greater China, most often in an urban setting. Areas known as "Chinatown" exist throughout the world, including Europe, Asia, Africa, O ...
s of major Indonesian cities. Today to cater for the larger Muslim market, most of the restaurants and eating establishments in Indonesia put halal signs that signify that they serve neither pork nor any non-halal meats, nor do they use
lard Lard is a Quasi-solid, semi-solid white fat product obtained by rendering (animal products), rendering the adipose tissue, fatty tissue of a domestic pig, pig.
in their cooking. With an overwhelming Muslim population and a relatively small population of cattle, today Indonesians rely heavily on imported
beef Beef is the culinary name for meat from cattle (''Bos taurus''). Beef can be prepared in various ways; Cut of beef, cuts are often used for steak, which can be cooked to varying degrees of doneness, while trimmings are often Ground beef, grou ...
from
Australia Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising mainland Australia, the mainland of the Australia (continent), Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and list of islands of Australia, numerous smaller isl ...
,
New Zealand New Zealand () is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and List of islands of New Zealand, over 600 smaller islands. It is the List of isla ...
and the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
which often results in a scarcity and raised prices of beef in the Indonesian market. The meat can be cooked in rich spices and
coconut milk Coconut milk is a plant milk extracted from the grated pulp of mature coconuts. The opacity and rich taste of the milky-white liquid are due to its high oil content, most of which is saturated fat. Coconut milk is a traditional food ingred ...
such as beef, goat or lamb '' rendang'', skewered, seasoned and grilled chicken or mutton as
satay Satay ( , in the US also ), or sate in Indonesia, is a Javanese cuisine, Javanese dish of seasoned, skewered and grilled meat, served with a sauce. Satay originated in Java, but has spread throughout Indonesia, into Southeast Asia, Europe, ...
, barbecued meats, or sliced and cooked in rich broth soup as '' soto''. Muttons and various
offal Offal (), also called variety meats, pluck or organ meats, is the internal organ (anatomy), organs of a butchered animal. Offal may also refer to the by-products of Milling (grinding), milled grains, such as corn or wheat. Some cultures strong ...
s can be use as ingredients for soto soup or '' gulai'' curry. In Bali, with its Hindu majority, the '' babi guling'' (pig roast) is popular among locals as well as non-Muslim visitors, while the
Batak Batak is a collective term used to identify a number of closely related Austronesian peoples, Austronesian ethnic groups predominantly found in North Sumatra, Indonesia, who speak Batak languages. The term is used to include the Karo people ( ...
people of
North Sumatra North Sumatra () is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia located in the northern part of the island of Sumatra. Its capital and largest city is Medan on the east coast of the island. It borders Aceh to the northwest, Riau to the sou ...
have '' babi panggang'' that is a similar dish.
Wild boar The wild boar (''Sus scrofa''), also known as the wild swine, common wild pig, Eurasian wild pig, or simply wild pig, is a Suidae, suid native to much of Eurasia and North Africa, and has been introduced to the Americas and Oceania. The speci ...
are also commonly consumed in Papua. The meat also can be processed to be thinly-sliced and dried as dendeng (jerky), or made into abon ( meat floss). ''Dendeng celeng'' is Indonesian "dried, jerked" boar meat. Raised
rabbit Rabbits are small mammals in the family Leporidae (which also includes the hares), which is in the order Lagomorpha (which also includes pikas). They are familiar throughout the world as a small herbivore, a prey animal, a domesticated ...
s are also consumed as food in mountainous region of Indonesia. Some game meat such as venison might be sold and consumed in some areas of Indonesia. In
Kalimantan Kalimantan (; ) is the Indonesian portion of the island of Borneo. It constitutes 73% of the island's area, and consists of the provinces of Central Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, North Kalimantan, South Kalimantan, and West Kalimantan. The non-Ind ...
,
West Nusa Tenggara West Nusa Tenggara ( – NTB) is a provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia. It comprises the western portion of the Lesser Sunda Islands, with the exception of Bali which is its own province. The area of this province is which consists of ...
, East Nusa Tenggara, and Papua,
deer A deer (: deer) or true deer is a hoofed ruminant ungulate of the family Cervidae (informally the deer family). Cervidae is divided into subfamilies Cervinae (which includes, among others, muntjac, elk (wapiti), red deer, and fallow deer) ...
meat can be found, usually wildly acquired by hunting. Other unusual and often controversial exotic meats include frog legs and
softshell turtle Trionychidae is a family of turtles, commonly known as softshell turtles or simply softshells. The family was described by Leopold Fitzinger in 1826. Softshells include some of the world's largest freshwater turtles, though many can adapt to li ...
consumed in Chinese Indonesian and Javanese cuisine,
horse meat Horse meat forms a significant part of the culinary traditions of many countries, particularly in Europe and Asia. The eight countries that consume the most horse meat consume about 4.3million horses a year. For the majority of humanity's early ...
consumed in
Yogyakarta Yogyakarta is the capital city of the Special Region of Yogyakarta in Indonesia, in the south-central part of the island of Java. As the only Indonesian royal city still ruled by Hamengkubuwono, a monarchy, Yogyakarta is regarded as an importan ...
,
West Nusa Tenggara West Nusa Tenggara ( – NTB) is a provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia. It comprises the western portion of the Lesser Sunda Islands, with the exception of Bali which is its own province. The area of this province is which consists of ...
, and
South Sulawesi South Sulawesi () is a Provinces of Indonesia, province in the South Peninsula, Sulawesi, southern peninsula of Sulawesi, Indonesia. The Selayar Islands archipelago to the south of Sulawesi is also part of the province. The capital and largest ci ...
,
turtle Turtles are reptiles of the order (biology), order Testudines, characterized by a special turtle shell, shell developed mainly from their ribs. Modern turtles are divided into two major groups, the Pleurodira (side necked turtles) and Crypt ...
meat consumed in
Bali Bali (English:; Balinese language, Balinese: ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia and the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. East of Java and west of Lombok, the province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller o ...
and Eastern Indonesia,
snake Snakes are elongated limbless reptiles of the suborder Serpentes (). Cladistically squamates, snakes are ectothermic, amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping scales much like other members of the group. Many species of snakes have s ...
, ''biawak'' (
monitor lizard Monitor lizards are lizards in the genus ''Varanus,'' the only extant genus in the family Varanidae. They are native to Africa, Asia, and Oceania, and West African Nile monitor, one species is also found in south America as an invasive species. A ...
), ''paniki'' ( fruit bats),
dog meat Dog meat, also known as fragrant meat or simply fragrant, is the meat derived from dogs. Historically human consumption of dog meat has been recorded in many parts of the world. In the 21st century, dog meat is consumed to a limited extent in ...
, cat meat, and field
rat Rats are various medium-sized, long-tailed rodents. Species of rats are found throughout the order Rodentia, but stereotypical rats are found in the genus ''Rattus''. Other rat genera include '' Neotoma'' (pack rats), '' Bandicota'' (bandicoo ...
s consumed in
Minahasa The Minahasans or Minahassa are an Austronesian people, Austronesian ethnic group native to North Sulawesi province of Indonesia, formerly known as North Celebes. The Minahasa people sometimes refer to themselves as Manado people. Although the M ...
n cuisine of
North Sulawesi North Sulawesi () is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia. It is mainly located on the Minahasa Peninsula of the island of Sulawesi, south of the Philippines and southeast of Sabah, Malaysia, but also includes various small archipel ...
.
Batak Batak is a collective term used to identify a number of closely related Austronesian peoples, Austronesian ethnic groups predominantly found in North Sumatra, Indonesia, who speak Batak languages. The term is used to include the Karo people ( ...
cuisine of
North Sumatra North Sumatra () is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia located in the northern part of the island of Sumatra. Its capital and largest city is Medan on the east coast of the island. It borders Aceh to the northwest, Riau to the sou ...
is also familiar with cooking dog meat, while its consumption is diminishing in Central Java. Exotic and rare game meat such as
crocodile Crocodiles (family (biology), family Crocodylidae) or true crocodiles are large, semiaquatic reptiles that live throughout the tropics in Africa, Asia, the Americas and Australia. The term "crocodile" is sometimes used more loosely to include ...
,
squirrel Squirrels are members of the family Sciuridae (), a family that includes small or medium-sized rodents. The squirrel family includes tree squirrels, ground squirrels (including chipmunks and prairie dogs, among others), and flying squirrel ...
,
civet A civet () is a small, lean, mostly nocturnal mammal native to tropical Asia and Africa, especially the tropical forests. The term ''civet'' applies to over a dozen different species, mostly from the family Viverridae. Most of the species's div ...
, and
monkey Monkey is a common name that may refer to most mammals of the infraorder Simiiformes, also known as simians. Traditionally, all animals in the group now known as simians are counted as monkeys except the apes. Thus monkeys, in that sense, co ...
might also be sold and consumed in wilder parts of Indonesia.


Fish

In an archipelagic nation,
seafood Seafood is any form of Marine life, sea life regarded as food by humans, prominently including Fish as food, fish and shellfish. Shellfish include various species of Mollusca, molluscs (e.g., bivalve molluscs such as clams, oysters, and mussel ...
is abundant, and it is commonly consumed especially by Indonesian residents in coastal areas. Fish is especially popular in the eastern Indonesian regions of
Sulawesi Sulawesi ( ), also known as Celebes ( ), is an island in Indonesia. One of the four Greater Sunda Islands, and the List of islands by area, world's 11th-largest island, it is situated east of Borneo, west of the Maluku Islands, and south of Min ...
and Maluku, where most of the people work as fishermen. Both areas have a vast sea which brings them many different kinds of seafood. Popular seafood in Indonesian cuisine includes
skipjack tuna The skipjack tuna (''Katsuwonus pelamis'') is a perciform fish in the tuna family, Scombridae, and is the only member of the genus ''Katsuwonus''. It is also known as katsuo, arctic bonito, mushmouth, oceanic bonito, striped tuna or victor fish. ...
,
tuna A tuna (: tunas or tuna) is a saltwater fish that belongs to the tribe Thunnini, a subgrouping of the Scombridae ( mackerel) family. The Thunnini comprise 15 species across five genera, the sizes of which vary greatly, ranging from the bul ...
,
mackerel Mackerel is a common name applied to a number of different species of pelagic fish, mostly from the family Scombridae. They are found in both temperate and tropical seas, mostly living along the coast or offshore in the oceanic environment. ...
, pomfret,
wahoo The wahoo (''Acanthocybium solandri'') is a scombrid fish found worldwide in tropical and subtropical seas. In Hawaii, the wahoo is known as ono. The species is sometimes called hoo in the United States. It is best known to sports fishermen, a ...
, milkfish,
trevally The Carangidae are a family of ray-finned fish that includes the jacks, pompanos, jack mackerels, runners, trevallies, and scads. It is the largest of the six families included within the order Carangiformes. Some authorities classify it as the ...
,
rabbitfish Rabbitfishes or spinefoots, genus ''Siganus'', are perciform fishes in the family (biology), family Siganidae. It is the only Extant taxon, extant genus in its family and has 29 species. In some now obsolete classifications, the species having ...
, abalistes, amberjacks,
rastrelliger ''Rastrelliger'' is a mackerel genus in the family Scombridae. The three species of ''Rastrelliger'' together with the four species of ''Scomber'' comprise the tribe (biology), tribe Scombrini, known as the "true mackerels". Species The three s ...
, yellowtail scad, nemipterus japonicus, John Dory, garoupa, red snapper, anchovy,
swordfish The swordfish (''Xiphias gladius''), also known as the broadbill in some countries, are large, highly migratory predatory fish characterized by a long, flat, pointed bill. They are the sole member of the Family (biology), family Xiphiidae. They ...
,
shark Sharks are a group of elasmobranch cartilaginous fish characterized by a ribless endoskeleton, dermal denticles, five to seven gill slits on each side, and pectoral fins that are not fused to the head. Modern sharks are classified within the ...
,
stingray Stingrays are a group of sea Batoidea, rays, a type of cartilaginous fish. They are classified in the suborder Myliobatoidei of the order Myliobatiformes and consist of eight families: Hexatrygonidae (sixgill stingray), Plesiobatidae (deepwate ...
,
squid A squid (: squid) is a mollusc with an elongated soft body, large eyes, eight cephalopod limb, arms, and two tentacles in the orders Myopsida, Oegopsida, and Bathyteuthida (though many other molluscs within the broader Neocoleoidea are also ...
or
cuttlefish Cuttlefish, or cuttles, are Marine (ocean), marine Mollusca, molluscs of the order (biology), suborder Sepiina. They belong to the class (biology), class Cephalopoda which also includes squid, octopuses, and nautiluses. Cuttlefish have a unique ...
,
shrimp A shrimp (: shrimp (American English, US) or shrimps (British English, UK)) is a crustacean with an elongated body and a primarily Aquatic locomotion, swimming mode of locomotion – typically Decapods belonging to the Caridea or Dendrobranchi ...
,
crab Crabs are decapod crustaceans of the infraorder Brachyura (meaning "short tailed" in Greek language, Greek), which typically have a very short projecting tail-like abdomen#Arthropoda, abdomen, usually hidden entirely under the Thorax (arthropo ...
,
blue crab Blue crab may refer to: * Blue Crab 11, an American sailboat design * ''Callinectes sapidus ''Callinectes sapidus'' (from the Ancient Greek language, Ancient Greek ,"beautiful" + , "swimmer", and Latin , "savory"), the blue crab, Atlantic blue ...
, and
mussel Mussel () is the common name used for members of several families of bivalve molluscs, from saltwater and Freshwater bivalve, freshwater habitats. These groups have in common a shell whose outline is elongated and asymmetrical compared with other ...
. Seafood is commonly consumed across Indonesia, but it is especially popular in
Maluku islands The Maluku Islands ( ; , ) or the Moluccas ( ; ) are an archipelago in the eastern part of Indonesia. Tectonics, Tectonically they are located on the Halmahera Plate within the Molucca Sea Collision Zone. Geographically they are located in West ...
, Gorontalo Peninsula and Minahasa (
North Sulawesi North Sulawesi () is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia. It is mainly located on the Minahasa Peninsula of the island of Sulawesi, south of the Philippines and southeast of Sabah, Malaysia, but also includes various small archipel ...
) cuisine. Seafood is usually grilled, boiled or fried. '' Ikan bakar'' is a popular grilled fish dish that can be found throughout Indonesia. The method of cooking like stir fried in spices or in soup is also possible. Salted fish is preserved seafood through cured in salt, it also can be found in Indonesian market. Fresh water fisheries can be found in inland regions or in areas with large rivers or lakes. Fresh water fishes are popular in
Sundanese cuisine Sundanese cuisine (; ) is the cuisine of the Sundanese people of West Java, Western Java, and Banten, Indonesia. It is one of the most popular foods in Indonesia. Sundanese food is characterised by its freshness; the famous lalab eaten with sa ...
of West Java, caught or raised in Lake Toba in
Batak Batak is a collective term used to identify a number of closely related Austronesian peoples, Austronesian ethnic groups predominantly found in North Sumatra, Indonesia, who speak Batak languages. The term is used to include the Karo people ( ...
lands of
North Sumatra North Sumatra () is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia located in the northern part of the island of Sumatra. Its capital and largest city is Medan on the east coast of the island. It borders Aceh to the northwest, Riau to the sou ...
, or taken from large rivers in Malay lands of
Riau Riau (Jawi script, Jawi: ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia. It is located on the central eastern coast of the island of Sumatra, and extends from the eastern slopes of the Barisan Mountains to the Malacca Strait, including s ...
,
Jambi Jambi is a province of Indonesia. It is located on the east coast of central Sumatra Sumatra () is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the list of i ...
and
South Sumatra South Sumatra () is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia, located in the southeast of the island of Sumatra. The capital and largest city of the province is the city of Palembang. The province borders the provinces of Jambi to the north ...
, or large rivers in
Kalimantan Kalimantan (; ) is the Indonesian portion of the island of Borneo. It constitutes 73% of the island's area, and consists of the provinces of Central Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, North Kalimantan, South Kalimantan, and West Kalimantan. The non-Ind ...
. Popular fresh water fish among others;
carp The term carp (: carp) is a generic common name for numerous species of freshwater fish from the family (biology), family Cyprinidae, a very large clade of ray-finned fish mostly native to Eurasia. While carp are prized game fish, quarries and a ...
,
gourami Gouramis, or gouramies , are a group of fresh water, freshwater Anabantiformes, anabantiform fish that comprise the family (biology), family Osphronemidae. The fish are native to Asia—from the Indian Subcontinent to Southeast Asia and northeas ...
,
catfish Catfish (or catfishes; order (biology), order Siluriformes or Nematognathi) are a diverse group of ray-finned fish. Catfish are common name, named for their prominent barbel (anatomy), barbels, which resemble a cat's whiskers, though not ...
, '' pangasius'', snakehead, '' trichogaster'', climbing gourami,
Nile tilapia The Nile tilapia (''Oreochromis niloticus'') is a species of tilapia, a cichlid occurring naturally in parts of Africa (such as its namesake Nile River) and the Levant, though numerous introduced populations exist outside its natural range. T ...
, and Mozambique tilapia.


