Indian Inventions
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This list of Indian inventions and discoveries details the inventions, scientific discoveries and contributions of India, including those from the historic
Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a physiographic region of Asia below the Himalayas which projects into the Indian Ocean between the Bay of Bengal to the east and the Arabian Sea to the west. It is now divided between Bangladesh, India, and Pakista ...
and the modern-day
Republic of India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area; the most populous country since 2023; and, since its independence in 1947, the world's most populous democracy. Bounded by ...
. It draws from the whole
cultural Culture ( ) is a concept that encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and Social norm, norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, Social norm, customs, capabilities, Attitude (psychology), attitudes ...
and technological of India, cartography,
metallurgy Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their inter-metallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are known as alloys. Metallurgy encompasses both the ...
,
logic Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the study of deductively valid inferences or logical truths. It examines how conclusions follow from premises based on the structure o ...
,
mathematics Mathematics is a field of study that discovers and organizes methods, Mathematical theory, theories and theorems that are developed and Mathematical proof, proved for the needs of empirical sciences and mathematics itself. There are many ar ...
,
metrology Metrology is the scientific study of measurement. It establishes a common understanding of Unit of measurement, units, crucial in linking human activities. Modern metrology has its roots in the French Revolution's political motivation to stan ...
and
mineralogy Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of the chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical mineralogy, optical) properties of minerals and mineralized artifact (archaeology), artifacts. Specific s ...
were among the branches of study pursued by its scholars. During recent times science and technology in the Republic of India has also focused on automobile engineering,
information technology Information technology (IT) is a set of related fields within information and communications technology (ICT), that encompass computer systems, software, programming languages, data processing, data and information processing, and storage. Inf ...
,
communications Communication is commonly defined as the transmission of information. Its precise definition is disputed and there are disagreements about whether Intention, unintentional or failed transmissions are included and whether communication not onl ...
as well as research into
space Space is a three-dimensional continuum containing positions and directions. In classical physics, physical space is often conceived in three linear dimensions. Modern physicists usually consider it, with time, to be part of a boundless ...
and polar technology. For the purpose of this list, the
invention An invention is a unique or novelty (patent), novel machine, device, Method_(patent), method, composition, idea, or process. An invention may be an improvement upon a machine, product, or process for increasing efficiency or lowering cost. It m ...
s are regarded as technological firsts developed within territory of India, as such does not include foreign technologies which India acquired through contact or any Indian origin living in foreign country doing any breakthroughs in foreign land. It also does not include not a new idea, indigenous alternatives, low-cost alternatives, technologies or discoveries developed elsewhere and later invented separately in India, nor inventions by Indian emigres or
Indian diaspora Overseas Indians (ISO 15919, ISO: ), officially Non-Resident Indians (NRIs) and People of Indian Origin (PIOs) are people of Indian descent who reside or originate outside of India (Including those that were directly under the British Raj). Acc ...
in other places. Changes in minor concepts of design or style and artistic innovations do not appear in the lists.


Ancient India


Agriculture

*
Indigo dye Indigo dye is an organic compound with a distinctive indigo, blue color. Indigo is a natural dye obtained from the leaves of some plants of the Indigofera#Uses, ''Indigofera'' genus, in particular ''Indigofera tinctoria''. Dye-bearing ''Indigofer ...
– Indigo, a blue pigment and a dye, was used in India, which was also the earliest major centre for its production and processing.Kriger & Connah (2006), page 120 The ''Indigofera tinctoria'' variety of Indigo was domesticated in India. Indigo, used as a dye, made its way to the
Greeks Greeks or Hellenes (; , ) are an ethnic group and nation native to Greece, Greek Cypriots, Cyprus, Greeks in Albania, southern Albania, Greeks in Turkey#History, Anatolia, parts of Greeks in Italy, Italy and Egyptian Greeks, Egypt, and to a l ...
and the Romans via various trade routes, and was valued as a luxury product. * Jute cultivation – Jute has been cultivated in India since ancient times. Raw jute was exported to the
western world The Western world, also known as the West, primarily refers to various nations and state (polity), states in Western Europe, Northern America, and Australasia; with some debate as to whether those in Eastern Europe and Latin America also const ...
, where it was used to make
rope A rope is a group of yarns, Plying, plies, fibres, or strands that are plying, twisted or braided together into a larger and stronger form. Ropes have high tensile strength and can be used for dragging and lifting. Rope is thicker and stronger ...
s and cordage.Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''jute''. The Indian jute industry, in turn, was modernised during the British Raj in India. The region of
Bengal Bengal ( ) is a Historical geography, historical geographical, ethnolinguistic and cultural term referring to a region in the Eastern South Asia, eastern part of the Indian subcontinent at the apex of the Bay of Bengal. The region of Benga ...
was the major centre for Jute cultivation, and remained so before the modernisation of India's jute industry in 1855, when
Kolkata Kolkata, also known as Calcutta ( its official name until 2001), is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of West Bengal. It lies on the eastern bank of the Hooghly River, west of the border with Bangladesh. It is the primary ...
became a centre for jute processing in India. *
Sugar Sugar is the generic name for sweet-tasting, soluble carbohydrates, many of which are used in food. Simple sugars, also called monosaccharides, include glucose Glucose is a sugar with the Chemical formula#Molecular formula, molecul ...
– Sugarcane was originally from tropical
South Asia South Asia is the southern Subregion#Asia, subregion of Asia that is defined in both geographical and Ethnicity, ethnic-Culture, cultural terms. South Asia, with a population of 2.04 billion, contains a quarter (25%) of the world's populatio ...
and
Southeast Asia Southeast Asia is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, southeastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent, and northwest of the Mainland Au ...
, with different species originating in India, and ''S. edule'' and ''S. officinarum'' from
New Guinea New Guinea (; Hiri Motu: ''Niu Gini''; , fossilized , also known as Papua or historically ) is the List of islands by area, world's second-largest island, with an area of . Located in Melanesia in the southwestern Pacific Ocean, the island is ...
. The process of producing crystallised sugar from sugar cane, in India, dates to at least the beginning of the common era, with 1st century CE Greek and Roman authors writing on Indian sugar. The process was soon transmitted to China with travelling Buddhist monks.Kieschnick (2003) Chinese documents confirm at least two missions to India, initiated in 647 CE, for obtaining technology for sugar-refining.Kieschnick (2003), page 258 Each mission returned with results on refining sugar.


