Indo-Pacific Languages
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Indo-Pacific is a hypothetical language
macrofamily A macrofamily (also called a superfamily or superphylum) is a term often used in historical linguistics to refer to a hypothetical higher order grouping of languages. Metonymically, the term became associated with the practice of trying to group ...
proposed in 1971 by
Joseph Greenberg Joseph Harold Greenberg (May 28, 1915 – May 7, 2001) was an American linguist, known mainly for his work concerning linguistic typology and the genetic classification of languages. Life Early life and education Joseph Greenberg was born on M ...
and now believed to be spurious. It grouped together the Papuan languages of
New Guinea New Guinea (; Hiri Motu: ''Niu Gini''; , fossilized , also known as Papua or historically ) is the List of islands by area, world's second-largest island, with an area of . Located in Melanesia in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, the island is ...
and
Melanesia Melanesia (, ) is a subregion of Oceania in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It extends from New Guinea in the west to the Fiji Islands in the east, and includes the Arafura Sea. The region includes the four independent countries of Fiji, Vanu ...
with the languages of the Andaman Islands (or at least
Great Andamanese The Great Andamanese are an indigenous people of the Great Andaman archipelago in the Andaman Islands. Historically, the Great Andamanese lived throughout the archipelago, and were divided into ten major tribes. Their distinct but closely rela ...
) and, tentatively, the languages of Tasmania, both of which are remote from New Guinea. The valid cognates Greenberg found turned out to be reflexes of the less extensive Trans–New Guinea family. Recently the
Kusunda language Kusunda or Kusanda (endonym ) is a language isolate spoken by a few among the Kusunda people in western and central Nepal. As of 2023, it only has a single fluent speaker, Kamala Sen-Khatri, although there are efforts underway to keep the lan ...
(and possibly other unclassificated languages), which is generally seen as a
language isolate A language isolate is a language that has no demonstrable genetic relationship with any other languages. Basque in Europe, Ainu and Burushaski in Asia, Sandawe in Africa, Haida and Zuni in North America, Kanoê in South America, and Tiwi ...
, is also included in the Indo-Pacific proposal. Greenberg did not include "
Australian Australian(s) may refer to: Australia * Australia, a country * Australians, citizens of the Commonwealth of Australia ** European Australians ** Anglo-Celtic Australians, Australians descended principally from British colonists ** Aboriginal Aus ...
" in his original 1971 proposal.


Proposal

The Indo-Pacific proposal, grouping the non-Austronesian languages of New Guinea with certain languages spoken on islands to the east and west of New Guinea, was first made by Greenberg in 1971. Greenberg's supporter
Merritt Ruhlen Merritt Ruhlen (May 10, 1944 – January 29, 2021) was an American linguist who worked on the classification of languages and what this reveals about the origin and evolution of modern humans. Amongst other linguists, Ruhlen's work was recognized ...
considers Indo-Pacific an extremely diverse and ancient family, far older than Austronesian, which reflects a migration from southeast Asia that began only 6,000 years ago; he notes that New Guinea was inhabited by modern humans at least 40,000 years ago, and possibly 10,000 to 15,000 years earlier than that.Ruhlen, Merritt. ''The Origin of Language: Tracing the Evolution of the Mother Tongue''. John Wiley & Sons, Inc: New York, 1994
Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza (; 25 January 1922 – 31 August 2018) was an Italian geneticist. He was a population geneticist who taught at the University of Parma, the University of Pavia and then at Stanford University. Works Schooling and p ...
sees Indo-Pacific as a very heterogenous family of 700 languages and suggests that it may be more than 40,000 years old.Cavalli-Sforza, Luigi Luca. ''Genes, Peoples, and Languages''. University of California Press: Berkeley, 2001