Insects

Unlike Thailand, in Indonesia
insect Insects (from Latin ') are Hexapoda, hexapod invertebrates of the class (biology), class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body (Insect morphology#Head, head, ...
is not a popular food ingredient nor widely available as street food. In Java, locals do catch, breed and sell certain species of insects, usually sold fresh or alive as pet bird feed. Nevertheless, traditionally several cultures in Indonesia are known to consume insects, especially
grasshopper Grasshoppers are a group of insects belonging to the suborder Caelifera. They are amongst what are possibly the most ancient living groups of chewing herbivorous insects, dating back to the early Triassic around 250 million years ago. Grassh ...
,
cricket Cricket is a Bat-and-ball games, bat-and-ball game played between two Sports team, teams of eleven players on a cricket field, field, at the centre of which is a cricket pitch, pitch with a wicket at each end, each comprising two Bail (cr ...
,
termite Termites are a group of detritivore, detritophagous Eusociality, eusocial cockroaches which consume a variety of Detritus, decaying plant material, generally in the form of wood, Plant litter, leaf litter, and Humus, soil humus. They are dist ...
, also the
larvae A larva (; : larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into their next life stage. Animals with indirect developmental biology, development such as insects, some arachnids, amphibians, or cnidarians typical ...
of sago palm weevil, bee and
dragonfly A dragonfly is a flying insect belonging to the infraorder Anisoptera below the order Odonata. About 3,000 extant species of dragonflies are known. Most are tropical, with fewer species in temperate regions. Loss of wetland habitat threat ...
. In Java and Kalimantan, grasshoppers and crickets are usually lightly battered and deep fried in
palm oil Palm oil is an edible vegetable oil derived from the mesocarp (reddish pulp) of the fruit of oil palms. The oil is used in food manufacturing, in beauty products, and as biofuel. Palm oil accounted for about 36% of global oils produced from o ...
as crispy '' kripik'' snack. Smaller grasshoppers, crickets and termites might be made as '' rempeyek'' batter cracker which resembles insect fossil. During monsoon rainy season, flying termites are abundant being attracted to lightbulbs to mate. Locals usually put a bucket of water under the lamp to trap the flying termites, pluck the wings, and roast the termites as additional protein-rich snack. In Banyuwangi, East Java, there is a specialty dish called '' botok tawon'' (honeybee botok), which is
beehive A beehive is an enclosed structure which houses honey bees, subgenus '' Apis.'' Honey bees live in the beehive, raising their young and producing honey as part of their seasonal cycle. Though the word ''beehive'' is used to describe the nest of ...
s that contains bee larvae, being seasoned in shredded coconut and spices, wrapped inside banana leaf package and steamed. Dayak tribes of Kalimantan, also Moluccans and Papuan tribes in Eastern Indonesia, are known to consumes ''ulat sagu'' (lit. sagoo caterpillar) or larvae of sago palm weevil. This protein-rich larvae are considered a delicacy in Papua, and often being roasted prior of consumption. Locals may also commonly eat the larvae raw or alive. In
Bali Bali (English:; Balinese language, Balinese: ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia and the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. East of Java and west of Lombok, the province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller o ...
, dragonflies are also consumed by processing them into
pepes ''Pepes'' is an Indonesian cooking method using banana leaves as food wrappings. The banana-leaf package containing food is secured with ''lidi seumat'' (a small nail made from the central ribs of coconut leaves) and then steamed or grilled on ...
.


Spices and other flavourings

"Rempah" is the Indonesian word for spice, while " bumbu" is the Indonesian word for a spice mixture or seasoning, and it commonly appears in the names of certain spice mixtures, sauces and seasoning pastes. Known throughout the world as the "Spice Islands", the Indonesian islands of Maluku contributed to the introduction of its native spices to world cuisine. Spices such as nutmeg or mace,
clove Cloves are the aromatic flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae, ''Syzygium aromaticum'' (). They are native to the Maluku Islands, or Moluccas, in Indonesia, and are commonly used as a spice, flavoring, or Aroma compound, fragrance in fin ...
, pandan leaves, ''keluwak'' and
galangal Galangal () is a rhizome of plants in the ginger family Zingiberaceae, with culinary and medicinal uses originating in Indonesia. It is one of four species in the genus ''Alpinia'', and is known for its pungent, aromatic flavor. Greater gal ...
are native to Indonesia. It is likely that
black pepper Black pepper (''Piper nigrum'') is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit (the peppercorn), which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning. The fruit is a drupe (stonefruit) which is about in diameter ...
,
turmeric Turmeric (), or ''Curcuma longa'' (), is a flowering plant in the ginger family Zingiberaceae. It is a perennial, rhizomatous, herbaceous plant native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia that requires temperatures between and high ...
, lemongrass,
shallot The shallot is a cultivar group of the onion. Until 2010, the (French red) shallot was classified as a separate species, ''Allium ascalonicum''. The taxon was synonymized with '' Allium cepa'' (the common onion) in 2010, as the difference was t ...
,
cinnamon Cinnamon is a spice obtained from the inner bark of several tree species from the genus ''Cinnamomum''. Cinnamon is used mainly as an aromatic condiment and flavouring additive in a wide variety of cuisines, sweet and savoury dishes, biscuits, b ...
, candlenut,
coriander Coriander (), whose leaves are known as cilantro () in the U.S. and parts of Canada, and dhania in parts of South Asia and Africa, is an annual plant, annual herb (''Coriandrum sativum'') in the family Apiaceae. Most people perceive the ...
and
tamarind Tamarind (''Tamarindus indica'') is a Legume, leguminous tree bearing edible fruit that is indigenous to tropical Africa and naturalized in Asia. The genus ''Tamarindus'' is monotypic taxon, monotypic, meaning that it contains only this spe ...
were introduced from
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
, while
ginger Ginger (''Zingiber officinale'') is a flowering plant whose rhizome, ginger root or ginger, is widely used as a spice and a folk medicine. It is an herbaceous perennial that grows annual pseudostems (false stems made of the rolled bases of l ...
,
scallion Scallions (also known as green onions and spring onions) are edible vegetables of various species in the genus ''Allium''. Scallions generally have a milder taste than most onions. Their close relatives include garlic, shallots, leeks, chive ...
s and
garlic Garlic (''Allium sativum'') is a species of bulbous flowering plants in the genus '' Allium''. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chives, Welsh onion, and Chinese onion. Garlic is native to central and south Asia, str ...
were introduced from
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
. Those spices from mainland Asia were introduced early, in ancient times, thus they became integral ingredients in Indonesian cuisine. In ancient times, the kingdom of Sunda and the later sultanate of Banten were well known as the world's major producers of
black pepper Black pepper (''Piper nigrum'') is a flowering vine in the family Piperaceae, cultivated for its fruit (the peppercorn), which is usually dried and used as a spice and seasoning. The fruit is a drupe (stonefruit) which is about in diameter ...
. The maritime empires of
Srivijaya Srivijaya (), also spelled Sri Vijaya, was a Hinduism, Hindu-Buddhism, Buddhist thalassocracy, thalassocratic empire based on the island of Sumatra (in modern-day Indonesia) that influenced much of Southeast Asia. Srivijaya was an important ...
and
Majapahit Majapahit (; (eastern and central dialect) or (western dialect)), also known as Wilwatikta (; ), was a Javanese people, Javanese Hinduism, Hindu-Buddhism, Buddhist thalassocracy, thalassocratic empire in Southeast Asia based on the island o ...
also benefited from the lucrative spice trade between the spice islands with China and India. Later the
Dutch East India Company The United East India Company ( ; VOC ), commonly known as the Dutch East India Company, was a chartered company, chartered trading company and one of the first joint-stock companies in the world. Established on 20 March 1602 by the States Ge ...
controlled the spice trade between Indonesia and the world.


Sambal

The Indonesian fondness for hot and spicy food was enriched when the Spanish introduced
chili pepper Chili peppers, also spelled chile or chilli ( ), are varieties of fruit#Berries, berry-fruit plants from the genus ''Capsicum'', which are members of the nightshade family Solanaceae, cultivated for their pungency. They are used as a spice to ...
from the
New World The term "New World" is used to describe the majority of lands of Earth's Western Hemisphere, particularly the Americas, and sometimes Oceania."America." ''The Oxford Companion to the English Language'' (). McArthur, Tom, ed., 1992. New York: ...
to the region in the 16th century. After that hot and spicy '' sambals'' have become an important part of Indonesian cuisine. Indonesia has perhaps the richest variants of sambals. In the Indonesian archipelago, there are as many as 300 varieties of ''sambal''. The intensity ranges from mild to very hot. Sambal evolved into many variants across Indonesia, ones of the most popular is ''sambal terasi'' (''sambal belacan'') and ''sambal mangga muda'' (unripe mango sambal). ''Sambal terasi'' is a combination of chilies, sharp fermented shrimp paste called terasi, tangy lime juice, sugar and salt all pounded up with mortar and pestle. Dabu-dabu is a combined Gorontalo and
North Sulawesi North Sulawesi () is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia. It is mainly located on the Minahasa Peninsula of the island of Sulawesi, south of the Philippines and southeast of Sabah, Malaysia, but also includes various small archipel ...
style of sambal with chopped fresh
tomato The tomato (, ), ''Solanum lycopersicum'', is a plant whose fruit is an edible Berry (botany), berry that is eaten as a vegetable. The tomato is a member of the nightshade family that includes tobacco, potato, and chili peppers. It originate ...
, chili, and lime juice. Sambal, especially sambal ulek, or sambal terasi can also become a base ingredient for many dishes, such as sambal raja (a dish from Kutai), terong balado, dendeng balado, ayam bumbu rujak, sambal goreng ati, among other things.


Sauces and seasonings

Soy sauce Soy sauce (sometimes called soya sauce in British English) is a liquid condiment of China, Chinese origin, traditionally made from a fermentation (food), fermented paste of soybeans, roasted cereal, grain, brine, and ''Aspergillus oryzae'' or ''A ...
is also an important flavourings in Indonesian cuisine. ''Kecap asin'' (salty or common soy sauce) was adopted from Chinese cuisine, however Indonesian developed their own ''kecap manis'' (sweet soy sauce) with generous addition of
palm sugar Palm sugar is a sweetener derived from any variety of palm tree. Palm sugar may be qualified by the type of palm, as in coconut palm sugar. While sugars from different palms may have slightly different compositions, all are processed simila ...
into soy sauce. Sweet soy sauce is an important
marinade Marinating is the process of soaking foods in a seasoned, often acidic, liquid before cooking. This sauce, called the marinade, can be either acidic (made with ingredients such as vinegar, lemon juice, or wine), or enzymatic (made with ingredien ...
for barbecued meat and fish, such as satay and grilled fishes. Sweet soy sauce is also an important ingredient for '' semur'', Indonesian
stew A stew is a combination of solid food ingredients that have been Cooking, cooked in Soup, liquid and served in the resultant gravy. Ingredients can include any combination of vegetables and may include meat, especially tougher meats suitable for ...
.