Construction, civil engineering and architecture

* Stepwell – While the early history of stepwells is poorly understood, water structures in Western India were their likely predecessor.Livingston & Beach, 19 The three features of stepwells in the subcontinent are evident from one particular site, abandoned by 2500 BCE, which combines a bathing pool, steps leading down to water, and figures of some religious importance into one structure. *
Stupa In Buddhism, a stupa (, ) is a domed hemispherical structure containing several types of sacred relics, including images, statues, metals, and '' śarīra''—the remains of Buddhist monks or nuns. It is used as a place of pilgrimage and m ...
– The origin of the stupa can be traced to 3rd-century BCE India.Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''Pagoda''. It was used as a commemorative monument associated with storing sacred relics. The stupa architecture was adopted in
Southeast The points of the compass are a set of horizontal, Radius, radially arrayed compass directions (or Azimuth#In navigation, azimuths) used in navigation and cartography. A ''compass rose'' is primarily composed of four cardinal directions—north, ...
and
East Asia East Asia is a geocultural region of Asia. It includes China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan, plus two special administrative regions of China, Hong Kong and Macau. The economies of Economy of China, China, Economy of Ja ...
, where it evolved into the pagoda, a Buddhist monument used for enshrining sacred relics. * Residential
University A university () is an educational institution, institution of tertiary education and research which awards academic degrees in several Discipline (academia), academic disciplines. ''University'' is derived from the Latin phrase , which roughly ...
Nalanda Nalanda (International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, IAST: , ) was a renowned Buddhism, Buddhist ''mahavihara'' (great monastery) in medieval Magadha (Mahajanapada), Magadha (modern-day Bihar), eastern India. Widely considered to be am ...
(, ) was a renowned ''
mahavihara Mahavihara () is the Sanskrit and Pali term for a great vihara (centre of learning or Buddhist monastery) and is used to describe a monastic complex of viharas. Mahaviharas of India A range of monasteries grew up in ancient Magadha (modern Biha ...
'' (
Buddhist Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
monastic university) in ancient Magadha (modern-day
Bihar Bihar ( ) is a states and union territories of India, state in Eastern India. It is the list of states and union territories of India by population, second largest state by population, the List of states and union territories of India by are ...
), eastern
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
. Considered by historians to be the world's first residential university and among the greatest centres of learning in the ancient world, it was located near the city of Rajagriha (now Rajgir) and about southeast of Pataliputra (now
Patna Patna (; , ISO 15919, ISO: ''Paṭanā''), historically known as Pataliputra, Pāṭaliputra, is the List of state and union territory capitals in India, capital and largest city of the state of Bihar in India. According to the United Nations, ...
) and operated from 427 until 1197 CE.


Finance and banking

* Cheque/Check – There is early evidence of using cheques/checks. In India, during the
Maurya Empire The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power in South Asia with its power base in Magadha. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya around c. 320 BCE, it existed in loose-knit fashion until 185 BCE. The primary source ...
(from 321 to 185 BC), a commercial instrument called the "Adesha" was in use, which was an order on a banker desiring him to pay the money of the note to a third person (now known as or referred to as a "Negotiable Instrument").