Reception

Greenberg's proposal was based on rough estimation of
lexical similarity In linguistics, lexical similarity is a measure of the degree to which the word sets of two given languages are similar. A lexical similarity of 1 (or 100%) would mean a total overlap between vocabularies, whereas 0 means there are no common words. ...
and typological similarity and has not reached a stage where it can be confirmed by the standard
comparative method In linguistics, the comparative method is a technique for studying the development of languages by performing a feature-by-feature comparison of two or more languages with common descent from a shared ancestor and then extrapolating backwards ...
, including the reconstruction of a
protolanguage In the tree model of historical linguistics, a proto-language is a postulated ancestral language from which a number of attested languages are believed to have descended by evolution, forming a language family. Proto-languages are usually unattest ...
. The languages of Tasmania are extinct and so poorly attested that many historical linguists regard them as unclassifiable.
Roger Blench Roger Marsh Blench (born August 1, 1953) is a British linguist, ethnomusicologist and development anthropologist. He has an M.A. and a Ph.D. from the University of Cambridge and is based in Cambridge, England. He researches, publishes, and work ...
has dismissed the Indo-Pacific proposal as improbable, observing that while it "purported to be a purely linguistic exercise...it conveniently swept up all the languages of the crinklyhaired populations in the region that were not clearly Austronesian." He writes that despite decades of further research into
Papuan languages The Papuan languages are the non- Austronesian languages spoken on the western Pacific island of New Guinea, as well as neighbouring islands in Indonesia, Solomon Islands, and East Timor. It is a strictly geographical grouping, and does not imply ...
and prehistory, Indo-Pacific is still not accepted by specialists and that it "only exists in the eye of the believer."
George van Driem George "Sjors" van Driem (born 1957) is a Dutch professor emeritus of linguistics at the University of Bern. He studied East Asian languages and is known for the father tongue hypothesis. Education * Leiden University, 1983–1987 (PhD, ''A Gra ...
(2001) responds as follows: Since Greenberg's work, the languages of New Guinea have been intensively studied by
Stephen Wurm Stephen Adolphe Wurm (, ; 19 August 1922 – 24 October 2001) was a Hungarian-born Australian linguist. Early life Wurm was born in Budapest, the second child to the German-speaking Adolphe Wurm and the Hungarian-speaking Anna Novroczky. ...
. Wurm's Trans–New Guinea languages family includes about 70 percent of the languages Greenberg included in Indo-Pacific, though the internal classification is entirely different. Wurm states that the lexical similarities between Great Andamanese, West Papuan (which is not part of Trans–New Guinea), and certain languages of
Timor Timor (, , ) is an island at the southern end of Maritime Southeast Asia, in the north of the Timor Sea. The island is Indonesia–Timor-Leste border, divided between the sovereign states of Timor-Leste in the eastern part and Indonesia in the ...
"are quite striking and amount to virtual formal identity ..in a number of instances", but considers this to be due to a linguistic
substratum Substrata, plural of substratum, may refer to: *Earth's substrata, the geologic layering of the Earth *''Hypokeimenon'', sometimes translated as ''substratum'', a concept in metaphysics *Substrata (album), a 1997 ambient music album by Biosphere * ...
rather than a direct relationship. Pawley (2008) is the only thorough review of the proposal. He found that all branches of Indo-Pacific except Tasmanian and Andamanese include languages from Trans–New Guinea, and that this explains the more reasonable cognates that Greenberg proposed, but because these Trans–New Guinea languages are mixed in with languages from other families in those branches, cognates linking the branches do not provide support for Greenberg's proposal that all Papuan languages are related.