Peanut sauce

One of the main characteristics of Indonesian cuisine is the wide application of
peanut The peanut (''Arachis hypogaea''), also known as the groundnut, goober (US), goober pea, pindar (US) or monkey nut (UK), is a legume crop grown mainly for its edible seeds. It is widely grown in the tropics and subtropics by small and large ...
s in many Indonesian signature dishes, such as ''
satay Satay ( , in the US also ), or sate in Indonesia, is a Javanese cuisine, Javanese dish of seasoned, skewered and grilled meat, served with a sauce. Satay originated in Java, but has spread throughout Indonesia, into Southeast Asia, Europe, ...
'', '' gado-gado'', '' karedok'', '' ketoprak'', and '' pecel''. All of these dishes applied ample of ''bumbu kacang'' (
peanut sauce Peanut sauce, satay sauce (saté sauce), ''bumbu kacang'', ''sambal kacang'', or ''pecel'' is an Indonesian cuisine, Indonesian sauce made from ground roasted or fried peanuts, widely used in Indonesian cuisine and many other dishes throughout t ...
) for flavouring. '' Gado-gado'' and ''
satay Satay ( , in the US also ), or sate in Indonesia, is a Javanese cuisine, Javanese dish of seasoned, skewered and grilled meat, served with a sauce. Satay originated in Java, but has spread throughout Indonesia, into Southeast Asia, Europe, ...
'', for example, have been considered Indonesian national dishes. Introduced from
Mexico Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a country in North America. It is the northernmost country in Latin America, and borders the United States to the north, and Guatemala and Belize to the southeast; while having maritime boundar ...
by Portuguese and Spanish merchants in the 16th century, peanuts assumed a place within Indonesian cuisine as a key ingredient. Peanuts thrived in the tropical environment of Southeast Asia, and today they can be found, roasted and chopped finely, in many recipes. Whole, halved, or crushed peanuts are used to garnish a variety of dishes, and used in
marinade Marinating is the process of soaking foods in a seasoned, often acidic, liquid before cooking. This sauce, called the marinade, can be either acidic (made with ingredients such as vinegar, lemon juice, or wine), or enzymatic (made with ingredien ...
s and dipping sauces such as ''sambal kacang'' (a mixture of ground chilies and fried peanuts) for '' otak-otak'' or '' ketan''.
Peanut oil Peanut oil, also known as groundnut oil or arachis oil, is a vegetable oil derived from peanuts. The oil usually has a mild or neutral flavor but, if made with roasted peanuts, has a stronger peanut flavor and aroma. It is often used in Americ ...
, extracted from peanuts, is one of the most commonly used cooking oils in Indonesia. ''Bumbu kacang'' or
peanut sauce Peanut sauce, satay sauce (saté sauce), ''bumbu kacang'', ''sambal kacang'', or ''pecel'' is an Indonesian cuisine, Indonesian sauce made from ground roasted or fried peanuts, widely used in Indonesian cuisine and many other dishes throughout t ...
represents a sophisticated, earthy seasoning rather than a sweet, gloppy sauce. It should have a delicate balance of savoury, sweet, sour, and spicy flavours, acquired from various ingredients, such as fried peanuts, ''gula jawa'' (
coconut sugar Coconut sugar (also known as coco sugar, coconut palm sugar, coco sap sugar or coconut blossom sugar) is a palm sugar produced from the sap of the flower bud stem of the coconut palm. Other types of palm sugar are made from the kithul palm ('' Ca ...
),
garlic Garlic (''Allium sativum'') is a species of bulbous flowering plants in the genus '' Allium''. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chives, Welsh onion, and Chinese onion. Garlic is native to central and south Asia, str ...
,
shallot The shallot is a cultivar group of the onion. Until 2010, the (French red) shallot was classified as a separate species, ''Allium ascalonicum''. The taxon was synonymized with '' Allium cepa'' (the common onion) in 2010, as the difference was t ...
s,
ginger Ginger (''Zingiber officinale'') is a flowering plant whose rhizome, ginger root or ginger, is widely used as a spice and a folk medicine. It is an herbaceous perennial that grows annual pseudostems (false stems made of the rolled bases of l ...
,
tamarind Tamarind (''Tamarindus indica'') is a Legume, leguminous tree bearing edible fruit that is indigenous to tropical Africa and naturalized in Asia. The genus ''Tamarindus'' is monotypic taxon, monotypic, meaning that it contains only this spe ...
,
lemon The lemon (''Citrus'' × ''limon'') is a species of small evergreen tree in the ''Citrus'' genus of the flowering plant family Rutaceae. A true lemon is a hybrid of the citron and the bitter orange. Its origins are uncertain, but some ...
juice, lemongrass,
salt In common usage, salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl). When used in food, especially in granulated form, it is more formally called table salt. In the form of a natural crystalline mineral, salt is also known as r ...
, chilli, peppercorns, sweet
soy sauce Soy sauce (sometimes called soya sauce in British English) is a liquid condiment of China, Chinese origin, traditionally made from a fermentation (food), fermented paste of soybeans, roasted cereal, grain, brine, and ''Aspergillus oryzae'' or ''A ...
, ground together and mixed with water to form the right consistency. The secret to good peanut sauce is "not too thick and not too watery". Indonesian peanut sauce tends to be less sweet than the Thai version, which is a hybrid adaptation. ''Gado-gado'' is a popular dish particularly associated with ''bumbu kacang'', and is eaten across Indonesia.


Coconut milk

Coconut The coconut tree (''Cocos nucifera'') is a member of the palm tree family (biology), family (Arecaceae) and the only living species of the genus ''Cocos''. The term "coconut" (or the archaic "cocoanut") can refer to the whole coconut palm, ...
s are abundant in tropical Indonesia, and since ancient times Indonesians developed many and various uses for this plant. The broad use of
coconut milk Coconut milk is a plant milk extracted from the grated pulp of mature coconuts. The opacity and rich taste of the milky-white liquid are due to its high oil content, most of which is saturated fat. Coconut milk is a traditional food ingred ...
in dishes throughout the archipelago is another common characteristic of Indonesian cuisine. It is used in recipes ranging from savoury dishes – such as '' rendang'', '' soto'', '' gulai'', '' mie koclok'', '' sayur lodeh'', ''
gudeg Gudeg is a traditional Javanese cuisine, Javanese dish from Yogyakarta, Indonesia. It is made from young, unripe jackfruit (, ) stewed for several hours with palm sugar and coconut milk. It is variously spiced with garlic, shallot, candlenut, c ...
'', and '' opor ayam'' – to
dessert Dessert is a course (food), course that concludes a meal; the course consists of sweet foods, such as cake, biscuit, ice cream, and possibly a beverage, such as dessert wine or liqueur. Some cultures sweeten foods that are more commonly umami, ...
s – such as ''es
cendol Cendol is an iced sweet dessert that contains pandan-flavoured green rice flour jelly, coconut milk, and palm sugar syrup. It is popular in the Southeast Asian nations of Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, Cambodia, East Timor, Laos, Vietnam, Thai ...
'' and '' es doger''. The use of coconut milk is not exclusive to Indonesian cuisine. It can also be found in Indian, Samoan, Thai, Malaysian, Filipino, and Brazilian cuisines. Nonetheless, the use of coconut milk is quite extensive in Indonesia, especially in Minangkabau cuisine and Gorontalese cuisine, although in Minahasan (
North Sulawesi North Sulawesi () is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia. It is mainly located on the Minahasa Peninsula of the island of Sulawesi, south of the Philippines and southeast of Sabah, Malaysia, but also includes various small archipel ...
) cuisine, coconut milk is generally absent, except in Minahasan cakes and desserts such as '' klappertaart''. In Indonesian cuisine, two types of coconut milk are found, thin coconut milk and thick coconut milk. The difference depends on the water and oil content. Thin coconut milk is usually used for soups such as ''sayur lodeh'' and ''soto'', while the thicker variety is used for ''rendang'' and desserts. It can be made from freshly shredded coconut meat in traditional markets, or can be found processed in cartons at the supermarket. After the milk has been extracted from the shredded coconut flesh to make coconut milk, the ''ampas kelapa'' (leftover coconut flesh) can still be used in ''urap'', seasoned and spiced shredded coconut meat mixed together with vegetables. Leftover shredded coconut can also be cooked, sauteed and seasoned to make '' serundeng'', almost powdery sweet and spicy finely shredded coconut. Kerisik paste, added to thicken rendang, is another use of coconut flesh. To acquire a rich taste, some households insist on using freshly shredded coconut, instead of leftover, for ''urap'' and ''serundeng''. ''Serundeng'' can be mixed with meat in dishes such as ''serundeng daging'' (beef serundeng) or sprinkled on top of other dishes such as ''soto'' or ''ketan'' (
sticky rice Sticky may refer to: Adhesion *Adhesion, the tendency of dissimilar particles or surfaces to cling to one another *Sticky mat, an adhesive mat used in cleanrooms to lessen contamination from footwear *Sticky note, a generic term for a Post-it Note ...
). An example of the heavy use of coconut is '' burasa'' from
Makassar Makassar ( ), formerly Ujung Pandang ( ), is the capital of the Indonesian Provinces of Indonesia, province of South Sulawesi. It is the largest city in the region of Eastern Indonesia and the country's fifth-largest urban center after Jakarta, ...
, rice wrapped in banana leaf cooked with coconut milk and sprinkled with powdered coconut similar to ''serundeng''.


Cooking method

Most of the common Indonesian dishes are named according to their main ingredients and cooking method. For example, '' ayam goreng'' is ''ayam'' (chicken) and ''goreng'' (frying), which denotes
fried chicken Fried chicken, also called Southern fried chicken, is a dish consisting of chicken pieces that have been coated with seasoned flour or batter and pan-fried, deep fried, pressure fried, or air fried. The breading adds a crisp coating or ...
. '' Mie goreng'' is fried noodle, '' ikan bakar'' is grilled fish, ''udang rebus'' is boiled shrimp, '' babi panggang'' is roasted pork and ''tumis kangkung'' is stir fried water spinach. Cooking methods in Indonesian kitchen are ''goreng'' (
frying Frying is the cooking of food in cooking oil, oil or another fat. Similar to sautéing, pan-fried foods are generally turned over once or twice during cooking to make sure that the food is evenly cooked, using tongs or a spatula, whilst sautéed ...
) either in a small amount of oil or
deep frying Deep frying (also referred to as deep fat frying) is a cooking method in which food is submerged in hot fat, traditionally lard but today most commonly Cooking oil, oil, as opposed to the shallow frying used in conventional frying done in a fryi ...
with a lot of cooking oil, ''tumis'' ( stir frying), ''sangrai'' (
sautéing Sautéing or sauteing (, ; , , 'jumped', 'bounced', in reference to tossing while cooking) is a method of cooking that uses a relatively small amount of oil or fat in a shallow pan over relatively high heat. Various sauté methods exist. Descr ...
). Roasting methods are ''bakar'' (
grilling Grilling is a form of cooking that involves heat applied to the surface of food, commonly from above, below or from the side. Grilling usually involves a significant amount of direct, radiant heat, and tends to be used for cooking meat and v ...
) usually employing
charcoal Charcoal is a lightweight black carbon residue produced by strongly heating wood (or other animal and plant materials) in minimal oxygen to remove all water and volatile constituents. In the traditional version of this pyrolysis process, ca ...
,
firewood Firewood is any wooden material that is gathered and used for fuel. Generally, firewood is not heavily processed, and is in some sort of firelog, recognizable log or branch form, compared to other forms of wood fuel like pellet fuel, pellets. ...
, or coconut shell, ''panggang'' (
baking Baking is a method of preparing food that uses dry heat, typically in an oven, but it can also be done in hot ashes, or on hot Baking stone, stones. Bread is the most commonly baked item, but many other types of food can also be baked. Heat is ...
/
roasting Roasting is a cooking method that uses dry heat where hot air covers the food, cooking it evenly on all sides with temperatures of at least from an open flame, oven, or other heat source. Roasting can enhance the flavor through caramelizat ...
) usually refer to baking employing
oven upA double oven A ceramic oven An oven is a tool that is used to expose materials to a hot environment. Ovens contain a hollow chamber and provide a means of heating the chamber in a controlled way. In use since antiquity, they have been use ...
. Other methods are ''rebus'' (
boiling Boiling or ebullition is the rapid phase transition from liquid to gas or vapor, vapour; the reverse of boiling is condensation. Boiling occurs when a liquid is heated to its boiling point, so that the vapour pressure of the liquid is equal to ...
), ''kukus'' (
steaming Steaming is a method of cooking using steam. This is often done with a food steamer, a kitchen appliance made specifically to cook food with steam, but food can also be steamed in a wok. In the American Southwest, steam pits used for cooking ha ...
) and ''asap''/''salai'' (
smoking Smoking is a practice in which a substance is combusted, and the resulting smoke is typically inhaled to be tasted and absorbed into the bloodstream of a person. Most commonly, the substance used is the dried leaves of the tobacco plant, whi ...
). The fire used in cooking can be either a strong fire or a small fire for slow cooking. Cooking ''
nasi goreng ''Nasi goreng'' (English pronunciation: ), (Indonesian language, Indonesian and Malay language, Malay for 'fried rice') is a Southeast Asian rice dish with pieces of meat and vegetables added. It can refer simply to fried pre-cooked rice, a me ...
'' usually employs strong fire, while authentic '' rendang'' for example requires a small fire for slow cooking of beef, spices, and coconut milk until the meat is caramelised and all the coconut milk's liquid has evaporated. Traditional Indonesian ''dapur'' (
kitchen A kitchen is a room (architecture), room or part of a room used for cooking and food preparation in a dwelling or in a commercial establishment. A modern middle-class residential kitchen is typically equipped with a Kitchen stove, stove, a sink ...
) usually employs firewood-fuelled
kitchen stove A kitchen stove, often called simply a stove or a cooker, is a kitchen appliance designed for the purpose of cooking food. Kitchen stoves rely on the application of Heat transfer#Conduction, direct heat for the cooking process and may also conta ...
, while the contemporary household today uses
liquefied petroleum gas Liquefied petroleum gas, also referred to as liquid petroleum gas (LPG or LP gas), is a fuel gas which contains a flammable mixture of hydrocarbon gases, specifically propane, Butane, ''n''-butane and isobutane. It can also contain some ...
-fuelled stove or an electric stove. The ingredients could be cut into pieces, sliced thinly, or ground into a paste. Cooking utensils are ''wajan'' ( wok), ''penggorengan'' ( frying pan), ''panci'' ( cauldron), knives, several types of
spoon A spoon (, ) is a utensil consisting of a shallow bowl (also known as a head), oval or round, at the end of a handle. A type of cutlery (sometimes called flatware in the United States), especially as part of a table setting, place setting, it ...
and fork, ''parutan'' (shredder), ''cobek'' and ''ulekan'' (stone
mortar and pestle A mortar and pestle is a set of two simple tools used to prepare ingredients or substances by compression (physics), crushing and shear force, grinding them into a fine Paste (rheology), paste or powder in the kitchen, laboratory, and pharmacy. ...
). Traditionally Indonesians use a stone mortar and a pestle to grind the spices and ingredients into coarse or fine pastes. Today most households use blender or
food processor A food processor is a kitchen appliance used to facilitate repetitive tasks in the preparation of food. Today, the term almost always refers to an electric-motor-driven appliance, although there are some manual devices also referred to as "food ...
for the task. Traditional Indonesian cooking wares are usually made from stone,
earthenware Earthenware is glazed or unglazed Vitrification#Ceramics, nonvitreous pottery that has normally been fired below . Basic earthenware, often called terracotta, absorbs liquids such as water. However, earthenware can be made impervious to liquids ...
pottery Pottery is the process and the products of forming vessels and other objects with clay and other raw materials, which are fired at high temperatures to give them a hard and durable form. The place where such wares are made by a ''potter'' is al ...
, wood, and woven bamboo or a rattan container or filter, while contemporary cooking wares, plates and containers use metals – iron, tin, stainless steel, aluminium, ceramics, plastics, and also glass.