Games

* Atya-patya – This variation of tag was being played as early as 100 CE, and was possibly invented by farmers as a way of practicing driving away birds. It was later used as a form of military training in
Kerala Kerala ( , ) is a States and union territories of India, state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile ...
in close relation to the martial art of
kalaripayattu Kalaripayattu (), also known simply as Kalari, is an Indian martial art that originated on the southwestern coast of India, in what is now Kerala, during the 3rd century BCE. Etymology Kalaripayattu is a martial art which developed out of co ...
. *
Blindfold chess Blindfold chess, also known as ''sans voir'', is a form of chess play wherein the players do not see the positions of the pieces and do not touch them. This forces players to maintain a mental model of the positions of the pieces. Moves are commun ...
Games prohibited by Buddha includes a variant of ashtapada game played on imaginary boards. ''Akasam astapadam'' was an ''ashtapada'' variant played with no board, literally "astapadam played in the sky". A correspondent in the American Chess Bulletin identifies this as likely the earliest literary mention of a blindfold chess variant. * Carrom – The game of carrom originated in
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
. One carrom board with its surface made of glass is still available in one of the palaces in Patiala, India. It became very popular among the masses after
World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
. State-level competitions were being held in the different states of India during the early part of the twentieth century. Serious carrom tournaments may have begun in
Sri Lanka Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, also known historically as Ceylon, is an island country in South Asia. It lies in the Indian Ocean, southwest of the Bay of Bengal, separated from the Indian subcontinent, ...
in 1935 but by 1958, both India and Sri Lanka had formed official federations of carrom clubs, sponsoring tournaments and awarding prizes. *
Chaturanga Chaturanga (, , ) is an Traditional games of India, ancient Indian Strategy game, strategy board game. It is first known from India around the seventh century AD. While there is some uncertainty, the prevailing view among chess historians is t ...
– The precursor of
chess Chess is a board game for two players. It is an abstract strategy game that involves Perfect information, no hidden information and no elements of game of chance, chance. It is played on a square chessboard, board consisting of 64 squares arran ...
originated in India during the
Gupta dynasty The Gupta Empire was an Indian empire during the classical period of the Indian subcontinent which existed from the mid 3rd century to mid 6th century CE. At its zenith, the dynasty ruled over an empire that spanned much of the northern Indian ...
(c. 280550 CE).Murray (1913)Forbes (1860)Jones, William (1807). "On the Indian Game of Chess". pages 323333Linde, Antonius (1981) Both the
Persians Persians ( ), or the Persian people (), are an Iranian ethnic group from West Asia that came from an earlier group called the Proto-Iranians, which likely split from the Indo-Iranians in 1800 BCE from either Afghanistan or Central Asia. They ...
and
Arab Arabs (,  , ; , , ) are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in West Asia and North Africa. A significant Arab diaspora is present in various parts of the world. Arabs have been in the Fertile Crescent for thousands of years ...
s ascribe the origins of the game of Chess to the Indians.Wilkinson, Charles K (May 1943)Bird (1893), page 63 The words for "chess" in
Old Persian Old Persian is one of two directly attested Old Iranian languages (the other being Avestan) and is the ancestor of Middle Persian (the language of the Sasanian Empire). Like other Old Iranian languages, it was known to its native speakers as (I ...
and
Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...
are ''chatrang'' and ''
shatranj Shatranj (, ; from Middle Persian ) is an old form of chess, as played in the Sasanian Empire. Its origins lie in the South Asian game of chaturanga. Modern chess gradually developed from this game, as it was introduced to Europe by contacts in ...
'' respectively – terms derived from '' caturaṅga'' in
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
,Hooper & Whyld (1992), page 74Sapra, Rahul (2000). "Sports in India". Students' Britannica India (Vol. 6). Mumbai: Popular Prakashan. p. 106. . which literally means an ''army of four divisions'' or ''four corps''.Meri (2005), page 148Basham (2001), page 208 Chess spread throughout the world and many variants of the game soon began taking shape.Encyclopædia Britannica (2002). ''Chess: Ancient precursors and related games''. This game was introduced to the
Near East The Near East () is a transcontinental region around the Eastern Mediterranean encompassing the historical Fertile Crescent, the Levant, Anatolia, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and coastal areas of the Arabian Peninsula. The term was invented in the 20th ...
from India and became a part of the princely or courtly education of Persian nobility.
Buddhist Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
pilgrims,
Silk Road The Silk Road was a network of Asian trade routes active from the second century BCE until the mid-15th century. Spanning over , it played a central role in facilitating economic, cultural, political, and religious interactions between the ...
traders and others carried it to the