Subdivision

*
Tasmanian Tasmania (; palawa kani: ''Lutruwita'') is an island state of Australia. It is located to the south of the Australian mainland, and is separated from it by the Bass Strait. The state encompasses the main island of Tasmania, the 26th ...
*
Great Andamanese The Great Andamanese are an indigenous people of the Great Andaman archipelago in the Andaman Islands. Historically, the Great Andamanese lived throughout the archipelago, and were divided into ten major tribes. Their distinct but closely rela ...
: Southern: Chariar, Puchikwar, Kede, Kol, Juwoi; Northern: Beada, Bogijiab,
Bale Bale may refer to: Apps Bale Messenger, an Iranian instant messaging (IM) app owned by the National Bank of Iran Packaging * Cotton bale * Hay or straw bale in farming, bound by a baler * Paper bale, a unit of paper measurement equal t ...
, Biada *Nuclear **Central ***Kapauku–Baliem **** Kapauku (Ekari, Ekagi), Moni, Jabi, Simori, Wolani
Paniai Lakes The Paniai Lakes, originally known as the Wissel Lakes, are the three large, freshwater lakes in Central Papua, Indonesia: Paniai, Tigi, and Tage. Lakes Paniai and Tage are located in the Paniai Regency, while Lake Tigi is located in Deiyai Regen ...
family] ****Dem language, Dem [= TNG Dem] ****Uhunduni language, Uhunduni, Enggipilu language, Enggipilu [= TNG Uhunduni] ****Dani languages, Dani (Ndani) [→ Dani] ****Northern Ngalik language, Northern Ngalik, Oeringoep language, Oeringoep, Sawuri-Hablifuri, Southern Ngalik, Peseghem Dani + Isirawa (probably Kwerba languages">Kwerba)">Dani languages">Dani + Isirawa (probably Kwerba)***Highland ****Wurm & Laycock's Gadsup–Auyana–Awa–Tairoa + Erima, Tsinyaji language">Tsinyaji [= TNG Kainantu + Madang">rima_language">Eri.html" ;"title="Kainantu languages">Gadsup–Auyana–Awa–Tairoa + Erima language">Erima, Tsinyaji Gende–Siane–Gahuku–Kamano–Fore [= TNG Goroka">Tsinyaji language">Tsinyaji [= TNG Kainantu + Madang****Wurm & Laycock's Gende–Siane–Gahuku–Kamano–Fore Hagen–Wahgi–Jimi–Chumbu [= Chimbu–Wahgi">Goroka languages">Gende–Siane–Gahuku–Kamano–Fore [= TNG Goroka****Wurm & Laycock's Hagen–Wahgi–Jimi–Chumbu Enga– Huli– Pole–Wiru language">Wiru [= Engan languages">Engan + Wiru (probably Teberan–Pawaian)">Huli language">Huli– Pole– Wiru [= Engan languages">Engan + Wiru (probably Teberan–Pawaian)****Karam language">Karam (Aförö) [= Madang">Pole language">Pole–Wiru language">Wiru Engan + Wiru (probably Teberan–Pawaian)**** Karam (Aförö) [= Madang****Kutubu language">Kutubu, Fasu language">Fasu [= Kutubuan">Karam language">Karam (Aförö) [= Madang****Kutubu language">Kutubu, Fasu language">Fasu [= Kutubuan***McElhanon's Huon languages + Matap language, Matap, Jupna Valley language, Jupna Valley, Kandomin language, Kandomin, Wantoat language, Wantoat [= TNG Finisterre–Huon languages, Finisterre–Huon] **Northern ***Murik: Murik,
Angoram Angoram is a town and seat of Angoram District in East Sepik Province in north-western Papua New Guinea. The area is noted for its rubber and cocoa plantations and the town is situated on the Sepik River The Sepik () is the longest river on th ...
(Tjimundo), Tshamberi, Kambot
Nor–Pondo + Kambot">Nor–Pondo_languages.html" ;"title=" Nor–Pondo languages">Nor–Pondo + Kambot***Tami: Sko (Seko), Sangke language">Sangke, Arso language">Arso Arso may refer to: * Arso Jovanović (1907–1948), Yugoslav partisan general during World War II * Arso, Keerom, a district in Papua, Indonesia ** Arso Airport * Slovenian Environment Agency The Slovenian Environment Agency ( Slovenian: ''Agenci ...
, Njao, Wembi, Skofro language">Skofro, Ampas language">Ampas The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences (AMPAS, often pronounced ; also known as simply the Academy or the Motion Picture Academy) is a professional honorary organization in Beverly Hills, California, U.S., with the stated goal of adva ...
,
Waris, Vanimo language">Vanimo Vanimo is the capital of Sandaun Province (West Sepik) in north-westernmost Papua New Guinea and of Vanimo-Green River District. It is located on a peninsula close to the Indonesia–Papua New Guinea border, border with Indonesia, nearest to Jaya ...
, Kilmeri, Amanab language">Amanab
[= non-TNG Border languages (New Guinea)">Border Borders are generally defined as geography, geographical boundaries, imposed either by features such as oceans and terrain, or by polity, political entities such as governments, sovereign states, federated states, and other administrative divisio ...
 + Skou families + unclassified Molof (Cowan's proposal)">Skou languages">Skou families + unclassified Molof (Cowan's proposal)***Arapeshan: Arapesh, Kombio, Mountain Arapesh,
Torricelli Torricelli may refer to: People with the surname * Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647), Italian physicist and mathematician * Robert Torricelli (born 1951), United States politician * Moreno Torricelli (born 1970), Italian football player * Gi ...
, Bambita, Wam, Yambes, Kavu, Valman
Torricelli Torricelli may refer to: People with the surname * Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647), Italian physicist and mathematician * Robert Torricelli (born 1951), United States politician * Moreno Torricelli (born 1970), Italian football player * Gi ...
family] ***Ndu–Kwoma: Yessan-Mayo language, Mayo, Kwoma language, Kwoma, Wongamusin language, Wongamusin, Iwam language, Iwam + Abau language, Abau, Laycock's Ndu languages, Ndu + "Tombenam", "
Malu is a word in the Samoan language for a female-specific tattoo of cultural significance. The covers the legs from just below the knee to the upper thighs just below the buttocks, and is typically finer and delicate in design compared to the , ...
"
Sepik The Sepik () is the longest river on the island of New Guinea, and the third largest in Oceania by discharge volume after the Fly River, Fly and Mamberamo River, Mamberamo. The majority of the river flows through the Papua New Guinea (PNG) provi ...
family] ***Sentani: Sentani language, Sentani, Nafri language, Nafri, Tabla language, Tanahmerah, Nimboran language, Nimboran, Gresik language, Gresik, Kemtuk language, Kemtuk, Kuangsu language, Kuangsu, Waibron Bano-Demenggong language, Waibron Bano-Demenggong, Demta, Mekei, Boven Tor, Kwesten, Mawes, Kaure, Sause
Sentani + Nimboran languages">Nimboran Nimboran (Nambrong, Namblong, Namlong) is a Papuan language of Nimboran District, Jayapura Regency, Indonesia spoken by mostly older adults. Younger generations have shifted to Papuan Malay Papuan Malay or Irian Malay is a Malay-based creole, ...
 + Tor–Kwerba + (possibly TNG) Kaure families">Kaure_languages.html" ;"title="Tor–Kwerba languages">Tor–Kwerba + (possibly TNG) Kaure languages">Kaure families***Monumbo: Monumbo, Lilau, Bosngun language">Bosngun, Nubia language">Nubia Nubia (, Nobiin language, Nobiin: , ) is a region along the Nile river encompassing the area between the confluence of the Blue Nile, Blue and White Nile, White Niles (in Khartoum in central Sudan), and the Cataracts of the Nile, first cataract ...
, Makarob, Igom, Gamai, Watam,
Tanggum, Tanguat language">Murusapa, Anaberg language">Anaberg, Atemble language (Ramu)">Atemble, Gapun language">Gapun Gapun is a village in Marienberg Rural LLG, East Sepik Province, Papua New Guinea, located near the mouth of the Sepik River. The language isolate Tayap is traditionally spoken in Gapun by the Tayap people. Gapun village is the sole Tayap settle ...