National dishes

Initially during the early years of Indonesian independence, the ubiquitous and highly popular ''
nasi goreng ''Nasi goreng'' (English pronunciation: ), (Indonesian language, Indonesian and Malay language, Malay for 'fried rice') is a Southeast Asian rice dish with pieces of meat and vegetables added. It can refer simply to fried pre-cooked rice, a me ...
'' was considered the
national dish A national dish is a culinary Dish (food), dish that is strongly associated with a particular country. A dish can be considered a national dish for a variety of reasons: * It is a staple food, made from a selection of locally available foodstuffs ...
of the republic, albeit at that time was unofficial. Its simplicity and versatility has contributed to its popularity and made it as a staple among Indonesian households—colloquially considered the most "democratic" dish since the absence of an exact and rigid recipe has allowed people to do anything they want with it. ''Nasi goreng'' that is commonly consumed daily in Indonesian households was considered the quintessential dish that represent an Indonesian family. It is in the menu, introduced, offered and served in Indonesian Theatre Restaurant within the Indonesian pavilion at the
1964 New York World's Fair The 1964 New York World's Fair (also known as the 1964–1965 New York World's Fair) was an world's fair, international exposition at Flushing Meadows–Corona Park in Queens, New York City, United States. The fair included exhibitions, activ ...
. Howard Palfrey Jones, the US ambassador to Indonesia during the last years of
Sukarno Sukarno (6 June 1901 – 21 June 1970) was an Indonesian statesman, orator, revolutionary, and nationalist who was the first president of Indonesia, serving from 1945 to 1967. Sukarno was the leader of the Indonesian struggle for independenc ...
's reign in the mid 1960s, in his memoir "Indonesia: The Possible Dream", said that he likes ''nasi goreng''. He described his fondness for ''nasi goreng'' cooked by Hartini, one of Sukarno's wives, and praised it as the most delicious ''nasi goreng'' he ever tasted. Nevertheless, other widely popular Indonesian dishes, such as
satay Satay ( , in the US also ), or sate in Indonesia, is a Javanese cuisine, Javanese dish of seasoned, skewered and grilled meat, served with a sauce. Satay originated in Java, but has spread throughout Indonesia, into Southeast Asia, Europe, ...
, '' soto'' and '' gado-gado'' are also considered strong contenders. Soto is ubiquitous in Indonesia and considered one of Indonesia's
national dish A national dish is a culinary Dish (food), dish that is strongly associated with a particular country. A dish can be considered a national dish for a variety of reasons: * It is a staple food, made from a selection of locally available foodstuffs ...
es. In 2014, the Indonesian Ministry of Tourism and Creative Economy in an effort to promote Indonesian cuisine, has chosen ''
tumpeng Tumpeng (Javanese script, Javanese: ; Balinese script, Balinese: ) is an Indonesian cuisine, Indonesian cone-shaped rice dish with side dishes of vegetables and meat originating from Javanese cuisine. Traditionally featured in the ''slametan'' ...
'' as an official Indonesian national dish. Technically ''tumpeng'' refer to the rice cone in the center, while the surrounding various dishes might be taken from any choice of various Indonesian dishes—thus was considered ideal as a national dish that binds the diversity of Indonesia's various culinary traditions. Subsequently the designation of ''tumpeng'' as the single national dish of Indonesia was considered insufficient to describe the diversity of Indonesian culinary traditions. Later in 2018, the same ministry has chosen another additional 5 national dishes of Indonesia; they are '' soto'',
satay Satay ( , in the US also ), or sate in Indonesia, is a Javanese cuisine, Javanese dish of seasoned, skewered and grilled meat, served with a sauce. Satay originated in Java, but has spread throughout Indonesia, into Southeast Asia, Europe, ...
, ''
nasi goreng ''Nasi goreng'' (English pronunciation: ), (Indonesian language, Indonesian and Malay language, Malay for 'fried rice') is a Southeast Asian rice dish with pieces of meat and vegetables added. It can refer simply to fried pre-cooked rice, a me ...
'', '' rendang'' and ''gado-gado''. Satay and ''soto'' are notable and the natural choice to be promoted as Indonesian national dish, since they had transcends the cultural boundaries of myriad ethnic groups of Indonesia—those dishes has been extremely localised and has branched into various recipes nationwide. For example, there are rich variants of satay and ''soto'' recipes throughout Indonesia; from Sumatra to Eastern Indonesia. Each cultures, ethnics, or even cities had adopted these dishes, and thus developed their own version in accordance to their own culture, tradition, creativity, localised taste and preference, also the availability of local ingredients.


Regional dishes


Jakarta

Diverse and eclectic, Betawi cuisine of
Jakarta Jakarta (; , Betawi language, Betawi: ''Jakartè''), officially the Special Capital Region of Jakarta (; ''DKI Jakarta'') and formerly known as Batavia, Dutch East Indies, Batavia until 1949, is the capital and largest city of Indonesia and ...
draw culinary influences from Chinese, Malay, Sundanese, to Arab, Indian and European. Popular Betawi dishes include '' nasi uduk'' (coconut rice), '' sayur asem'' (sweet and sour vegetable soup), '' asinan'' (salad of pickled vegetables), '' gado-gado'', (boiled or blanched vegetables salad in peanut sauce), '' ketoprak'', (vegetables, tofu, rice vermicelli and rice cake in peanut sauce), and '' kerak telor'' (spiced coconut omelette). Born from a creole or hybrid phenomena, the Betawi cuisine is quite similar to the Peranakan cuisine.


West Java

A textural speciality of Sunda (
West Java West Java (, ) is an Indonesian Provinces of Indonesia, province on the western part of the island of Java, with its provincial capital in Bandung. West Java is bordered by the province of Banten and the country's capital region of Jakarta to t ...
) is '' karedok'', a fresh salad made with long beans, bean sprouts, and cucumber with a spicy peanut sauce. Lalab fresh vegetables served with spicy sambal dipping sauce is ubiquitous in Sundanese households and eating establishments. Other Sundanese dishes include '' mie kocok'' which is a beef and egg noodle soup, and '' soto bandung'', a beef and vegetable soup with daikon and lemongrass. A hawker favourite is '' kupat tahu'' (pressed rice, bean sprouts, and tofu with soy and peanut sauce). '' Colenak'' (roasted fermented cassava tapai with sweet coconut sauce) and ''ulen'' (roasted brick of sticky rice with peanut sauce) are dishes usually eaten warm.


Central Java

The food of
Central Java Central Java (, ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia, located in the middle of the island of Java. Its administrative capital is Semarang. It is bordered by West Java in the west, the Indian Ocean and the Special Region of Yogya ...
is renowned for its sweetness, and the dish of ''
gudeg Gudeg is a traditional Javanese cuisine, Javanese dish from Yogyakarta, Indonesia. It is made from young, unripe jackfruit (, ) stewed for several hours with palm sugar and coconut milk. It is variously spiced with garlic, shallot, candlenut, c ...
'', a
curry Curry is a dish with a sauce or gravy seasoned with spices, mainly derived from the interchange of Indian cuisine with European taste in food, starting with the Portuguese, followed by the Dutch and British, and then thoroughly internatio ...
made from
jackfruit The jackfruit or ''nangka'' (''Artocarpus heterophyllus'') is a species of tree in the Common fig, fig, mulberry, and breadfruit family (Moraceae). The jackfruit is the largest tree fruit, reaching as much as in weight, in length, and in d ...
, is particularly sweet. The city of
Yogyakarta Yogyakarta is the capital city of the Special Region of Yogyakarta in Indonesia, in the south-central part of the island of Java. As the only Indonesian royal city still ruled by Hamengkubuwono, a monarchy, Yogyakarta is regarded as an importan ...
is renowned for its '' ayam goreng'' (fried
chicken The chicken (''Gallus gallus domesticus'') is a domesticated subspecies of the red junglefowl (''Gallus gallus''), originally native to Southeast Asia. It was first domesticated around 8,000 years ago and is now one of the most common and w ...
) and '' klepon'' (green rice-flour balls with
palm sugar Palm sugar is a sweetener derived from any variety of palm tree. Palm sugar may be qualified by the type of palm, as in coconut palm sugar. While sugars from different palms may have slightly different compositions, all are processed simila ...
filling).
Surakarta Surakarta (Javanese script, Javanese: , Pegon script, Pegon: ), known colloquially as Solo (Javanese script, Javanese: ; ), is a major List of regencies and cities of Indonesia, city in Central Java, Indonesia. The city adjoins Karanganyar Reg ...
's (Solo) specialities include ''
nasi liwet Nasi may refer to: Food Dishes Nasi Goreng is an Indonesian and Malay word for ''cooked rice'', featured in many Southeast Asian dishes *Nasi goreng, a popular rice dish often simply called ''nasi'' *Other Southeast Asian ''nasi'' dishes: **Nasi ...
'' (rice with coconut milk, unripe
papaya The papaya (, ), papaw, () or pawpaw () is the plant species ''Carica papaya'', one of the 21 accepted species in the genus '' Carica'' of the family Caricaceae, and also the name of its fruit. It was first domesticated in Mesoamerica, within ...
,
garlic Garlic (''Allium sativum'') is a species of bulbous flowering plants in the genus '' Allium''. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chives, Welsh onion, and Chinese onion. Garlic is native to central and south Asia, str ...
and
shallot The shallot is a cultivar group of the onion. Until 2010, the (French red) shallot was classified as a separate species, ''Allium ascalonicum''. The taxon was synonymized with '' Allium cepa'' (the common onion) in 2010, as the difference was t ...
s, served with chicken or egg) and '' serabi'' (coconut milk pancakes topped with
chocolate Chocolate is a food made from roasted and ground cocoa beans that can be a liquid, solid, or paste, either by itself or to flavoring, flavor other foods. Cocoa beans are the processed seeds of the cacao tree (''Theobroma cacao''); unprocesse ...
,
banana A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large treelike herbaceous flowering plants in the genus '' Musa''. In some countries, cooking bananas are called plantains, distinguishing the ...
or jackfruit). Other Central Javanese specialities include '' pecel'' (peanut sauce with
spinach Spinach (''Spinacia oleracea'') is a leafy green flowering plant native to Central Asia, Central and Western Asia. It is of the order Caryophyllales, family Amaranthaceae, subfamily Chenopodioideae. Its leaves are a common vegetable consumed eit ...
and bean sprouts), ''lotek'' (peanut sauce with vegetable and pressed rice), and '' opor ayam'' (braised chicken in coconut sauce).


East Java

The food of
East Java East Java (, , ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia located in the easternmost third of Java island. It has a land border only with the province of Central Java to the west; the Java Sea and the Indian Ocean border its northern ...
is similar to that of Central Java. East Java foods tend to be less sweet and more spicier compare to the Central Javanese ones. Fish and fish/seafood products are quite extensively, e.g. '' terasi'' (dried
shrimp A shrimp (: shrimp (American English, US) or shrimps (British English, UK)) is a crustacean with an elongated body and a primarily Aquatic locomotion, swimming mode of locomotion – typically Decapods belonging to the Caridea or Dendrobranchi ...
paste) and '' petis udang'' (shrimp paste). Some of the more popular foods are lontong kupang (tiny clams soup with rice cakes), '' lontong balap'' (bean sprouts and
tofu or bean curd is a food prepared by Coagulation (milk), coagulating soy milk and then pressing the resulting curds into solid white blocks of varying softness: ''silken'', ''soft'', ''firm'', and ''extra (or super) firm''. It originated in Chin ...
with rice cakes), '' sate klopo'' (coconut beef satay), '' semanggi surabaya'' ( marsilea leaves with spicy
sweet potato The sweet potato or sweetpotato (''Ipomoea batatas'') is a dicotyledonous plant in the morning glory family, Convolvulaceae. Its sizeable, starchy, sweet-tasting tuberous roots are used as a root vegetable, which is a staple food in parts of ...
sauce), '' pecel lele'' (deep fried
catfish Catfish (or catfishes; order (biology), order Siluriformes or Nematognathi) are a diverse group of ray-finned fish. Catfish are common name, named for their prominent barbel (anatomy), barbels, which resemble a cat's whiskers, though not ...
served with rice and sambal), '' rawon'' (dark beef soup). Food from
Malang Malang (; , ), historically known as Tumapel, is an inland List of regencies and cities of Indonesia, city in the Indonesian Provinces of Indonesia, province of East Java. It has a history dating back to the age of the Singhasari, Singhasari K ...
includes '' bakso malang'' (meatball soup with won ton and noodles) and ' (pressed rice, tempe, sprouts, soy sauce, coconut, and peanuts).''


Madura

Madura is an list of islands of Indonesia, Indonesian island off the northeastern coast of Java. The island comprises an area of approximately (administratively including various smaller islands to the east, southeast and north that are administratively ...
is an island on the northeastern coast of Java and is administered as part of the East Java province. Like the Eastern Javanese foods which use ''petis udang'', Madura foods add ''petis ikan'' which is made from fish instead of shrimp. The Madura style
satay Satay ( , in the US also ), or sate in Indonesia, is a Javanese cuisine, Javanese dish of seasoned, skewered and grilled meat, served with a sauce. Satay originated in Java, but has spread throughout Indonesia, into Southeast Asia, Europe, ...
is probably the most popular satay variants in Indonesia. Some of its popular dishes are '' sate ayam Madura'' (chicken satay with peanut sauce), ''Soto (food)#Varieties, soto Madura'' (beef soup). There is also a mutton variant of Madura satay, Madura goat satay. ''Sup Kambing'' mutton soup is also popular in Madura. As a leading
salt In common usage, salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (NaCl). When used in food, especially in granulated form, it is more formally called table salt. In the form of a natural crystalline mineral, salt is also known as r ...
production center in Indonesian archipelago, Madura dishes are often saltier compared to other Eastern Javanese foods.


Bali

Balinese cuisine dishes include ''lawar'' (chopped
coconut The coconut tree (''Cocos nucifera'') is a member of the palm tree family (biology), family (Arecaceae) and the only living species of the genus ''Cocos''. The term "coconut" (or the archaic "cocoanut") can refer to the whole coconut palm, ...
,
garlic Garlic (''Allium sativum'') is a species of bulbous flowering plants in the genus '' Allium''. Its close relatives include the onion, shallot, leek, chives, Welsh onion, and Chinese onion. Garlic is native to central and south Asia, str ...
, chilli, with
pork Pork is the culinary name for the meat of the pig (''Sus domesticus''). It is the most commonly consumed meat worldwide, with evidence of pig animal husbandry, husbandry dating back to 8000–9000 BCE. Pork is eaten both freshly cooke ...
or
chicken The chicken (''Gallus gallus domesticus'') is a domesticated subspecies of the red junglefowl (''Gallus gallus''), originally native to Southeast Asia. It was first domesticated around 8,000 years ago and is now one of the most common and w ...
meat and blood). ''Bebek betutu'' is duck stuffed with spices, wrapped in
banana A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large treelike herbaceous flowering plants in the genus '' Musa''. In some countries, cooking bananas are called plantains, distinguishing the ...
leaves and coconut husks cooked in a pit of embers. Balinese ''sate'', known as ''sate lilit'', is made from spiced mince pressed onto skewers which are often made from lemon grass sticks. ''Babi guling'' is a spit-roasted pig stuffed with chilli,
turmeric Turmeric (), or ''Curcuma longa'' (), is a flowering plant in the ginger family Zingiberaceae. It is a perennial, rhizomatous, herbaceous plant native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia that requires temperatures between and high ...
, garlic, and
ginger Ginger (''Zingiber officinale'') is a flowering plant whose rhizome, ginger root or ginger, is widely used as a spice and a folk medicine. It is an herbaceous perennial that grows annual pseudostems (false stems made of the rolled bases of l ...
. ''Basa gede'' or ''basa rajang'' is a spice paste that is a basic ingredient in many Balinese dishes.