Far East The Far East is the geographical region that encompasses the easternmost portion of the Asian continent, including North Asia, North, East Asia, East and Southeast Asia. South Asia is sometimes also included in the definition of the term. In mod ...
where it was transformed and assimilated into a game often played on the intersection of the lines of the board rather than within the squares. Chaturanga reached Europe through Persia, the
Byzantine empire The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived History of the Roman Empire, the events that caused the ...
and the expanding Arabian empire.Encyclopædia Britannica (2007). ''Chess: Introduction to Europe''.
Muslims Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...
carried Shatranj to
North Africa North Africa (sometimes Northern Africa) is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region. However, it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of t ...
,
Sicily Sicily (Italian language, Italian and ), officially the Sicilian Region (), is an island in the central Mediterranean Sea, south of the Italian Peninsula in continental Europe and is one of the 20 regions of Italy, regions of Italy. With 4. ...
, and Spain by the 10th century where it took its final modern form of chess. * Kabaddi – The game of ''kabaddi'' originated in India during prehistory.Alter, page 88 Suggestions on how it evolved into the modern form range from wrestling exercises, military drills, and collective self-defence but most authorities agree that the game existed in some form or the other in India during the period between 1500 and 400 BCE. *
Kalaripayattu Kalaripayattu (), also known simply as Kalari, is an Indian martial art that originated on the southwestern coast of India, in what is now Kerala, during the 3rd century BCE. Etymology Kalaripayattu is a martial art which developed out of co ...
– One of the world's oldest form of martial arts is
Kalaripayattu Kalaripayattu (), also known simply as Kalari, is an Indian martial art that originated on the southwestern coast of India, in what is now Kerala, during the 3rd century BCE. Etymology Kalaripayattu is a martial art which developed out of co ...
that developed in the southwest state of
Kerala Kerala ( , ) is a States and union territories of India, state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile ...
in India. It is believed to be the oldest surviving martial art in India, with a history spanning over 3,000 years. * Kho-kho – This is one of the oldest variations of tag in the world, having been played since as early as the fourth century BCE. *
Ludo Ludo (; ) is a Abstract strategy game, strategy-based board game for two to four players, in which the players race game, race their four from start to finish according to the rolls of a single dice, die. Like other cross and circle games, Ludo ...
Pachisi originated in India by the 6th century.MSN Encarta (2008)
''Pachisi''
The earliest evidence of this game in India is the depiction of boards on the caves of Ajanta. A variant of this game, called Ludo, made its way to England during the British Raj. * Mallakhamba – It is a traditional sport, originating from the
Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a physiographic region of Asia below the Himalayas which projects into the Indian Ocean between the Bay of Bengal to the east and the Arabian Sea to the west. It is now divided between Bangladesh, India, and Pakista ...
, in which a gymnast performs aerial
yoga Yoga (UK: , US: ; 'yoga' ; ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines that originated with its own philosophy in ancient India, aimed at controlling body and mind to attain various salvation goals, as pra ...
or gymnastic postures and
wrestling Wrestling is a martial art, combat sport, and form of entertainment that involves grappling with an opponent and striving to obtain a position of advantage through different throws or techniques, within a given ruleset. Wrestling involves di ...
grips in concert with a vertical stationary or hanging wooden pole, cane, or rope.The earliest literary known mention of Mallakhamb is in the 1135 CE Sanskrit classic '' Manasollasa'', written by Someshvara III. It has been thought to be the ancestor of Pole Dancing. * Nuntaa, also known as Kutkute. * Seven stones – An Indian subcontinent game also called Pitthu is played in rural areas has its origins in the Indus Valley Civilization. * Snakes and ladders – Vaikunta pali Snakes and ladders originated in India as a game based on morality.Augustyn, pages 2728 During British rule of India, this game made its way to England, and was eventually introduced in the United States of America by game-pioneer Milton Bradley in 1943. * Suits game: Kridapatram is an early suits game, made of painted rags, invented in Ancient India. The term ''kridapatram'' literally means "painted rags for playing." Paper playing cards first appeared in East Asia during the 9th century. The medieval Indian game of ''
ganjifa Ganjifa, Ganjapa or Gânjaphâ, is a card game and type of playing cards that are most associated with Persia and India. After Ganjifa cards fell out of use in Iran before the twentieth century, India became the last country to produce them.At the ...
'', or playing cards, is first recorded in the 16th century. * Vajra-mushti – refers to a wrestling where knuckleduster like weapon is employed.The first literary mention of vajra-musti comes from the ''Manasollasa'' of the Chalukya king Someswara III (1124–1138), although it has been conjectured to have existed since as early as the Maurya dynasty