Monumbo (branch of Torricelli) + Ramu languages">Ramu The Ramu River is a major river in northern Papua New Guinea. The headwaters of the river are formed in the Kratke Range from where it then travels about northwest to the Bismarck Sea. Along the Ramu's course, it receives numerous tributaries ...
& Gapun families] ***Unclassified: Siaute language, Siaute (Olo, Torricelli); Nori language (Papuan), Nori (Skou); Apris language, Apris (Southern Adelbert) **Southern (Kiwaiic) ***Peremka language, Peremka, Bangu, Wandatokwe, Jiminakana, Nausaku, Kebanagara,
Mani Mani may refer to: People * Mani (name), (), a given name and surname (including a list of people with the name) ** Mani (prophet) (c. 216–274), a 3rd century Iranian prophet who founded Manichaeism ** Mani (musician) (born 1962), an English ...

Tonda family + TNG Suki">Tonda languages">Tonda family + TNG Suki*** Parb, Sanana, Dungerwab, Dorro, Dapo, Nombuio, Noraia, Potaia, Tunjuamu language">Tunjuamu, Nenium language">Nenium (Wakamara), Karigari language">Karigari, Moi-e language">Moi-e
[= Kunja (Tonda family) + related Nambu + Mekwei (Nimboran family), none TNG] ***Bugi language (Pahoturi), Bugi, Dabu language, Dabu, Dibolug language, Dibolug, Kibuli language, Kibuli, Ngamai-iki language, Ngamai-iki (Tupadidi), Mbayaka language, Mbayaka (Jindabira), Agöb
Pahoturi family">Pahoturi_languages.html" ;"title=" non-TNG Pahoturi family***Jei language">Jei, Toro language (Papuan)">Toro Toro may refer to: Places *Toro, Molise, a ''comune'' in the Province of Campobasso, Italy *Toro, Nigeria, a Local Government Area of Bauchi State, Nigeria *Toro, Shizuoka, an archaeological site in Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan *Toro, Zamora, a ''m ...
, Ngowugar, Kanum, Moraori, Komelom (Mombum), Koneraw, Kimaghama,
Riantana, Keladdar language">Keladdar, Teri-Kawalsch language">Teri-Kawalsch, Ndom language">Ndom, Jab language">Jab A jab is a type of punch used in martial arts. Several variations of the jab exist, but every jab shares these characteristics: while in a fighting stance, the lead fist is thrown straight ahead and the arm is fully extended from the side of t ...
(Jelmek), Makleu
Morehead & Bulaka River families + TNG Mombum, Kolopom languages">Kolopom, & Morori families">Bulaka River languages">Bulaka River families + TNG Mombum, Kolopom, & Morori families*** Kiwai, Ipikoi, Hibaradai, Hiwi, Urama, Iwainu, Goaribari, Kerewa, Turama, Era River, Mawata, Domori, Wabuda, Sisiame, Pirupiru, Dibiri, Karami, Eme-eme (Pepeha), Mahigi, Tureture, Tapapi language">Tapapi (Tapari), Buniki
Inland Gulf + possibly TNG Kiwaian languages">Kiwaian + non-TNG Waia">Buniki language">Buniki
[= TNG Inland Gulf + possibly TNG Kiwaian + non-TNG Waia***Barika [probably Barikewa language">Barikewa">Inland Gulf languages">Inland Gulf + possibly TNG Kiwaian + non-TNG Waia***Barika Barikewa Dugeme, Karima, Foraba, Ro language">Ro (Keai, Worugi), Sesa, Tumu language">Tumu (Dumu, Kibiri)
[= TNG Turama–Kikorian family + possibly TNG Folopa">Foraba language">Foraba, Ro language">Ro (Keai, Worugi), Sesa, Tumu language">Tumu (Dumu, Kibiri)
Kunini, Masingara, Bine language">Oriomo, Jibu language (Papuan)">Jibu, Miriam language">Miriam Miriam (, lit. ‘rebellion’) is described in the Hebrew Bible as the daughter of Amram and Jochebed, and the older sister of Moses and Aaron. She was a prophetess and first appears in the Book of Exodus. The Torah refers to her as "Miria ...
, Gijara
[= non-TNG Eastern Trans-Fly languages">Eastern Trans-Fly family">_non-TNG_Eastern_Trans-Fly_languages.html" ;"title="Gijara language">Gijara
[= non-TNG Eastern Trans-Fly languages">Eastern Trans-Fly family**Southwestern (Marind–Ok) ***Awju: Awju Sjiagha, Awju Jenimu (Oser), Awju Pisa [= TNG Awyu–Dumut languages">Awyu–Dumut family">Awju Pisa language">Awju Pisa [= TNG Awyu–Dumut languages">Awyu–Dumut family***Kukukuku: Kukukuku, Ashavi, Madinava language">Madinava [= TNG Angan languages">Angan">Ashavi language">Ashavi, Madinava language">Madinava [= TNG Angan languages">Angan***Tirio: Tirio, Tagota,
Pisirami, Arama language (Tirio)">Arama, Anima language">Anima Anima may refer to: Arts, entertainment and media Fictional entities * Anima, in the Spira world in ''Final Fantasy'' games * Anima, in the ''Fire Emblem'' game series * Anima (comics), a DC Comics character Film * '' Anima – Symphonie pha ...