Batak

Batak (Indonesia), Batak people use either
pork Pork is the culinary name for the meat of the pig (''Sus domesticus''). It is the most commonly consumed meat worldwide, with evidence of pig animal husbandry, husbandry dating back to 8000–9000 BCE. Pork is eaten both freshly cooke ...
or even Dog meat, dog to make ''saksang''. Another Batak pork speciality is '' babi panggang'' in which the meat is boiled in vinegar and pig blood before being roasted. Another batak dish, ''ayam namargota'', is
chicken The chicken (''Gallus gallus domesticus'') is a domesticated subspecies of the red junglefowl (''Gallus gallus''), originally native to Southeast Asia. It was first domesticated around 8,000 years ago and is now one of the most common and w ...
cooked in spices and blood. Another notable Batak dish is ''arsik'', the
carp The term carp (: carp) is a generic common name for numerous species of freshwater fish from the family (biology), family Cyprinidae, a very large clade of ray-finned fish mostly native to Eurasia. While carp are prized game fish, quarries and a ...
fish cooked with spices and herbs. Within Batak cuisine, andaliman (Zanthoxylum acanthopodium) is often used as a spice.


Aceh

Arab, Persian, and
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
n traders influenced food in Aceh although flavours have changed a lot their original forms. Amongst these are
curry Curry is a dish with a sauce or gravy seasoned with spices, mainly derived from the interchange of Indian cuisine with European taste in food, starting with the Portuguese, followed by the Dutch and British, and then thoroughly internatio ...
dishes known as ''kare'' or ''gulai'', which are rich,
coconut The coconut tree (''Cocos nucifera'') is a member of the palm tree family (biology), family (Arecaceae) and the only living species of the genus ''Cocos''. The term "coconut" (or the archaic "cocoanut") can refer to the whole coconut palm, ...
-based dishes traditionally made with
beef Beef is the culinary name for meat from cattle (''Bos taurus''). Beef can be prepared in various ways; Cut of beef, cuts are often used for steak, which can be cooked to varying degrees of doneness, while trimmings are often Ground beef, grou ...
, goat, fish or
poultry Poultry () are domesticated birds kept by humans for the purpose of harvesting animal products such as meat, Eggs as food, eggs or feathers. The practice of animal husbandry, raising poultry is known as poultry farming. These birds are most typ ...
, but are now also made with
tofu or bean curd is a food prepared by Coagulation (milk), coagulating soy milk and then pressing the resulting curds into solid white blocks of varying softness: ''silken'', ''soft'', ''firm'', and ''extra (or super) firm''. It originated in Chin ...
, vegetables, and
jackfruit The jackfruit or ''nangka'' (''Artocarpus heterophyllus'') is a species of tree in the Common fig, fig, mulberry, and breadfruit family (Moraceae). The jackfruit is the largest tree fruit, reaching as much as in weight, in length, and in d ...
. The popular Aceh food such as ''roti cane'', ''mie aceh'' and ''nasi gurih''.


West Sumatra

Water Buffalo, Buffaloes are a symbol of West Sumatra and are used in '' rendang'', a rich and spicy buffalo meat or beef dish, which is also the signature dish of Minangkabau culture. In 2017, rendang was chosen as the "World's Most Delicious Food" by the CNN Travel reader's choice. Padang food comes from West Sumatra, and they have perhaps the richest variants of '' gulai'', a type of curried meat, offal, fish or vegetables. Padang favourite includes ''Asam pedas, asam padeh'' (sour and spicy fish stew), ''sate Padang'' (Padang satay), ''soto Padang'' (Padang soto) and ''Ketupat#Ketupat sayur, katupek sayua'' (ketupat
rice Rice is a cereal grain and in its Domestication, domesticated form is the staple food of over half of the world's population, particularly in Asia and Africa. Rice is the seed of the grass species ''Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice)—or, much l ...
dumpling in vegetable soup). Dishes from the region include ''nasi kapau'' from Bukittinggi, which is similar to Padang food but uses more vegetables. ''Ampiang dadiah'' (buffalo yogurt with
palm sugar Palm sugar is a sweetener derived from any variety of palm tree. Palm sugar may be qualified by the type of palm, as in coconut palm sugar. While sugars from different palms may have slightly different compositions, all are processed simila ...
syrup,
coconut The coconut tree (''Cocos nucifera'') is a member of the palm tree family (biology), family (Arecaceae) and the only living species of the genus ''Cocos''. The term "coconut" (or the archaic "cocoanut") can refer to the whole coconut palm, ...
flesh and rice) and ''bubur kampiun'' (Mung bean porridge with
banana A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large treelike herbaceous flowering plants in the genus '' Musa''. In some countries, cooking bananas are called plantains, distinguishing the ...
and rice yogurt) are other West Sumatran specialties. Traditionally, Minangkabau people adheres to ''merantau'' (migrating) culture, and they are avid restaurant entrepreneurs. As a result, Padang food restaurant chains can be found throughout Indonesia and neighbouring countries, likely making it the most popular regional dish in Indonesia. Outside of West Sumatra, such as in
Java Java is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea (a part of Pacific Ocean) to the north. With a population of 156.9 million people (including Madura) in mid 2024, proje ...
, most Padang Restaurants still use buffalo to make rendang, but claim it is Rendang Sapi for selling purposes, due to buffalo meat being "inferior" and cheaper than cow meat. Buffalo meat is harder, so it is more suitable for rendang which has a cooking time of at least 3 hours, and presents a coarser texture and a redder color compared to cow meat when it is fully cooked.


East Sumatra

The cuisine of east coast of Sumatra is referring to the culinary tradition of ethnic Malays of Malay Indonesian, Indonesian Sumatran provinces facing Malacca strait; which includes
Riau Riau (Jawi script, Jawi: ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia. It is located on the central eastern coast of the island of Sumatra, and extends from the eastern slopes of the Barisan Mountains to the Malacca Strait, including s ...
, Riau Islands,
Jambi Jambi is a province of Indonesia. It is located on the east coast of central Sumatra Sumatra () is one of the Sunda Islands of western Indonesia. It is the largest island that is fully within Indonesian territory, as well as the list of i ...
provinces and coastal
North Sumatra North Sumatra () is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia located in the northern part of the island of Sumatra. Its capital and largest city is Medan on the east coast of the island. It borders Aceh to the northwest, Riau to the sou ...
in Melayu Deli areas in and around Medan. Because of close ethnic kinship and proximity to Malaysian Malays, many dishes are shared between the two countries. For example ''nasi lemak'', the national dish of Malaysia, and also ''nasi ulam'' are considered native dishes in Riau and Jambi. Malay cuisine also shares many similarities with neighboring Minangkabau cuisine of West Sumatra, South Sumatra, and also
Aceh Aceh ( , ; , Jawi script, Jawoë: ; Van Ophuijsen Spelling System, Old Spelling: ''Atjeh'') is the westernmost Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia. It is located on the northern end of Sumatra island, with Banda Aceh being its capit ...
; such as sharing '' gulai'', ''asam pedas'', ''pindang'', ''curry, kari'', ''lemang'' and '' rendang''. This is due to the fact that the Minangkabau are culturally closely related to the Malays. ''Tempoyak'' fermented durian sauce and ''sambal, sambal belacan'' are the familiar condiments in both Sumatra and Malay Peninsula. Variants of peranakan cuisine such as '' laksa'' spicy noodle and '' otak-otak'' are also can be found in Riau Islands and Medan. Seafood dishes are popular in archipelagic Riau Islands province, while fresh water fishes from Sumatran rivers, such as ''pangasius, patin'',
catfish Catfish (or catfishes; order (biology), order Siluriformes or Nematognathi) are a diverse group of ray-finned fish. Catfish are common name, named for their prominent barbel (anatomy), barbels, which resemble a cat's whiskers, though not ...
,
carp The term carp (: carp) is a generic common name for numerous species of freshwater fish from the family (biology), family Cyprinidae, a very large clade of ray-finned fish mostly native to Eurasia. While carp are prized game fish, quarries and a ...
and
gourami Gouramis, or gouramies , are a group of fresh water, freshwater Anabantiformes, anabantiform fish that comprise the family (biology), family Osphronemidae. The fish are native to Asia—from the Indian Subcontinent to Southeast Asia and northeas ...
are popular in Riau and Jambi. ''Gulai ikan patin'' is a signature dish of Pekanbaru, while ''gulai ketam'' (crab gulai) and ''nasi goreng teri Medan'' (Medan anchovy fried rice) are the signature dishes of Medan.


South Sumatra

The city of Palembang is the culinary centre of South Sumatra and is renowned for its ''pempek'', a deep fried fish and
sago Sago () is a starch extracted from the pith, or spongy core tissue, of various tropical palm stems, especially those of ''Metroxylon sagu''. It is a major staple food for the lowland peoples of New Guinea and the Maluku Islands, where it is c ...
dumpling that is also known as ''empek-empek''. ''Pempek'' is served in distinctive ''kuah cuko'', a sweet, sour and spicy sauce made from palm sugar, chili, tamarind and vinegar. ''Pempek'' derivatives dishes are ''tekwan'' soup of ''pempek'' dumpling, Edible mushroom, mushroom, vegetables, and
shrimp A shrimp (: shrimp (American English, US) or shrimps (British English, UK)) is a crustacean with an elongated body and a primarily Aquatic locomotion, swimming mode of locomotion – typically Decapods belonging to the Caridea or Dendrobranchi ...
, ''lenggang'' or ''pempek'' slices in omelette. ''Mie celor'' is a noodle dish with egg in coconut milk and dried shrimp, it is a Palembang speciality. The cuisine of Palembang demonstrates various influences, from native Palembang Malay taste to Chinese and Javanese influences. ''Pempek'' is said to be influenced by Chinese fish cake akin to ''surimi'', while the preference of mild sweetness is said to be of Javanese influence. South Sumatra is home to '' pindang'', a sweet, sour and spicy fish soup made from soy sauce and
tamarind Tamarind (''Tamarindus indica'') is a Legume, leguminous tree bearing edible fruit that is indigenous to tropical Africa and naturalized in Asia. The genus ''Tamarindus'' is monotypic taxon, monotypic, meaning that it contains only this spe ...
. ''Pindang'' dishes usually uses either freshwater fishes and seafood as ingredients. ''Ikan brengkes'' is fish in a spicy durian-based sauce. ''Tempoyak'' is a sauce of shrimp paste, lime juice, chilli and fermented durian, and ''Sambal matah, sambal buah'' is a chilli sauce made from fruit.


North Sulawesi

Manado cuisine of
Minahasa The Minahasans or Minahassa are an Austronesian people, Austronesian ethnic group native to North Sulawesi province of Indonesia, formerly known as North Celebes. The Minahasa people sometimes refer to themselves as Manado people. Although the M ...
n people from
North Sulawesi North Sulawesi () is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia. It is mainly located on the Minahasa Peninsula of the island of Sulawesi, south of the Philippines and southeast of Sabah, Malaysia, but also includes various small archipel ...
features the heavy use of meat such as
pork Pork is the culinary name for the meat of the pig (''Sus domesticus''). It is the most commonly consumed meat worldwide, with evidence of pig animal husbandry, husbandry dating back to 8000–9000 BCE. Pork is eaten both freshly cooke ...
, fowl, and
seafood Seafood is any form of Marine life, sea life regarded as food by humans, prominently including Fish as food, fish and shellfish. Shellfish include various species of Mollusca, molluscs (e.g., bivalve molluscs such as clams, oysters, and mussel ...
. ''Woku'' is a type of seafood dish with generous use of spices, often making up half the dish. The ingredients include lemongrass, lime leaves,
chili pepper Chili peppers, also spelled chile or chilli ( ), are varieties of fruit#Berries, berry-fruit plants from the genus ''Capsicum'', which are members of the nightshade family Solanaceae, cultivated for their pungency. They are used as a spice to ...
s, spring onion,
shallot The shallot is a cultivar group of the onion. Until 2010, the (French red) shallot was classified as a separate species, ''Allium ascalonicum''. The taxon was synonymized with '' Allium cepa'' (the common onion) in 2010, as the difference was t ...
s, either sautéed with meat or wrapped around fish and grilled covered in
banana A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large treelike herbaceous flowering plants in the genus '' Musa''. In some countries, cooking bananas are called plantains, distinguishing the ...
leaves. Other ingredients such as
turmeric Turmeric (), or ''Curcuma longa'' (), is a flowering plant in the ginger family Zingiberaceae. It is a perennial, rhizomatous, herbaceous plant native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia that requires temperatures between and high ...
and
ginger Ginger (''Zingiber officinale'') is a flowering plant whose rhizome, ginger root or ginger, is widely used as a spice and a folk medicine. It is an herbaceous perennial that grows annual pseudostems (false stems made of the rolled bases of l ...
are often added to create a version of woku. Other Minahasan signature dishes are ''tinutuan'', chicken ''tuturuga'', ''rica-rica'' and ''cakalang fufu''. Foreign colonial influence played a role in shaping Minahasan cuisine. Several cakes and pastries explicitly show Dutch, Portuguese and Spanish influences such as '' klappertaart'' and ''Empanada, panada''. ''Brenebon'' (from Dutch language, Dutch ''bruin'' (brown) and ''boon'' (bean)) is a pork shank bean stew spiced with
nutmeg Nutmeg is the seed, or the ground spice derived from the seed, of several tree species of the genus '' Myristica''; fragrant nutmeg or true nutmeg ('' M. fragrans'') is a dark-leaved evergreen tree cultivated for two spices derived from its fru ...
and
clove Cloves are the aromatic flower buds of a tree in the family Myrtaceae, ''Syzygium aromaticum'' (). They are native to the Maluku Islands, or Moluccas, in Indonesia, and are commonly used as a spice, flavoring, or Aroma compound, fragrance in fin ...
. Minahasan roast pork similar to lechon in the Philippines or pig roast in Hawaii are served in special occasions, especially weddings. Other unusual and exotic meats such as Dog meat, dog, Bat as food, bat, and Rat meat, forest rat are regularly served in North Sulawesi region. ''Paniki (food), Paniki'' is the bat dish of Minahasa.