Textile and material production

*
Button A button is a fastener that joins two pieces of fabric together by slipping through a loop or by sliding through a buttonhole. In modern clothing and fashion design, buttons are commonly made of plastic but also may be made of metal, wood, or ...
– Ornamental buttons—made from
seashell A seashell or sea shell, also known simply as a shell, is a hard, protective outer layer usually created by an animal or organism that lives in the sea. Most seashells are made by Mollusca, mollusks, such as snails, clams, and oysters ...
—were used in the
Indus Valley civilization The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Indus Civilisation, was a Bronze Age civilisation in the northwestern regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300  BCE to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form from 2600 BCE ...
for ornamental purposes by 2000 BCE.Hesse, Rayner W. & Hesse, Rayner W. Jr. (2007). ''Jewelrymaking Through History: An Encyclopedia''. Greenwood Publishing Group. 35. . Some buttons were carved into geometric shapes and had holes pierced into them so that they could be attached to clothing by using a thread. Ian McNeil (1990) holds that: "The button, in fact, was originally used more as an ornament than as a fastening, the earliest known being found at Mohenjo-daro in the Indus Valley. It is made of a curved shell and about 5000 years old." * Calico – Calico had originated in the subcontinent by the 11th century and found mention in Indian literature, by the 12th-century writer Hemachandra. He has mentioned calico fabric prints done in a lotus design.Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''calico'' The Indian textile merchants traded in calico with the Africans by the 15th century and calico fabrics from
Gujarat Gujarat () is a States of India, state along the Western India, western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the List of states and union territories ...
appeared in
Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
. Trade with Europe followed from the 17th century onward. Within India, calico originated in
Kozhikode Kozhikode (), also known as Calicut, is a city along the Malabar Coast in the state of Kerala in India. Known as the City of Spices, Kozhikode is listed among the City of Literature, UNESCO's Cities of Literature. It is the nineteenth large ...
. * Carding devices – Historian of science Joseph Needham ascribes the invention of bow-instruments used in textile technology to India. The earliest evidence for using bow-instruments for carding comes from India (2nd century CE). These carding devices, called ''kaman'' and ''dhunaki'' would loosen the texture of the fibre by the means of a vibrating string. * Cashmere – The fibre cashmere fibre also known as ''pashm'' or ''pashmina'' for its use in the handmade shawls of Kashmir, India. The woolen shawls made from wool in Indian administered
Kashmir Kashmir ( or ) is the Northwestern Indian subcontinent, northernmost geographical region of the Indian subcontinent. Until the mid-19th century, the term ''Kashmir'' denoted only the Kashmir Valley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir P ...
find written mention between the 3rd century BCE and the 11th century CE.Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''kashmir shawl''. * Charkha (Spinning wheel): invented in India, between 500 and 1000 CE. * Chintz – The origin of Chintz is from the printed all cotton fabric of calico in India.Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''chintz'' The origin of the word ''chintz'' itself is from the
Hindi language Modern Standard Hindi (, ), commonly referred to as Hindi, is the standardised variety of the Hindustani language written in the Devanagari script. It is an official language of the Government of India, alongside English, and is the ''li ...
word चित्र् (chitr), which means an image.Hāṇḍā (1998), page 133 * Cotton cultivation – Cotton was cultivated by the inhabitants of the
Indus Valley civilisation The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Indus Civilisation, was a Bronze Age civilisation in the Northwestern South Asia, northwestern regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300 Common Era, BCE to 1300 BCE, and in i ...
by the 5th millennium BCE 4th millennium BCE. The Indus cotton industry was well developed and some methods used in cotton spinning and fabrication continued to be practised until the modern industrialisation of India. Well before the
Common Era Common Era (CE) and Before the Common Era (BCE) are year notations for the Gregorian calendar (and its predecessor, the Julian calendar), the world's most widely used calendar era. Common Era and Before the Common Era are alternatives to the ...
, the use of cotton textiles had spread from India to the
Mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea ( ) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the east by the Levant in West Asia, on the north by Anatolia in West Asia and Southern ...
and beyond. * Single roller cotton gin – The
Ajanta Caves The Ajanta Caves are 30 rock-cut architecture, rock-cut Buddhist caves in India, Buddhist cave monuments dating from the second century Common Era, BCE to about 480 CE in Aurangabad district, Maharashtra, Aurangabad district of Maharashtra sta ...
of India yield evidence of a single roller cotton gin in use by the 5th century. This cotton gin was used in India until innovations were made in form of foot powered gins.Baber (1996), page 56 The cotton gin was invented in India as a mechanical device known as ''charkhi'', more technically the "wooden-worm-worked roller". This mechanical device was, in some parts of India, driven by water power.Baber (1996), page 57 * Worm drive
cotton gin A cotton gin—meaning "cotton engine"—is a machine that quickly and easily separates cotton fibers from their seeds, enabling much greater productivity than manual cotton separation.. Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 (); ...
– The worm drive later appeared in the
Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a physiographic region of Asia below the Himalayas which projects into the Indian Ocean between the Bay of Bengal to the east and the Arabian Sea to the west. It is now divided between Bangladesh, India, and Pakista ...
, for use in roller
cotton gin A cotton gin—meaning "cotton engine"—is a machine that quickly and easily separates cotton fibers from their seeds, enabling much greater productivity than manual cotton separation.. Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 (); ...
s, during the
Delhi Sultanate The Delhi Sultanate or the Sultanate of Delhi was a Medieval India, late medieval empire primarily based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for more than three centuries.
in the thirteenth or fourteenth centuries.
Irfan Habib Irfan Habib (born 10 August 1931) is an Indian historian of ancient and medieval India, following the methodology of Marxist historiography in his contributions to economic history. He is known for his strong stance against Hindutva. He has au ...

''Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500'', page 53
Pearson Education Pearson Education, known since 2011 as simply Pearson, is the educational publishing and services subsidiary of the international corporation Pearson plc. The subsidiary was formed in 1998, when Pearson plc acquired Simon & Schuster's educatio ...
* Crank Handle
Cotton Gin A cotton gin—meaning "cotton engine"—is a machine that quickly and easily separates cotton fibers from their seeds, enabling much greater productivity than manual cotton separation.. Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London, 1926 (); ...
– The incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin, first appeared in either the late
Delhi Sultanate The Delhi Sultanate or the Sultanate of Delhi was a Medieval India, late medieval empire primarily based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for more than three centuries.
or the early
Mughal Empire The Mughal Empire was an Early modern period, early modern empire in South Asia. At its peak, the empire stretched from the outer fringes of the Indus River Basin in the west, northern Afghanistan in the northwest, and Kashmir in the north, to ...
. * Palampore – (Hindi language) of Indian originEncyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''interior design'' was imported to the western world—notable England and
Colonial America The colonial history of the United States covers the period of European colonization of North America from the late 15th century until the unifying of the Thirteen British Colonies and creation of the United States in 1776, during the Re ...
—from India.Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''crewel work''Encyclopædia Britannica (2008). ''quilting'' In 17th-century England these hand painted cotton fabrics influenced native crewel work design. Shipping vessels from India also took palampore to colonial America, where it was used in quilting. * Prayer flags – The
Buddhist Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
sūtras, written on cloth in India, were transmitted to other regions of the world.Barker, page 13 These sutras, written on banners, were the origin of prayer flags. Legend ascribes the origin of the prayer flag to the Shakyamuni Buddha, whose prayers were written on battle flags used by the '' devas'' against their adversaries, the ''
asuras Asuras () are a class of beings in Indian religions, and later Persian and Turkic mythology. They are described as power-seeking beings related to the more benevolent Deva (Hinduism), Devas (also known as Suras) in Hinduism. In its Buddhism, ...
''.Beer, page 60 The legend may have given the Indian '' bhikku'' a reason for carrying the 'heavenly' banner as a way of signyfying his commitment to ''
ahimsa (, IAST: , ) is the ancient Indian principle of nonviolence which applies to actions towards all living beings. It is a key virtue in Indian religions like Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism. (also spelled Ahinsa) is one of the cardinal vi ...
''.Wise, page 1112 This knowledge was carried into
Tibet Tibet (; ''Böd''; ), or Greater Tibet, is a region in the western part of East Asia, covering much of the Tibetan Plateau and spanning about . It is the homeland of the Tibetan people. Also resident on the plateau are other ethnic groups s ...
by 800 CE, and the actual flags were introduced no later than 1040 CE, where they were further modified. The Indian monk Atisha (9801054 CE) introduced the Indian practice of printing on cloth prayer flags to Tibet. *
Shellac Shellac () is a resin secreted by the female Kerria lacca, lac bug on trees in the forests of India and Thailand. Chemically, it is mainly composed of aleuritic acid, jalaric acid, shellolic acid, and other natural waxes. It is processed and s ...
- a biopolymer resin that is secreted by an insect called lac bug onto tree trunks, it has multiple uses such as wood polishing, drug coating, candies etc. its name is derived from
lakh A lakh (; abbreviated L; sometimes written lac) is a unit in the Indian numbering system equal to one hundred thousand (100,000; scientific notation: 105). In the Indian 2, 2, 3 convention of digit grouping, it is written as 1,00,000. F ...
word. * Tanning (leather) – Ancient civilizations used leather for waterskins, bags, harnesses and tack, boats,
armour Armour (Commonwealth English) or armor (American English; see American and British English spelling differences#-our, -or, spelling differences) is a covering used to protect an object, individual, or vehicle from physical injury or damage, e ...
,
quiver A quiver is a container for holding arrows or Crossbow bolt, bolts. It can be carried on an archer's body, the bow, or the ground, depending on the type of shooting and the archer's personal preference. Quivers were traditionally made of leath ...
s, scabbards, boots, and sandals. Tanning was being carried out by the inhabitants of
Mehrgarh Mehrgarh is a Neolithic archaeological site situated on the Kacchi Plain of Balochistan, Pakistan, Balochistan in Pakistan. It is located near the Bolan Pass, to the west of the Indus River and between the modern-day Pakistani cities of Quetta, ...
in Ancient India between 7000 and 3300 BCE.Possehl, Gregory L. (1996). ''Mehrgarh'' in ''Oxford Companion to Archaeology'', edited by Brian Fagan. Oxford University Press. * Roller sugar mill – Geared sugar rolling mills first appeared in Mughal India, using the principle of rollers as well as worm gearing, by the 17th century.
Irfan Habib Irfan Habib (born 10 August 1931) is an Indian historian of ancient and medieval India, following the methodology of Marxist historiography in his contributions to economic history. He is known for his strong stance against Hindutva. He has au ...
(2011)
''Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500'', p. 53
Pearson Education Pearson Education, known since 2011 as simply Pearson, is the educational publishing and services subsidiary of the international corporation Pearson plc. The subsidiary was formed in 1998, when Pearson plc acquired Simon & Schuster's educatio ...


Well-being

*
Indian club Indian clubs, known in Iran as meels (), are a type of exercise equipment used to present resistance in movement to develop strength and mobility. They consist of juggling-club shaped wooden clubs of varying sizes and weights, which are swung in ...
s: The Indian club—which appeared in Europe during the 18th century—was used long by India's native soldiery before its introduction to Europe.Todd, Jan (1995)
''From Milo to Milo: A History of Barbells, Dumbells, and Indian Clubs''
. Accessed in September 2008. Hosted on the LA84 Foundation Sports Library.
During the
British Raj The British Raj ( ; from Hindustani language, Hindustani , 'reign', 'rule' or 'government') was the colonial rule of the British The Crown, Crown on the Indian subcontinent, * * lasting from 1858 to 1947. * * It is also called Crown rule ...
the British officers in India performed calisthenic exercises with clubs to keep in physical condition. From Britain the use of club swinging spread to the rest of the world. * Shampoo – The word '' shampoo'' in English is derived from Hindustani ( ), and dates to 1762. A variety of herbs and their extracts were used as shampoos since ancient times in India, evidence of early herbal shampoo have been discovered from Indus Valley Civilization site of Banawali dated to 2750–2500 BCE. A very effective early shampoo was made by boiling Sapindus with dried Indian gooseberry (aamla) and a few other herbs, using the strained extract. Sapindus, also known as soapberries or soapnuts, is called ''Ksuna'' (Sanskrit: क्षुण) in ancient Indian texts and its fruit pulp contain saponins, a natural surfactant. The extract of Ksuna, creates a lather which Indian texts identify as ''phenaka'' (Sanskrit: फेनक), leaves the hair soft, shiny and manageable. Other products used for hair cleansing were shikakai ( Acacia concinna), soapnuts ( Sapindus),
hibiscus ''Hibiscus'' is a genus of flowering plants in the Malva, mallow family, Malvaceae. The genus is quite large, comprising List of Hibiscus species, several hundred species that are Native plant, native to warm temperate, Subtropics, subtropical ...
flowers,Rahman, , Oxford University Press, , page 145 ritha ( Sapindus mukorossi) and arappu (Albizzia amara).
Guru Nanak Gurū Nānak (15 April 1469 – 22 September 1539; Gurmukhi: ਗੁਰੂ ਨਾਨਕ; pronunciation: , ), also known as ('Father Nanak'), was an Indian spiritual teacher, mystic and poet, who is regarded as the founder of Sikhism and is t ...
, the founding prophet and the first
Guru Guru ( ; International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration, IAST: ''guru'') is a Sanskrit term for a "mentor, guide, expert, or master" of certain knowledge or field. In pan-Indian religions, Indian traditions, a guru is more than a teacher: tr ...
of
Sikhism Sikhism is an Indian religion and Indian philosophy, philosophy that originated in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent around the end of the 15th century CE. It is one of the most recently founded major religious groups, major religio ...
, made references to soapberry tree and soap in 16th century. Washing of hair and body massage (champu) during a daily strip wash was an indulgence of early colonial traders in India. When they returned to Europe, they introduced their newly learnt habits, including the hair treatment they called shampoo. *
Yoga Yoga (UK: , US: ; 'yoga' ; ) is a group of physical, mental, and spiritual practices or disciplines that originated with its own philosophy in ancient India, aimed at controlling body and mind to attain various salvation goals, as pra ...
– Yoga as a physical, mental, and spiritual practice originated in
ancient India Anatomically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. The earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago. Sedentism, Sedentariness began in South Asia around 7000 BCE; ...
.