Tirio family"> TNG Tirio family***Ok Ok + Awin–Pa languages">Awin–Pa + Awyu–Dumut languages">Awyu–Dumut families"> TNG Ok + Awin–Pa + Awyu–Dumut families**** Digul, Aran, Niinati, Metomka, Lower Muiu, Muju, Kandam, Iongom, Upper Tedi, Awin, Eastern Tedi language">Eastern Tedi, Western Donaldson, Upper Fly, Upper Muju, Marapka ****Telefol language">Telefol, Unkia language">Unkia, "Plain Country" [= Awin">Marapka language">Marapka **** Telefol, Unkia, "Plain Country" Mandobo, Dumut, Kaeti language">Kaeti, Wambon ***Marind Marind + perhaps non-TNG Bulaka River languages">Bulaka River families">Wambon language">Wambon ***Marind Marind + perhaps non-TNG Bulaka River families**** Marind (Tugeri, incl. Gawir & Boven Mbian) **** Jaqai, Sohur **** Boazi, Dea, Konmak (village Y),
Lake Murray, Jabga, Babwa language">Babwa (village Z), Gabgab language">Gabgab, Biak language (Papuan)">Biak Biak is the main island of Biak Archipelago located in Cenderawasih Bay near the northern coast of Papua (province), Papua, an Indonesian province, and is just northwest of New Guinea. Biak has many atolls, reefs, and corals. The largest popula ...
(village X) *West **Western *** Yava (Mantembu & Saweroe) Yava language">Yava (Mantembu & Saweroe) Kapaur (Iha), Baham (Patimuni), Karas language">Karas [= TNG West Bomberai languages">West Bomberai family">Kapaur language">Kapaur (Iha), [ Baham (Patimuni), Karas [= TNG West Bomberai family*** Ajamaru, Asli-Sidi, Maibrat, Aitinjo language">Aitinjo [= non-TNG Mai Brat languages">Mai Brat family">Asli-Sidi language">Asli-Sidi, Maibrat, Aitinjo
Mai Brat family***Madik language">Madik, Karon language (Papuan)">Karon, Waipu language">Waipu, Moi language">Moi Moi or MOI may refer to: People * Moi (name), a list of people with the given name or surname * Moisés Delgado (born 1994), Spanish footballer commonly known as simply Moi * Moisés Rodríguez (born 1997), Spanish footballer commonly known as ...
, Seget, Kalabra, Moraid language">Moraid, Tehit language">Tehit, Moi language">Waliem [= non-TNG Bird's Head languages">Bird's Head The Bird's Head Peninsula ( Indonesian: , , meaning Bird's Head in Indonesian and Dutch) or Doberai Peninsula (''Semenanjung Doberai'') is a large peninsula that makes up the northwest portion of the island of New Guinea, comprising the Indones ...
 family] ***Meninggo language, Meninggo (Meax), Mansibaber language, Mansibaber, Manikion language, Manikion, Mantion language, Mantion, Amberbaken language, Amberbaken, Faranjao language, Faranjao, Mairasi language, Mairasi,
Etna Bay Etna Bay (, ) is a bay in eastern Kaimana Regency, situated in the southeastern corner of West Papua (province), West Papua province, Indonesia. Teluk Etnaat GeoNames.Org (cc-by) post updated 2012-01-17; database downloaded on 2015-11-27 Th ...
, Mogetemin isidentified Konda, Jahadian, Puragi, Kampong-Baru, Solowat, Itigo, Bira, Najarago, Tarof, Barau, Arandai, Mor
East Bird's Head + Amberbaken + Mairasi languages">Mairasi Mairasi ( Faranyao and Kaniran) is a Papuan language of the Bomberai Peninsula of West Papua, Indonesia. The Northeastern dialect may be a distinct language. Distribution Locations: *Kaimana Regency **Interior villages: Umbran, Jamna Fata, Ma ...
 families + Maibrat (spurious) + TNG South Bird's Head + Mor families">South Bird's Head languages">South Bird's Head + Mor families**North Halmahera: Loda, Tobelo, Tabaru,
Isam Indexed Sequential Access Method (ISAM) is a method for creating, maintaining, and manipulating computer files of data so that records can be retrieved sequentially or randomly by one or more keys. Indexes of key fields are maintained to achieve ...
,
Pagu The Projektions-AG Union (generally shortened to PAGU) was a Cinema of Germany, German film production company which operated between 1911 and 1924 during the silent era. From 1917 onwards, the company functioned as an independent unit of Universum ...
, Tololiku, Wai (Waioli), Sau, Modole, Galela,
Ternate Ternate (), also known as the City of Ternate (; ), is the List of regencies and cities of Indonesia, city with the largest population in the province of North Maluku and an island in the Maluku Islands, Indonesia. It was the ''de facto'' provi ...
,
Tidore Tidore (, lit. "City of Tidore Islands") is a city, island, and archipelago in the Maluku Islands of eastern Indonesia, west of the larger island of Halmahera. Part of North Maluku Province, the city includes the island of Tidore (with three sm ...