Gorontalo

The strategic location of Gorontalo, between the Celebes Sea and Pacific Ocean in the north, and also Gulf of Tomini in the south, has made the Gorontalo, Gorontalo region a strategic shipping route in the past. This long past history has formed the roots of a unique and distinctive culture in Gorontalo, including its unique dishes. Therefore, Gorontalo is also known as the land of spices with a unique taste of culinary. Gorontalese cuisine known for its fresh
seafood Seafood is any form of Marine life, sea life regarded as food by humans, prominently including Fish as food, fish and shellfish. Shellfish include various species of Mollusca, molluscs (e.g., bivalve molluscs such as clams, oysters, and mussel ...
, prepared using a full-palette of spices and herbs. Home of some Gorontalese delicacies such as binte biluhuta, ''ayam iloni'', ''ikan iloni'', Sate Tuna, sate tuna, ''tabu moitomo'', ''sate balanga'', ''sagela'', ''pilitode'', and ''bilentango''. Gorontalo cuisine is also marked by a multi-cultural influence from other communities who migrated to Gorontalo, such as Arabs and Chinese people, Chinese culture. Moreover, Gorontalo's pastries are also famous for their sweetness and it has been influenced by European culture brought by the Dutch colonial empire, Dutch. In 2016, the Gorontalese recipe book: "Trailing the Taste of Gorontalo" won as the "Best in the World" at the Award, Gourmand World Cookbook Award in Yantai,
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
for the Asian cuisine, Asian Cuisine from Asian Books category.


South Sulawesi

Makassar Makassar ( ), formerly Ujung Pandang ( ), is the capital of the Indonesian Provinces of Indonesia, province of South Sulawesi. It is the largest city in the region of Eastern Indonesia and the country's fifth-largest urban center after Jakarta, ...
is one of the culinary centres in Indonesia. Home of some Bugis and Makassar delicacies such as ''Coto Makassar, Coto'', ''Konro'', ''Pallubasa'' and ''Mie Kering''. All of these Makassar foods are usually consumed with burasa, a coconut milk rice dumpling wrapped in a banana leaf, to replace steamed rice or ketupat. As a big fish market centre, Makassar is also famous for its
seafood Seafood is any form of Marine life, sea life regarded as food by humans, prominently including Fish as food, fish and shellfish. Shellfish include various species of Mollusca, molluscs (e.g., bivalve molluscs such as clams, oysters, and mussel ...
. Various '' ikan bakar'' or grilled fish are popular and commonly served in Makassar restaurants, ''warung'' and foodstalls, such as ''ikan bolu bakar'' (grilled milkfish). ''Sop saudara'' from Pangkajene Islands Regency, Pangkep and ''Kapurung'' from Palopo are also famous dishes of South Sulawesi. Another popular cuisine from Makassar is ''Ayam Goreng Sulawesi'' (Celebes fried chicken); the chicken is marinated in a traditional soy sauce for up to 24 hours before being fried into a golden colour. The dish is usually served with chicken broth, rice and special ''sambal'' (chilli sauce). In addition, Makassar is also home of traditional sweet snacks such as ''pisang epe'' (pressed banana), as well as ''pisang ijo'' (green banana). ''Pisang Epe'' is a flat-grilled banana which is pressed, grilled, and covered with palm sugar sauce and sometimes eaten with durian. Many street vendors sell ''pisang epe'', especially around the area of Losari beach. ''Pisang ijo'' is a banana covered with green colored flours, coconut milk, and syrup. ''Pisang ijo'' is sometimes served iced, and often sold and consumed as ''iftar'' to break the fast during Ramadhan.


Nusa Tenggara

With a drier climate in Lesser Sunda Islands, Nusa Tenggara archipelago, there is less rice and more sago, corn, cassava, and taro compared to central and western Indonesia. Fishes are popularly consumed, including ''sepat'' (Trichogaster), which is shredded fish in coconut and young-mango sauce. Lombok's sasak people enjoy spicy food such as '' ayam taliwang'' which is roasted chicken served with peanut, tomato chilli and lime dip. ''Pelecing'' is a spicy sauce used in many dishes made with chilli, shrimp paste, and tomato. A local shrimp paste called ''lengkare'' is used on the island of Lombok. ''Sares'' is made from chilli, coconut juice and banana palm pith and is sometimes mixed with meat. Non meat dishes include ''kelor'' (hot soup with vegetables), ''serebuk'' (vegetables mixed with coconut), and ''timun urap'' (cucumber with coconut, onion and garlic). In East Nusa Tenggara, majority of its inhabitants are Catholics, hence pork is commonly consumed. Popular Timor dishes are ''Se'i'' smoked meat (usually pork), and ''katemak'' vegetable soup.


Maluku and Papua

The Maluku Islands' cuisine is rich with seafood, while the native Papuan food usually consists of roasted boar with
tuber Tubers are a type of enlarged structure that plants use as storage organs for nutrients, derived from stems or roots. Tubers help plants perennate (survive winter or dry months), provide energy and nutrients, and are a means of asexual reproduc ...
s such as
sweet potato The sweet potato or sweetpotato (''Ipomoea batatas'') is a dicotyledonous plant in the morning glory family, Convolvulaceae. Its sizeable, starchy, sweet-tasting tuberous roots are used as a root vegetable, which is a staple food in parts of ...
and
taro Taro (; ''Colocasia esculenta'') is a root vegetable. It is the most widely cultivated species of several plants in the family Araceae that are used as vegetables for their corms, leaves, stems and Petiole (botany), petioles. Taro corms are a ...
. Various types of '' ikan bakar'' (grilled fish) or seafood are eaten with spicy ''Colo-colo (condiment), colo-colo'' condiment. The staple food of Maluku and Papua is
sago Sago () is a starch extracted from the pith, or spongy core tissue, of various tropical palm stems, especially those of ''Metroxylon sagu''. It is a major staple food for the lowland peoples of New Guinea and the Maluku Islands, where it is c ...
, either as a pancake or sago congee called '' papeda'', usually eaten with yellow soup made from tuna, red snapper or other fishes spiced with
turmeric Turmeric (), or ''Curcuma longa'' (), is a flowering plant in the ginger family Zingiberaceae. It is a perennial, rhizomatous, herbaceous plant native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia that requires temperatures between and high ...
, lime, and other spices.


Foreign influences


Indian influences

Indian influence can be observed in Indonesia as early as the 4th century. Following the spread of Islam to Indonesia, Muslim Indian as well as Arab influences made their way into Indonesian cuisine. Andreas Maryoto, a journalist which focus on culinary history, suggests there was at least two waves of Indian culinary influence that made its way into Indonesia. The early arrival was marked by the adoption of Hindu culture that still can be seen in Java. The second wave was came from the Mughal Empire, which was influenced by Islamic culture that has entered the archipelago. This second wave of Indian culinary influence can be seen throughout most of northern Sumatra, especially in Aceh and West Sumatra provinces. Examples include Indian ''martabak'' and ''kari'' (
curry Curry is a dish with a sauce or gravy seasoned with spices, mainly derived from the interchange of Indian cuisine with European taste in food, starting with the Portuguese, followed by the Dutch and British, and then thoroughly internatio ...
) that influenced Sumatran cuisines of Aceh, Minangkabau, and Malay; in addition to Betawi people, Betawi and coastal Javanese cuisine. Some of Aceh and Minangkabau dishes such as ''roti canai, roti cane, Biryani, nasi biryani, nasi kebuli'', and '' gulai kambing'' can trace its origin to Indian influences.


Arab influences

Arab Indonesians brought their legacy of Arab cuisine—originally from Hadhramaut, Hejaz and Egypt—and modified some of the dishes with the addition of Indonesian ingredients. The Arabs arrived in the Nusantara archipelago to trade and spread Islam. ''Nasi kebuli'' for example, is a popular dish among Arab Indonesian community that has made its way into mainstream Indonesian cuisine. In Maluku, ''kue asida'' served during Ramadan for iftar, is believed to be derived from the Middle Eastern asida that was introduced by Arab merchants into the Maluku Islands.


Chinese influences

Chinese Indonesians, Chinese immigration to Indonesia started in the 7th century, and accelerated during Dutch colonial times, thus creating the fusion of Chinese cuisine with indigenous Indonesian style. Similar Chinese-native fusion cuisine phenomena is also observable in neighbouring Malaysia and Singapore as peranakan cuisine. The Chinese cooking style that has influenced Indonesian cuisine was mainly Fujian cuisine, Hokkien cuisine. Some of Chinese Indonesian food retain its Hokkien name; e.g. ''Kwetiau goreng, kwetiau, bakmi, bakcang, bihun'' and ''lumpia''. Some popular Indonesian dishes trace its origin to Chinese influences such as; ''bakso, soto mie, soto, bakpau,
nasi goreng ''Nasi goreng'' (English pronunciation: ), (Indonesian language, Indonesian and Malay language, Malay for 'fried rice') is a Southeast Asian rice dish with pieces of meat and vegetables added. It can refer simply to fried pre-cooked rice, a me ...
, mie goreng, tahu goreng, siomay, pempek, nasi tim, cap cai, Egg foo young, fu yung hai'' and ''swikee''. Some of this Chinese-influenced dishes has been so well-integrated into Indonesian mainstream cuisine that many Indonesian today might not recognise their Chinese-origin and considered them their own.


Dutch influences

The Dutch arrived in Indonesia in the 16th century in search of spices. When the Dutch East India Company (VOC) went bankrupt in 1800, Dutch East Indies, Indonesia became a treasured colony of the Netherlands. Through colonialism, Europeans introduced
bread Bread is a baked food product made from water, flour, and often yeast. It is a staple food across the world, particularly in Europe and the Middle East. Throughout recorded history and around the world, it has been an important part of many cu ...
, cheese, barbecued steak and pancake. Bread, butter and margarine, chocolate sprinkles, sandwiches filled with ham, cheese or fruit jam, ''poffertjes, pannekoek'' and Dutch cheeses are commonly consumed by colonial Dutch and Indo people, Indos during the colonial era. Some of native upperclass ''ningrat'' (nobles) and educated native were exposed to European cuisine; This cuisine was held in high esteem as the cuisine of the upper class of
Dutch East Indies The Dutch East Indies, also known as the Netherlands East Indies (; ), was a Dutch Empire, Dutch colony with territory mostly comprising the modern state of Indonesia, which Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, declared independence on 17 Au ...
society. This led to adoption and fusion of European cuisine into Indonesian cuisine. Several Indonesian food can trace its origin from Dutch influence, such as ''kue odading'' that was derived from Dutch ''oliebollen'', '' semur'' from Dutch ''smoor'', ''perkedel'' from ''frikadeller'', ''sop senerek'' from ''erwtensoep'', ''selat solo'' (solo salad) from ''holland biefstuk''. Some dishes created during the colonial era were influenced by Dutch cuisine, including ''roti bakar'' (grilled bread), ''roti buaya'', ''macaroni schotel'' (macaroni casserole), ''Shepherd's pie, pastel tutup'' (Shepherd's pie), ''bistik jawa'' (Javanese beef steak), ''pea soup, erten'' (pea soup), ''brenebon'' (kidney bean soup) and ''oxtail soup, sop buntut''. Many pastries, cakes and cookies such as ''kue bolu'' (tart), ''lapis legit'' (''spekkoek''), ''lapis Surabaya'' (''spiku''), ''kroket'' (croquette), ''kue bolu kenari'' (''ontbijtkoek''), and ''kastengel'' (''kaasstengels'' or cheese sticks) are come from Dutch influence. Some recipes were invented as Dutch Indies fusion cuisine, using native ingredients but employing European pastry techniques. These include pandan cake and '' klappertaart'' (coconut tart). ''Kue cubit'', commonly sold as a snack at schools and marketplaces, are believed to be derived from ''poffertjes''.


Influence abroad

Conversely, Indonesian cuisine also had influenced the Dutch through their shared colonial heritage. Indonesian cuisine also influencing neighbouring countries through Indonesians migration across the Malacca strait, straits to Malaysia and Singapore.


Malaysia

Because of their proximity, historic migrations and close cultural kinship, Indonesian cuisine also has influenced neighbouring cooking traditions; most notably Malaysian cuisine. Indonesian influence is pervasive in the central state of Negeri Sembilan, which was settled largely by Minangkabau people hailing from West Sumatra and is, thus, reflected in their culture, history and cuisine. Padang food, Minangkabau cuisine influences is profound in Malay cuisine, Malay cooking tradition, as the result both traditions share same dishes; including ''rendang'', ''gulai'', ''asam pedas'' and ''tempoyak''. Rendang is a typical example that has been well-integrated into mainstream Malaysian cuisine and is now considered their own, and popular especially during ''Eid al-Fitr, Hari Raya Aidil Fitri''. In the early 20th century, there are large influx of Sumatrans to Kuala Lumpur and other parts of Malaysia heartland, that led to the popularity of ''Nasi Padang'' (originated from
Padang Padang () is the Capital city, capital and largest city of the Indonesian Provinces of Indonesia, province of West Sumatra. It had a population of 833,562 at the 2010 CensusBiro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2011. and 909,040 at the 2020 Census;Bad ...
city, West Sumatra) not only in Malaysia, but also in Singapore. The Malay cuisine of southernmost state of Johor, reflects the influences of Javanese people, Javanese who settled there for over past two centuries. Popular Javanese-origin dishes in Johor includes ''ayam penyet'', ''nasi ambeng'', ''telur pindang'', '' sayur lodeh'', ''Mie rebus, mee rebus'' and ''pecel, pechal''.


Singapore

Some dishes in Singapore are influenced by Indonesian cuisine. Satay bee hoon has a connection to
Javanese cuisine Javanese cuisine () is the cuisine of Javanese people, a major Native Indonesian, ethnic group in Indonesia in the provinces of Central Java, Yogyakarta, and East Java. Definition Javanese cuisine refers exclusively to the cuisine of Javan ...
. The dish was a product of Teochew Chinese and Javanese culinary cultures. Singaporean rojak has its roots in Indonesia. In cakes and pastries, Indonesian traditional ''kue'' snacks and dessert also has influenced Singapore's ''kueh'' scene, through the migration of Anastasia Liew, a Chinese Indonesian entrepreneur, into the city state and established Bengawan Solo cake shop that has become a Singaporean signature.


Thailand

To a lesser extent, Indonesian cuisine also had influenced Thai cuisine — probably through Malaysian intermediary — such as the introduction of
satay Satay ( , in the US also ), or sate in Indonesia, is a Javanese cuisine, Javanese dish of seasoned, skewered and grilled meat, served with a sauce. Satay originated in Java, but has spread throughout Indonesia, into Southeast Asia, Europe, ...
, from Java to Sumatra, Malay Peninsula, and reached Thailand. ''Thai salads#Other Thai salads, Achat'' ( ), is a Thai pickle which is believed to be derived from Indonesian ''acar''. It is made with cucumber, red chilies, red onions or shallots, vinegar, sugar and salt. It is served as a side dish with the Thai version of satay ().