Medicine

*
Angina pectoris Angina, also known as angina pectoris, is chest pain or pressure, usually caused by insufficient blood flow to the heart muscle (myocardium). It is most commonly a symptom of coronary artery disease. Angina is typically the result of part ...
– The condition was named "hritshoola" in ancient India and was described by Sushruta (6th century BCE). * Ayurvedic and Siddha medicine – Ayurveda and Siddha are ancient systems of medicine practised in South Asia. Ayurvedic ideas can be found in the Hindu text (mid-first millennium BCE). Ayurveda has evolved over thousands of years, and is still practised today. In an internationalised form, it can be thought of as a complementary and alternative medicine. In village settings, away from urban centres, it is simply "medicine." The Sanskrit word आयुर्वेदः (''āyur-vedaḥ'') means "knowledge ''(veda'') for longevity (''āyur'')". Siddha medicine is mostly prevalent in South India, and is transmitted in Tamil, not Sanskrit, texts. Herbs and minerals are basic raw materials of the Siddha therapeutic system whose origins may be dated to the early centuries CE. *
Diabetes Diabetes mellitus, commonly known as diabetes, is a group of common endocrine diseases characterized by sustained high blood sugar levels. Diabetes is due to either the pancreas not producing enough of the hormone insulin, or the cells of th ...
: Physicians Sushruta and Charaka distinguished the two different types of diabetes, which is latter dubbed as Type I and Type II diabetes. *
Leprosy Leprosy, also known as Hansen's disease (HD), is a Chronic condition, long-term infection by the bacteria ''Mycobacterium leprae'' or ''Mycobacterium lepromatosis''. Infection can lead to damage of the Peripheral nervous system, nerves, respir ...
: Kearns & Nash (2008) state that the first mention of leprosy is described in the Indian medical treatise '' Sushruta Samhita'' (6th century BCE).Kearns & Nash (2008) However, ''The Oxford Illustrated Companion to Medicine'' holds that the mention of leprosy, as well as ritualistic cures for it, were described in the '' Atharva-veda'' (15001200 BCE), written before the ''Sushruta Samhita''. * Lithiasis treatment – The earliest operation for treating lithiasis, or the formations of stones in the body, is also given in the ''Sushruta Samhita'' (6th century BCE). The operation involved exposure and going up through the floor of the bladder.Lock; Last & Dunea (2001), page 836 * Visceral leishmaniasis, treatment of – The Indian (Bengali) medical practitioner Upendranath Brahmachari (19 December 1873 – 6 February 1946) was nominated for the
Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine () is awarded yearly by the Nobel Assembly at the Karolinska Institute for outstanding discoveries in physiology or medicine. The Nobel Prize is not a single prize, but five separate prizes that, acco ...
in 1929 for his discovery of 'ureastibamine ( antimonial compound for treatment of kala azar) and a new disease, post-kalaazar dermal leishmanoid.'
Nobel Foundation The Nobel Foundation () is a private institution founded on 29 June 1900 to manage the finances and administration of the Nobel Prizes. The foundation is based on the last will of Alfred Nobel, the inventor of dynamite. It also holds Nobel Sym ...
(2008)
''The Nomination Database for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, 19011951''
/ref> Brahmachari's cure for Visceral leishmaniasis was the urea salt of para-amino-phenyl stibnic acid which he called Urea Stibamine.
Vigyan Prasar: Government of India
Following the discovery of Urea Stibamine, Visceral leishmaniasis was largely eradicated from the world, except for some underdeveloped regions. * Ganja was used as herb for ayurverdic medicine development for last 2,000 years. The Sushruta Samhita, an ancient medical treatise, recommends cannabis plant extract for treating respiratory ailments and diarrhoea. * Otoplasty – Ear surgery was developed in
ancient India Anatomically modern humans first arrived on the Indian subcontinent between 73,000 and 55,000 years ago. The earliest known human remains in South Asia date to 30,000 years ago. Sedentism, Sedentariness began in South Asia around 7000 BCE; ...
and is described in the medical compendium, the (Sushruta's Compendium, ). The book discussed otoplastic and other plastic surgery techniques and procedures for correcting, repairing and reconstructing ears, noses, lips, and genitalia that were amputated as criminal, religious, and military punishments. The ancient Indian
medical Medicine is the science and Praxis (process), practice of caring for patients, managing the Medical diagnosis, diagnosis, prognosis, Preventive medicine, prevention, therapy, treatment, Palliative care, palliation of their injury or disease, ...
knowledge and plastic surgery techniques of the were practiced throughout Asia until the late 18th century; the October 1794 issue of the contemporary British '' Gentleman's Magazine'' reported the practice of
rhinoplasty Rhinoplasty (, nose + , to shape), commonly called nose job, medically called nasal reconstruction, is a plastic surgery procedure for altering and reconstructing the human nose, nose. There are two types of plastic surgery used – plastic sur ...
, as described in the . Moreover, two centuries later, contemporary practices of otoplastic praxis were derived from the techniques and procedures developed and established in antiquity by Sushruta. * Tonsillectomy – Tonsillectomies have been practiced for over 2,000 years, with varying popularity over the centuries. The earliest mention of the procedure is in "Hindu medicine" from about 1000 BCE * Caesarian section – The
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
medical treatise '' Sushruta Samhita'', composed in the early 1st millennium CE, mentions post-mortem caesarean sections. The first available non-mythical record of a C-section is the mother of Bindusara (born , ruled 298 – ), the second
Mauryan The Maurya Empire was a geographically extensive Iron Age historical power in South Asia with its power base in Magadha. Founded by Chandragupta Maurya around c. 320 BCE, it existed in loose-knit fashion until 185 BCE. The primary sourc ...
''Samrat'' (
emperor The word ''emperor'' (from , via ) can mean the male ruler of an empire. ''Empress'', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), mother/grandmother (empress dowager/grand empress dowager), or a woman who rules ...
) of India, accidentally consumed poison and died when she was close to delivering him.
Chanakya Chanakya (ISO 15919, ISO: ', चाणक्य, ), according to legendary narratives preserved in various traditions dating from the 4th to 11th century CE, was a Brahmin who assisted the first Mauryan emperor Chandragupta Maurya, Chandragup ...
, Chandragupta's teacher and adviser, made up his mind that the baby should survive. He cut open the belly of the queen and took out the baby, thus saving the baby's life.