North Halmahera family">orth_Halmahera_languages.html" ;"title=" non-TNG North Halmahera languages">North Halmahera family**Timor–Alor: Bunak The Bunak (also known as Bunaq, Buna', Bunake) people are an ethnic group that live in the mountainous region of central Timor, split between the political boundary between West Timor, Indonesia, particularly in Lamaknen District and East Timor. ...
, Abui, Makasai, Oirata language">Oirata
[= TNG Timor–Alor languages">Timorese languages">Makasai language">Makasai, Oirata language">Oirata
[= TNG Timor–Alor languages">Timorese languages*Eastern **Afoa: Afoa, Tauata, Goilala, Ambo, Deba language">Deba
[= Goilalan languages">Goilalan family">Deb.html" ;"title="Goilala language">Goilala, Ambo language (Papuan)">Ambo, Deba language">Deba
[= Goilalan languages">Goilalan family**Kovio: Kovio, Kuepa, Oru-Lopiko, Kunimaipa, Sini, Biaru, Goiefu language">Goiefu
[= Goilalan languages">Goilalan family">Sini language">Sini, Biaru language">Biaru, Goiefu language">Goiefu
[= Goilalan languages">Goilalan family**Fuyuge: Fuyuge (Mafulu), Kambesi (Tauada), Sikube (Kambana), Korona, Onunge, Agita, Vovoi, Gomali language">Gomali
[= Goilalan languages">Goilalan family">Agita language">Agita, Vovoi language">Vovoi, Gomali language">Gomali
[= Goilalan languages">Goilalan family**Koita: Biagi, Uabari, Iarumi, Karukaru, Mogoni, Agi language (Koiali)">Agi, Isurara [typo for Isurava language">Isurava">Karukaru language">Karukaru, Mogoni, Agi language (Koiali)">Agi, Isurara Isurava Suku (Amaseba), Minjori, Kagi, Favele, Wowonga, Kokila, Eikiri, Koiari, Uberi, Koita, Iworo, Maiari, Gosisi (Tobiri), Itu,
Hagari, Neneba language">Neneba, Barai language">Barai (Managalaski), Seramina language">Seramina, Suambe [= Numba language">Numba Numba is an open-source JIT compiler that translates a subset of Python and NumPy into fast machine code using LLVM, via the llvmlite Python package. It offers a range of options for parallelising Python code for CPUs and GPUs, often with onl ...
Terence Hays
New Guinea Bibliography'
/ref>], Wamai language (Papuan), Wamai, Nigubaiba language, Nigubaiba, Kotoi language, Kotoi
[= Koiarian languages, Koiarian + Manubaran languages, Manubaran families] **Mailu: Mailu language, Mailu (Magi), Domara language, Domara,
Nemea Nemea (; ; ) is an ancient site in the northeastern part of the Peloponnese, in Greece. Formerly part of the territory of Cleonae (Argolis), Cleonae in ancient Argolis, it is today situated in the regional units of Greece, regional unit of Corin ...
, Dom (Domu), Merani, Morawa, Magori, Binahari, Monomor, Keveri, Moikoidi, Bauwaki, Kororo, Neme, Boli, Doriaidi, Buari, Okaudi, Bori, Saroa, Yabura, Avini, Lauwa, O'oku, Lauuna, Gebi, Orai-iu
Mailuan + Manubaran + Yareban languages">Yareban families, maybe Baruga, and crypto-Austronesian Magori & Keapara">Mailuan languages">Mailuan + Manubaran languages">Manubaran + Yareban languages">Yareban families, maybe Baruga, and crypto-Austronesian Magori & Keapara**Elema: Elema (Haira), Kairi-Kaura, Uaripi, Toaripi (Motumotu), Milareipi, Orokolo
[= Eleman languages">Eleman family">Milareipi language">Milareipi, Orokolo language">Orokolo
[= Eleman languages">Eleman family**Dimuga: Dimuga (Nawp), Tevi, Kanamara, Gwoiden, Makiara language">Makiara
[= Dagan languages">Dagan family">Kanamara language">Kanamara, Gwoiden language">Gwoiden, Makiara language">Makiara
[= Dagan languages">Dagan family**Binandere: Binandere, Mambare language">Mambare [ambiguous">Mambare_language.html" ;"title="Binandere language">Binandere,
Mambare [ambiguous Musa River language (Binanderean)">Musa River, Aiga language">Aiga The American Institute of Graphic Arts (AIGA) is a professional organization for design. Its members practice all forms of communication design, including graphic design, typography, interaction design, user experience, branding and identity. The ...
, Yoda Hunjara">Ç’da/Koriri, geographically Hunjara Berepo [presumably Binandere language">Binandere">Hunjara language">Hunjara">Ç’da/Koriri, geographically Hunjara Berepo Binandere Amara [presumably Binandere language">Binandere">Hunjara language">Hunjara Berepo [presumably Binandere language">Binandere Amara Binandere Adaua Baruga Yema-Yarawa, Mawai, Yega, Tain-Daware, Jegasa-Sarau, Jauwa (Dobodura), Hunjara, Tsia, Giumu, Tahari (incl. Aru & Duvera dialects), Maiheari, Upper Musa, Bargua, Totore language">Totore
[= Binanderean languages">Binanderean family + Akoye">Orokaiva language">Upper Musa, Bargua language">Bargua, Totore language">Totore
[= Binanderean languages">Binanderean family + Akoye**Mulaha: Mulaha (Iaibu), Manukolu (Lakume), Garia, Kwale
Kwalean family">Kwale language">Kwale
Kwalean family**Namau language">Namau (Maipua) [an isolate, perhaps Eleman"> Kwalean languages">Kwalean family">Kwale language">Kwale
[= Kwalean languages">Kwalean family**Namau language">Namau (Maipua) [an isolate, perhaps Eleman*Northeast (Madang): Langtub, Panim, Mis, Bongu language">Bongu, Gorendu language">Gorendu, Bogadjim language">Bogadjim Bogadjim is a village on Astrolabe Bay, just south of Madang, in Astrolabe Bay Rural LLG, Madang Province, Papua New Guinea. During World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World ...