Netherlands

During the Dutch East Indies, colonial period, the Dutch embraced Indonesian cuisine both at home and abroad. The Indonesian cuisine had influenced colonial Dutch and Indo people that brought Indonesian dishes back to the Netherlands due to repatriation following the independence of Indonesia. C. Countess House of Limburg-Stirum, van Limburg Stirum writes in her book "The Art of Dutch Cooking" (1962): ''There exist countless Indonesian dishes, some of which take hours to prepare; but a few easy ones have become so popular that they can be regarded as "national dishes"''. She then provides recipes for ''
nasi goreng ''Nasi goreng'' (English pronunciation: ), (Indonesian language, Indonesian and Malay language, Malay for 'fried rice') is a Southeast Asian rice dish with pieces of meat and vegetables added. It can refer simply to fried pre-cooked rice, a me ...
'' (fried rice), ''pisang goreng'' (battered, deep fried bananas), ''Lumpia, lumpia goreng'' (fried spring rolls), ''Mie goreng, bami'' (fried noodles), ''
satay Satay ( , in the US also ), or sate in Indonesia, is a Javanese cuisine, Javanese dish of seasoned, skewered and grilled meat, served with a sauce. Satay originated in Java, but has spread throughout Indonesia, into Southeast Asia, Europe, ...
'' (grilled skewered meat), ''satay'' sauce (
peanut sauce Peanut sauce, satay sauce (saté sauce), ''bumbu kacang'', ''sambal kacang'', or ''pecel'' is an Indonesian cuisine, Indonesian sauce made from ground roasted or fried peanuts, widely used in Indonesian cuisine and many other dishes throughout t ...
), and ''sambal, sambal oelek'' (chilli paste). Dutch-Indonesian fusion dishes also exist, of which the most well-known is the rijsttafel ("rice table"), which is an elaborate meal consisting of many (up to several dozens) small dishes (hence filling "an entire table"). While popular in the Netherlands, Rijsttafel is now rare in Indonesia itself. Today, there are many Indonesian restaurants in the Netherlands, especially in large cities like Amsterdam, The Hague, Utrecht and Rotterdam.


Culinary diplomacy

Indonesian cuisine traditionally enjoyed popularity in neighbouring countries; e.g. Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei and Australia, as well as nations that shares historical ties with Indonesia; such as the Netherlands, Suriname, East Timor and South Africa. It is also increasingly popular in Japan and Korea. Learning from the success of other countries culinary diplomacy, especially those of Thailand, Korea and Japan, in 2021, the Indonesian government has launched the "Indonesia Spice Up The World" program, which is a form of coordinated gastrodiplomacy efforts. The programme was launched to promote Indonesian cuisine abroad, to assist Indonesian culinary industry; by helping the local spice products and processed food to find their ways into the global market, and also to assist Indonesian restaurants abroad. The "Indonesia Spice Up The World" program involves government's inter-ministerial institutions, Indonesian food industry, and also the public. The objective of the program is to boost the export value of Indonesian spices and herbs to US$2 billion, and increasing the presence of four thousand Indonesian restaurants abroad by 2024.


Meal times

Indonesians might consume snacks or varieties of small dishes throughout the day. If separate scheduled larger meal is observed, they usually consists of ''sarapan'' or ''makan pagi'' (breakfast), ''makan siang'' (lunch) is often the main meal of the day, followed by ''makan malam'' (dinner). Mealtime is typically a casual and solitary affair, and might be observed differently across region. In western and central Indonesia, the main meal is usually cooked in the late morning, and consumed around midday. In many families there is no set meal time when all members are expected to attend. For this reason, most of the dishes are made so that they can remain edible even if left on the table at room temperature for many hours. The same dishes are then re-heated for the final meal in the evening. Most meals are built around a cone-shaped pile of long-grain, highly polished rice. A meal may include a soup, salad (or more commonly vegetables sautéed with garlic), and another main dish. Whatever the meal, it is accompanied by at least one, and often several, relishes called ''sambals''. Especially for Javanese family, on the table, it is also common to always have chips, that can be ''Krupuk, kerupuk, rempeyek'', or any other chips to accompany the meal. In eastern Indonesia, such as on the islands of Papua and Timor, where the climate is often much drier, the meals can be centred around other sources of carbohydrates such as
sago Sago () is a starch extracted from the pith, or spongy core tissue, of various tropical palm stems, especially those of ''Metroxylon sagu''. It is a major staple food for the lowland peoples of New Guinea and the Maluku Islands, where it is c ...
or root vegetables and starchy tubers. Being east of the Wallace line, the biogeographic realm, and hence the flora and fauna, are quite different from those of the islands to the west, and so the food stuffs are as well.


Feasts


''Tumpeng''

Many Indonesian traditional customs and ceremonies incorporate food and feast, one of the best examples is ''
tumpeng Tumpeng (Javanese script, Javanese: ; Balinese script, Balinese: ) is an Indonesian cuisine, Indonesian cone-shaped rice dish with side dishes of vegetables and meat originating from Javanese cuisine. Traditionally featured in the ''slametan'' ...
''. Originally from
Java Java is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea (a part of Pacific Ocean) to the north. With a population of 156.9 million people (including Madura) in mid 2024, proje ...
, tumpeng is a cone shaped mound of rice surrounded by an assortment of other dishes, officially chosen as Indonesian
national dish A national dish is a culinary Dish (food), dish that is strongly associated with a particular country. A dish can be considered a national dish for a variety of reasons: * It is a staple food, made from a selection of locally available foodstuffs ...
in 2014. Traditionally featured in ''slametan'' ceremonies, the cone of rice is made by using bamboo leaves woven into a cone-shaped container. The rice itself can be plain white steamed rice, ''nasi uduk, uduk'' (rice cooked with coconut milk), or nasi kuning, yellow rice (rice coloured with ''kunyit'', i.e.,
turmeric Turmeric (), or ''Curcuma longa'' (), is a flowering plant in the ginger family Zingiberaceae. It is a perennial, rhizomatous, herbaceous plant native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia that requires temperatures between and high ...
). After it is shaped, the rice cone is surrounded by assorted dishes, such as '' urap'' vegetables, fried chicken, ''semur'' (beef in sweet soy sauce), teri kacang (little dried fish fried with peanuts), fried prawns, ''telur pindang'' (marbleized boiled eggs), shredded omelette, ''tempe orek'' (sweet, dry fried ''tempeh''), ''perkedel kentang'' (mashed potato fritters), ''perkedel jagung'' (corn fritters), ''sambal goreng ati'' (liver in chilli sauce), and many other dishes. Nasi tumpeng probably comes from an ancient Indonesian tradition that revers mountains as the abode of the ancestors and the gods. Rice cone is meant to symbolise the holy mountain. The feast served as some kind of thanksgiving for the abundance of harvest or any other blessings. Because of its festivities and celebratory value, even now tumpeng is sometimes used as an Indonesian counterpart to birthday cake.


''Nasi Padang''

Having Nasi Padang in festive ''hidang'' (serve) style provides opportunity to sample wide array of Padang food in a single setting. ''Nasi Padang'' (Padang-style rice) is the steamed rice served with various choices of pre-cooked Minangkabau cuisine, dishes originated from
Padang Padang () is the Capital city, capital and largest city of the Indonesian Provinces of Indonesia, province of West Sumatra. It had a population of 833,562 at the 2010 CensusBiro Pusat Statistik, Jakarta, 2011. and 909,040 at the 2020 Census;Bad ...
city,
West Sumatra West Sumatra () is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia. It is on the west coast of the island of Sumatra and includes the Mentawai Islands off that coast. West Sumatra borders the Indian Ocean to the west, as well as the provinces of ...
. It is a miniature banquet of meats, fish, vegetables, and spicy sambals eaten with plain white rice. It is the Minangkabau's great contribution to Indonesian cuisine. After the customers are seated, they do not have to order. The waiter with stacked plates upon their hands will immediately serves the dishes directly to the table. The table will quickly be set with dozens of small dishes filled with richly flavoured foods such as beef rendang, various gulais, curried fish, stewed greens (vegetable), greens, chili
eggplant Eggplant (American English, US, Canadian English, CA, Australian English, AU, Philippine English, PH), aubergine (British English, UK, Hiberno English, IE, New Zealand English, NZ), brinjal (Indian English, IN, Singapore English, SG, Malays ...
, curried beef liver, tripe, intestines, or foot tendons, fried beef lung, fried chicken, and of course, sambal. A dozen of dishes is a normal number, it could reach 14 dishes or more. ''Nasi Padang'' is an at-your-table, by-the-plate buffet. Customers take — and pay for — only what they have consumed from this array.


''Rijsttafel''

Another Indonesian feast, the Indonesian rice table, Rijsttafel (from Dutch, meaning 'rice table'), demonstrates both colonial opulence and the diversity of Indonesian cuisine at the same time. The classic style rijsttafel involved serving of up to 40 different dishes by 40 male waiters, bare foot but dressed in formal white uniforms with ''blangkon'' (traditional Javanese caps) on their heads and batik cloth around their waists. In contemporary Indonesian cuisine, it has been adapted into a western style ''prasmanan'' buffet.


''Prasmanan''

When attending the reception of an Indonesian traditional wedding party, office lunch-time meeting, a seminar or dinner gathering, one usually will find themselves queuing to Indonesian ''prasmanan''; a long table filled with wide array of Indonesian dishes. A ''prasmanan'' is quite similar with rijsttafel but minus the ceremonial waiters and usually served fewer choices of dishes compared to its flamboyant colonial predecessor. It is an Indonesian buffet as it employs a long table with a wide range of dishes, both savoury and sweet, served on it. It can usually be found in wedding ceremonies or any other festivities. The layout for an Indonesian wedding ceremony buffet is usually: plates, eating utensils (spoon and fork), and paper napkins placed on one end, followed by rice (plain or fried), a series of Indonesian (and sometimes international) dishes, '' sambal'' and ''krupuk'' (shrimp crackers), and ending with glasses of water on the other end of the table.


Beverages


Non-alcoholic beverages

The most common and popular Indonesian drinks and beverages are ''teh'' (tea) and ''kopi'' (coffee). Indonesian households commonly serve ''teh manis'' (sweet tea) or ''kopi tubruk'' to guests. Since the colonial era of Netherlands East Indies, plantations, especially in Java, were major producers of coffee, tea and
sugar Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. Simple sugars, also called monosaccharides, include glucose Glucose is a sugar with the Chemical formula#Molecular formula, molecul ...
. Since then hot and sweet coffee and tea beverages have been enjoyed by Indonesians. Jasmine tea is the most popular tea variety drunk in Indonesia, however recent health awareness promotions have made green tea a popular choice. Usually coffee and tea are served hot, but cold iced sweet tea is also frequently drunk. Kopi luwak is Indonesian exotic and expensive coffee beverage made from the beans of coffee berries which have been eaten by the Asian palm civet (''Paradoxurus hermaphroditus'') and other related civets. ''Teh botol'', bottled sweet jasmine tea, is now quite popular and locally competes favourably with international bottled soda beverages such as Coca-Cola and Fanta. ''Kopi susu'' (coffee with sweetened condensed milk) is an Indonesian version of Café au lait. Es kelapa muda or young coconut ice is fresh drink which is made from chilled young coconut water, coconut flesh and syrup. It is among favourite beverage in Indonesia. Fruit juices (''jus'') are very popular. Varieties include orange (fruit), orange (''jus jeruk''), guava (''jus jambu''), mango (''jus mangga''), soursop (''jus sirsak'') and avocado (''jus alpokat''), the last of these being commonly served with condensed milk and chocolate syrup as a dessert-like treat. Durian can be made into ice cream called ''es durian''. Many popular drinks are based on ice (''es'') and can also be classified as desserts. Typical examples include young coconut (''es kelapa muda''), grass jelly (''es cincau''),
cendol Cendol is an iced sweet dessert that contains pandan-flavoured green rice flour jelly, coconut milk, and palm sugar syrup. It is popular in the Southeast Asian nations of Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, Cambodia, East Timor, Laos, Vietnam, Thai ...
(''es cendol'' or ''es dawet''), avocado,
jackfruit The jackfruit or ''nangka'' (''Artocarpus heterophyllus'') is a species of tree in the Common fig, fig, mulberry, and breadfruit family (Moraceae). The jackfruit is the largest tree fruit, reaching as much as in weight, in length, and in d ...
and coconut with shredded ice and condensed milk (''es teler''), mixed ice (''es campur''), kidney beans (''es kacang merah''), musk melon (''es blewah''), and seaweed (''es rumput laut''). Hot sweet beverages can also be found, such as ''bajigur'' and ''bandrek'' which are particularly popular in West Java. Both are coconut milk or coconut sugar (''gula jawa'') based hot drinks, mixed with other spices. Sekoteng, a
ginger Ginger (''Zingiber officinale'') is a flowering plant whose rhizome, ginger root or ginger, is widely used as a spice and a folk medicine. It is an herbaceous perennial that grows annual pseudostems (false stems made of the rolled bases of l ...
based hot drink which includes peanuts, diced bread, and ''pacar cina'', can be found in Jakarta and West Java. ''Wedang jahe'' (hot Ginger tea, ginger drink) and ''wedang ronde'' (a hot drink with
sweet potato The sweet potato or sweetpotato (''Ipomoea batatas'') is a dicotyledonous plant in the morning glory family, Convolvulaceae. Its sizeable, starchy, sweet-tasting tuberous roots are used as a root vegetable, which is a staple food in parts of ...
balls) are particularly popular in Yogyakarta, Central Java, and East Java.


Alcoholic beverages

As a Muslim-majority country, Indonesian Muslims share Islamic dietary laws that prohibit alcoholic beverages. Since ancient times, local alcoholic beverages were developed in the archipelago. According to a Chinese source, people of ancient Java drank wine made from palm sap called ''tuak'' (palm wine). Today ''tuak'' continues to be popular in the Batak (Indonesia), Batak region,
North Sumatra North Sumatra () is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia located in the northern part of the island of Sumatra. Its capital and largest city is Medan on the east coast of the island. It borders Aceh to the northwest, Riau to the sou ...
. A traditional Batak bar serving tuak is called ''lapo tuak''. In Solo, Central Java, ''ciu'' (a local adaptation of Chinese wine) is known. Bottled ''Brem, brem bali'' (Balinese rice wine) is popular in Bali. In Nusa Tenggara and Maluku Islands the people also drink palm wine, locally known as ''sopi''. In the
Minahasa The Minahasans or Minahassa are an Austronesian people, Austronesian ethnic group native to North Sulawesi province of Indonesia, formerly known as North Celebes. The Minahasa people sometimes refer to themselves as Manado people. Although the M ...
region of North Sulawesi, the people drink a highly alcoholic drink called ''Cap Tikus''. Indonesians developed local brands of beer, such as Bintang Beer and Anker Beer.


Eating establishment

In Indonesia, dishes are served from a fine dining restaurant in five-star hotel, a simple restaurant downtown, humble street side warung under the tent, to street hawker peddling their ''gerobak'' (cart) or ''pikulan'' (carrying using rod).


Restaurant and warung

In Indonesia ''rumah makan'' means restaurant, while ''warung'' means small and humble shop. From these eating establishments, a warteg (''warung Tegal'') and ''rumah makan Padang'' are particularly notable for their ubiquitousness in Indonesian cities and towns. A warteg or ''warung tegal'' is a more specific warung nasi, established by Javanese people from the town Tegal (city), Tegal in
Central Java Central Java (, ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia, located in the middle of the island of Java. Its administrative capital is Semarang. It is bordered by West Java in the west, the Indian Ocean and the Special Region of Yogya ...
. They sells favourite Javanese cuisine, Javanese dishes and rice, the wide array of pre-cooked dishes are arranged in glass windowed cupboard. They are well known on selling modestly-priced meals, popular among working class such as low-skilled labours in the cities. While ''rumah makan Padang'' is a Padang food, Padang restaurant, a smaller scale Padang eateries might be called ''warung Padang''. Most of Indonesian restaurants are based upon specific regional cuisine tradition. For example, rumah makan Padang are definitely Minangkabau cuisine. Sundanese people, Sundanese ''saung'' restaurant or colloquially called as ''kuring'' restaurants are selling Sundanese cuisine, Sundanese dishes. This includes Bataks' ''lapo'', Manado cuisine, Manado and Balinese cuisine, Balinese restaurants. While other restaurants might specifically featuring their best specific dishes, for example Ayam goreng Mbok Berek, Bakmi Gajah Mada, Satay Senayan, Rawon Setan Surabaya, Pempek Pak Raden, etc.


Street food

Indonesian street food are usually cheap, offer a great variety of food of different tastes, and can be found on every corner of the city. Street and street-side vendors are common, in addition to hawkers peddling their goods on bicycles or carts. These carts are known as ''pedagang kaki lima''. These food hawkers on carts or bicycles might be travelling on streets, approaching potential buyers through residential areas whilst announcing their presence, or stationing themselves on a packed and busy street side, setting simple seating under a small tent and waiting for customers. Many of these have their own distinctive call, tune, or noise to announce their presence. For example, ''bakso'' sellers will hit the side of a soup bowl using a spoon, whereas ''nasi goreng'' sellers announce themselves by hitting their wok. In most cities, it is common to see Chinese dishes such as bakpao (steamed buns with sweet and savoury fillings), ''bakmie'' (noodles), and ''bakso'' (meatballs) sold by street vendors and restaurants, often adapted to become Indonesian-Chinese cuisine. One common adaptation is that pork is rarely used since the majority of Indonesians are Muslims. Other popular Indonesian street food and snacks are ''siomay'' and ''batagor'' (abbreviated from ''bakso tahu goreng''), ''pempek'' (deep fried fish cake), ''bubur ayam'' (chicken
congee Congee ( , derived from Tamil language, Tamil ), is a form of savoury rice porridge made by boiling rice in a large amount of water until the rice softens. Depending on rice–water ratio, the thickness of congee varies from a Western oatmeal ...
), ''bubur kacang hijau'' (mung beans porridge),
satay Satay ( , in the US also ), or sate in Indonesia, is a Javanese cuisine, Javanese dish of seasoned, skewered and grilled meat, served with a sauce. Satay originated in Java, but has spread throughout Indonesia, into Southeast Asia, Europe, ...
, ''
nasi goreng ''Nasi goreng'' (English pronunciation: ), (Indonesian language, Indonesian and Malay language, Malay for 'fried rice') is a Southeast Asian rice dish with pieces of meat and vegetables added. It can refer simply to fried pre-cooked rice, a me ...
'' (English: fried rice), ''soto mie'' (soto noodle), ''mie ayam'' (chicken noodle) and ''mie goreng'' (fried noodle), ''taoge goreng'' (mung bean sprouts and noodle salad), '' asinan'' (preserved vegetables or fruits salad), '' laksa, Kerak Telor, kerak telor'' (spicy omelette), ''gorengan'' (Indonesian assorted fritters) and ''bakwan'' (fried dish of beansprouts and batter). Indonesian street snacks include iced and sweet beverages, such as ''es'' ''
cendol Cendol is an iced sweet dessert that contains pandan-flavoured green rice flour jelly, coconut milk, and palm sugar syrup. It is popular in the Southeast Asian nations of Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei, Cambodia, East Timor, Laos, Vietnam, Thai ...
'' or ''es dawet'', ''es teler'', ''es cincau'', ''es doger'', ''es campur'', ''es potong'', and ''es puter''. Indonesian cakes and cookies are often called ''jajanan pasar'' (market munchies).


Snacks


Kue

Indonesia has a rich collection of snacks called ''kue'' (cakes and pastry), both savoury and sweet. Traditional kue usually made from rice flour, coconut milk,
coconut sugar Coconut sugar (also known as coco sugar, coconut palm sugar, coco sap sugar or coconut blossom sugar) is a palm sugar produced from the sap of the flower bud stem of the coconut palm. Other types of palm sugar are made from the kithul palm ('' Ca ...
and mostly steamed or fried instead of baked. Traditional kue are popularly known as ''kue basah'' ("wet kue") that has a moist and soft texture because of rich coconut milk. The ''kue kering'' (dried kue) is local name for cookies. Indonesia has rich variations of kue, both native-origin or foreign-influenced. Popular ones include ''Bika Ambon'', ''kue pisang'', ''kue cubit'', '' klepon'', ''Jin deui, onde-onde'', ''nagasari'', ''Pandan cake, kue pandan'', ''lupis (food), lupis'', ''lemang'', ''lemper'', ''
lontong ''Lontong'' () is an Indonesian cuisine, Indonesian dish made of compressed rice cake in the form of a Cylinder (geometry), cylinder wrapped inside a banana leaf, commonly found in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore. Rice is rolled inside a bana ...
'', ''tahu isi'', ''getuk'', ''risoles'', ''pastel'', ''lumpia'', ''Bakpia Pathok, bakpia'', ''spekkoek, lapis legit'', ''soes'', ''poffertjes'' and ''bolu kukus''.


Traditional crackers

Traditional crackers are called ''
krupuk ' (Javanese language, Javanese) is an Indonesian cuisine, Indonesian deep frying, deep-fried Cracker (food), cracker made from starch and other ingredients that serve as flavouring. They are a popular snack in parts of Southeast Asia, but are ...
'', made from bits of shrimp, fish, vegetables or nuts, which are usually consumed as a crunchy snack or to accompany main meals. These crispy snacks sometimes are added upon the main meal to provide crunchy texture; several Indonesian dishes such as gado-gado, karedok, ketoprak, lontong sayur, nasi uduk, asinan and bubur ayam are known to require specific type of krupuk as toppings. There are wide variations of ''krupuk'' available across Indonesia. The most popular ones would be ''krupuk udang'' (prawn crackers) and ''krupuk kampung'' or ''krupuk putih'' (cassava crackers). Other popular types include ''krupuk kulit'' (dried buffalo-skin crackers), ''emping melinjo'' (gnetum gnemon crackers), and '' kripik'' (chips or crisps), such as ''kripik pisang'' (banana chips) and ''keripik singkong'' (Cassava chips), '' rempeyek'', is a flour-based cracker with brittle of peanuts, anchovies or shrimp bound by crispy flour cracker, '' rengginang'' or ''intip'' (Javanese language, Javanese) is rice cracker made from sun-dried and deep fried leftover rice.


Fruits

Indonesian markets abound with many types of tropical fruit. These are an important part of the Indonesian diet, either eaten freshly, or made into juices (such as ''jus alpukat''), desserts (such as ''es buah'' and es teler), processed in savoury and spicy dishes like rujak, fried like ''pisang goreng'' (fried banana), cooked into cakes (such as ''kue pisang'' or ''bika ambon''), sweetened and preserved such as ''sale pisang'' and ''manisan buah'', or processed into kripik (crispy chips) as snacks like jackfruit or banana chips. Many of these tropical fruits such as ''mangga'' (mango), ''manggis'' (mangosteen), ''rambutan'', ''cempedak'', ''nangka'' (
jackfruit The jackfruit or ''nangka'' (''Artocarpus heterophyllus'') is a species of tree in the Common fig, fig, mulberry, and breadfruit family (Moraceae). The jackfruit is the largest tree fruit, reaching as much as in weight, in length, and in d ...
), ''durian'', ''jambu air'', ''duku'' (''langsat''), ''jeruk bali'' (pomelo), ''belimbing'' (carambola), ''Spondias dulcis, kedondong'' and ''pisang'' (
banana A banana is an elongated, edible fruit – botanically a berry – produced by several kinds of large treelike herbaceous flowering plants in the genus '' Musa''. In some countries, cooking bananas are called plantains, distinguishing the ...
), are indigenous to List of islands of Indonesia, Indonesian archipelago; while others have been imported from other tropical countries, although the origin of many of these fruits might be disputed. ''Klengkeng'' (longan) were introduced from India, ''semangka'' (watermelon) from Africa, ''Diospyros kaki, kesemek'' from China, while ''alpukat'' (avocado), ''Manilkara zapota, sawo'', ''markisa'' (passionfruit), ''sirsak'' (soursop), ''nanas'' (pineapple), ''jambu biji'' (guava) and ''pepaya'' (
papaya The papaya (, ), papaw, () or pawpaw () is the plant species ''Carica papaya'', one of the 21 accepted species in the genus '' Carica'' of the family Caricaceae, and also the name of its fruit. It was first domesticated in Mesoamerica, within ...
) were introduced from the Americas. Many of these tropical fruits are seasonally available, according to each species flowering and fruiting seasons. While certain fruits such as banana, watermelon, pineapple and papaya are available all year round. Today, Indonesian markets is also enrichen with selections of home-grown non-tropical fruits that is not native to Indonesia. Strawberry, melon, apple, pear and dragonfruit are introduced and grown in cooler Indonesian highlands such as
Malang Malang (; , ), historically known as Tumapel, is an inland List of regencies and cities of Indonesia, city in the Indonesian Provinces of Indonesia, province of East Java. It has a history dating back to the age of the Singhasari, Singhasari K ...
in mountainous East Java, Puncak and Lembang near Bandung, to mimic their native subtropics habitat. In the last few years, fruit chips have been more and more various. In the old times, banana and jackfruit chips were the most common, but now Indonesian fruit chips are also made from strawberry, apple, dragonfruit, pepino, watermelon, melon, more. Malang, a city in East Java, is the centre of fruit chip production aside from tempeh chips. Banana and coconut are particularly important, not only to Indonesian cuisine, but also in other uses, such as timber, bedding, roofing, oil, plates and packaging. Banana leaf and ''janur'' (young coconut leaf) are particularly important for packaging and cooking process, employed to make pepes, lontong and ketupat.


Health


Nutrition

Much carbohydrate intake in Indonesian cuisine comes from
rice Rice is a cereal grain and in its Domestication, domesticated form is the staple food of over half of the world's population, particularly in Asia and Africa. Rice is the seed of the grass species ''Oryza sativa'' (Asian rice)—or, much l ...
, while in eastern parts of Indonesia, yam and sago are common. Indonesian
protein Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residue (biochemistry), residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including Enzyme catalysis, catalysing metab ...
intake comes from soy bean products that are processed into tofu and tempeh. Chicken eggs, poultry and meats are also consumed. Most of the fat intake comes from cooking oil (coconut oil) of fried dishes, coconut milk,
peanut The peanut (''Arachis hypogaea''), also known as the groundnut, goober (US), goober pea, pindar (US) or monkey nut (UK), is a legume crop grown mainly for its edible seeds. It is widely grown in the tropics and subtropics by small and large ...
s, as well as meats and
offal Offal (), also called variety meats, pluck or organ meats, is the internal organ (anatomy), organs of a butchered animal. Offal may also refer to the by-products of Milling (grinding), milled grains, such as corn or wheat. Some cultures strong ...
s. Some Indonesian fruit and vegetable dishes such as fruit rujak, gado-gado, karedok, pecel, lalab, capcay, tofu and tempeh are foods with low fat and high fibre. Tempeh, for example, is a vegetarian substitute for meat. Some dishes, especially ''gorengan'' (deep-fried fritters) and those dishes infused or caramelised with coconut milk, such as rendang and gulai, might taste succulent but are rich in saturated fat.


Food safety

The authentic traditional Indonesian home cooking is freshly made and consumed daily with minimal or no processed, canned or preserved foods, which means there is a minimal amount of Food preservative, preservatives and sodium. Most ingredients are bought fresh very early in the morning from local traditional markets, cooked around the late morning and consumed mainly for lunch. The leftovers are stored in the cupboard or on the table covered with ''tudung saji'' (weaved bamboo food cover to protect the food from insects or other animals), all in room temperature to be heated and consumed again for dinner. Traditionally, Indonesian dishes are rarely stored for long periods of time, thus most of these dishes are cooked and consumed in the same day. Some exceptions apply to dried, salted, and processed food. For example, dry rendang may still be safe to consume for several days. Modern refrigeration technology is available in most households.


Hygiene

While most of Indonesian grocery products and food served in mid to upperscale eating establishments maintain food hygiene standard ranges from good to acceptable — regulated and supervised by ''Badan Pengawasan Obat dan Makanan'' (Indonesian Food and Drug Administration) — some warung traditional foodstalls and street vendors might have poor hygiene. The tropical microbes also might contribute to food poisoning cases mostly gastroenteritis, especially among foreigners during their stay in Indonesia. It is advisable to drink bottled or boiled drinking water, or choose cooked hot food instead of uncooked room temperatured ones sold by street vendors.


See also

* Bumbu (seasoning) * Indonesian noodles * Kue * Thai cuisine * Filipino cuisine * Malaysian cuisine * List of Indonesian beverages * List of Indonesian condiments * List of Indonesian desserts * List of Indonesian dishes * List of Indonesian snacks * List of Indonesian soups


Notes


References


Bibliography

* Sri Owen, Owen, Sri. "Indonesian Food and Cookery" , Prospect Books, 1980. * Owen, Sri. "Sri Owen's Indonesian Food" , Pavilion Books, 2015. * Wongso, William. "Flavors of Indonesia: William Wongso's Culinary Wonders", Bab Publishing, 2016. * Ford, Eleanor. "Fire Islands: Recipes from Indonesia", Murdoch Books, 2019.


External links

{{Authority control Indonesian cuisine, Southeast Asian cuisine Culture of Indonesia