, Sungumana (Sungum), Wuong, Wenke, Uom language">Uom, Jimjam [geographically Anjam language">Anjam">Uom_language.html" ;"title="Wuong language">Wuong, Wenke, Uom, Jimjam
Anjam Burumana language">Burumana, Koliku language">Koliku, Kaliko language (Papuan)">Kaliko, Male language (Papuan)">Male Male (Planet symbols, symbol: ♂) is the sex of an organism that produces the gamete (sex cell) known as sperm, which fuses with the larger female gamete, or Egg cell, ovum, in the process of fertilisation. A male organism cannot sexual repro ...
, Damun, Shongu language">Shongu, Banara language">Banara ''Banara'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Salicaceae (formerly in Flacourtiaceae). Species accepted by the Plants of the World Online Plants of the World Online (POWO) is an online taxonomic database published by the Royal Bo ...
 (Moando), Tombenam (also in Ndu), Dagoi, Bonaputa-Mapu, Bunubun, Ulingan, Vanembere, Bunu (Saker), Rempin (A'e), Englam, Em, Ate, Kemba, Bawaipa,
Misdao, Maragum language (Madang)">Maragum, Nupanob language">Nupanob (Botelkude), Matepi language">Matepi
[= Madang languages">Madang Madang (old German name: ''Friedrich-Wilhelmshafen'') is the capital of Madang Province and is a town with a population of 27,420 (in 2005) on the north coast of Papua New Guinea. History Nicholai Miklukho-Maklai was probably the first Eur ...
family] *East Papuan languages, Pacific **Bougainville ***Uasi language, Uasi [isolate] ***KKRE: Rotokas language, Rotokas, Konua language, Konua, Eivo language, Eivo, Keriaka language, Keriaka North Bougainville"> North Bougainville family***NNSB: Buin, NKK ( Nasioi, Koianu, Koromira), STB ( Telei, Siwai, Baitsi) South Bougainville family**New Britain *** Sulka Sulka language">Sulka [unclassified***Idne language">Idne [AN">nclassified">Sulka language">Sulka [unclassified***Idne language">Idne Letatan– Limalua, Panaras [isolate">Panaras_language.html" ;"title="Limalua language">Limalua, Panaras language">Panaras [isolate***Baining language">Baining Baining may refer to: * Baining people *Baining languages The Baining languages are a small language family spoken by the Baining people on the Gazelle Peninsula of New Britain in Papua New Guinea. They appear to be related to the neighboring ...
 *** Taulil–Butam language">Butam [= Baining languages">Baining Baining may refer to: * Baining people *Baining languages The Baining languages are a small language family spoken by the Baining people on the Gazelle Peninsula of New Britain in Papua New Guinea. They appear to be related to the neighboring ...
 family] **Central Melanesian ***Central Solomons: Bilua language, Bilua, Baniata language, Baniata, Laumbe language, Laumbe, Savo language, Savo [= Central Solomons languages, Central Solomons family] *** Santa Cruz languages, Santa Cruz:
Reef A reef is a ridge or shoal of rock, coral, or similar relatively stable material lying beneath the surface of a natural body of water. Many reefs result from natural, abiotic component, abiotic (non-living) processes such as deposition (geol ...
, Ndeni ( Noole, Banua, Nea, Nabalue) AN The following were left unclassified: * arious languages suspected to be in Northern Senagi & Komberatoro; Busa; Urim; Kwanga (Kwanga); Yuri; Fas; Amto
Senagi, Torricelli, Sepik, Pauwasi, Fas, Amto–Musan, and Busa families">Senagi_languages.html" ;"title=" Senagi, Torricelli, Sepik, Pauwasi, Fas, Amto–Musan, and Busa families*Arare language">Arare [possibly Western">Senagi languages">Senagi, Torricelli, Sepik, Pauwasi, Fas, Amto–Musan, and Busa families*Arare language">Arare [possibly Western[= TNG Kayagar] *Kamoro [possibly Western]: Kajakaja language (Asmat), Kajakaja, Asmat language, Asmat, Mimika language, Mimika, Asienara language, Asienara, Nagramandu language, Nagramandu, Sempan language, Sempan, Kamoro language, Kamoro, Iria, Angandi
Asmat–Kamoro family">Asmat–Kamoro_languages.html" ;"title=" TNG Asmat–Kamoro languages">Asmat–Kamoro family*Tori [possibly Western]: "South River" (Südfluss) [likely Duvle language, Duvle], Tori language (Papuan), Tori, Pauwi language, Pauwi II, Tori Aikwakai language, Tori Aikwakai, Sidjuai language, Sidjuai, Pauwi language, Pauwi I, Borumessu language, Borumessu
Lakes Plain family + Yoke + Burmeso">Lakes_Plain_languages.html" ;"title=" Lakes Plain languages">Lakes Plain family + Yoke + Burmeso*Kauwerawet: Kauwerawet, Koassa language">Koassa [= Kwerba languages">Kwerba family">K.html" ;"title="Koassa_language.html" ;"title="Kauwerawet language">Kauwerawet, Koassa language">Koassa [= Kwerba languages">Kwerba family*Gogodala [probably in Southern New Guinea]: Gogodala language, Gogodala, Gaima language, Gaima, Waruna language, Waruna, Adiba language, Adiba, Girara language, Girara
[= TNG Gogodala languages, Gogodala family] *Sumeri language, Tanahmerah NG Rossel Island solate Aurama– Huaruha ossibly TNG Mumeng I– Mumeng II N
Tate Tate is an institution that houses, in a network of four art galleries, the United Kingdom's national collection of British art, and international modern and contemporary art. It is not a government institution, but its main sponsor is the UK ...
NG Eleman "Williams River" Weri: Goilalan, possibly TNG">Weri_language.html" ;"title="vidently Weri language">Weri: Goilalan, possibly TNG Ondoro [TNG Koiarian">Ondoro language">Ondoro [TNG Koiarian


Comparison

This classification was never widely accepted, and was largely passed over for that of Stephen Wurm. They do not agree well. For example, *Greenberg's North New Guinea family corresponds to four of Wurm's families: Sko, Sepik–Ramu languages">Sepik–Ramu, Torricelli languages">Torricelli Torricelli may refer to: People with the surname * Evangelista Torricelli (1608–1647), Italian physicist and mathematician * Robert Torricelli (born 1951), United States politician * Moreno Torricelli (born 1970), Italian football player * Gi ...
, and the Northern branch of Trans–New Guinea; *Greenberg's West New Guinea family corresponds to four of Wurm's: East Bird's Head, Geelvink Bay, the South Bird's Head">Geelvink_Bay_languages.html" ;"title="East Bird's Head languages">East Bird's Head, Geelvink Bay languages">Geelvink Bay, the South Bird's Head and West Bomberai languages">West Bomberai branches of Trans–New Guinea, and the Bird's Head branch of West Papuan. The few similarities are retentions from earlier linguists' work: *Greenberg's Northeast New Guinea family and Wurm's Madang–Adelbert Range branch of Trans–New Guinea reflect John Z'graggen's Madang–Adelbert Range, *Greenberg's Eastern New Guinea family and Wurm's Eastern Main-Section branch of Trans–New Guinea both preserve Tom Dutton (linguist), Tom Dutton's Southeast New Guinea family.


Notes


References


Bibliography

*Greenberg, Joseph H. 1971. "The Indo-Pacific hypothesis." In ''Current Trends in Linguistics, Vol. 8: Linguistics in Oceania'', edited by Thomas A. Sebeok, 808-71. The Hague: Mouto

(Reprinted in Greenberg, ''Genetic Linguistics'', 2005, 193–27

Family tree
available at the Linguist List MultiTree Project o longer functional as of 2014*Greenberg, Joseph H. 2005. ''Genetic Linguistics: Essays on Theory and Method'', edited by William Croft. Oxford: Oxford University Press. *O'Grady, Dobrovolsky, Katamba. 1997. ''Contemporary Linguistics.'' *Usher, Timothy. "A comparison of Greenberg's and Wurm's classifications." In Greenberg, ''Genetic Linguistics'', 2005, 261–269. (Systematic tabulation of the two sets of results.) *Wurm, Stephen A. 1982. ''The Papuan Languages of Oceania.'' Tübingen: Gunter Narr. {{DEFAULTSORT:Indo-Pacific Languages Proposed language families Scientific racism