Equestrianism

* Toe stirrup – The earliest known manifestation of the stirrup, which was a toe loop that held the big toe was used in India in as early as 500 BCEChamberlin (2007), page 80 or perhaps by 200 BCE according to other sources.Hobson (2004), page 103Woods & Woods (2000), pages 5253 This ancient stirrup consisted of a looped rope for the big toe which was at the bottom of a saddle made of fibre or leather. Such a configuration made it suitable for the warm climate of most of India where people used to ride horses barefoot. A pair of megalithic double bent iron bars with curvature at each end, excavated in Junapani in the central Indian state of
Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh (; ; ) is a state in central India. Its capital is Bhopal and the largest city is Indore, Indore. Other major cities includes Gwalior, Jabalpur, and Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, Sagar. Madhya Pradesh is the List of states and union te ...
have been regarded as stirrups although they could as well be something else."16.17.4: Stirrups". ''Encyclopaedia of Indian Archaeology'' (Vol. 1). Edited by Amalananda Ghosh (1990). page 336 Buddhist carvings in the temples of Sanchi,
Mathura Mathura () is a city and the administrative headquarters of Mathura district in the states and union territories of India, Indian state of Uttar Pradesh. It is located south-east of Delhi; and about from the town of Vrindavan. In ancient ti ...
and the
Bhaja caves Bhaja Caves are a group of 22 Indian rock-cut architecture, rock-cut caves dating back to the 2nd century BC located off the Mumbai - Pune expressway near the city of Pune, India. The caves are 400 feet above the village of Bhaja, on an important ...
dating back between the 1st and 2nd century BCE figure horsemen riding with elaborate saddles with feet slipped under girths.Azzaroli (1985), page 156Addington (1990), page 45Barua (2005), pages 1617 Sir John Marshall described the Sanchi relief as "the earliest example by some five centuries of the use of stirrups in any part of the world". In the 1st century CE horse riders in northern India, where winters are sometimes long and cold, were recorded to have their booted feet attached to hooked stirrups. However the form, the conception of the primitive Indian stirrup spread west and east, gradually evolving into the stirrup of today.


Metallurgy, gems and other commodities

* Iron working – Iron works were developed in India, around the same time as, but independently of,
Anatolia Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...
and the
Caucasus The Caucasus () or Caucasia (), is a region spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It is situated between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, comprising parts of Southern Russia, Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. The Caucasus Mountains, i ...
. Archaeological sites in India, such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila and Lahuradewa in present-day
Uttar Pradesh Uttar Pradesh ( ; UP) is a States and union territories of India, state in North India, northern India. With over 241 million inhabitants, it is the List of states and union territories of India by population, most populated state in In ...
show iron implements in the period between 1800 BCE—1200 BCE. Early iron objects found in India can be dated to 1400 BCE by employing the method of
radiocarbon dating Radiocarbon dating (also referred to as carbon dating or carbon-14 dating) is a method for Chronological dating, determining the age of an object containing organic material by using the properties of carbon-14, radiocarbon, a radioactive Isotop ...
. Spikes, knives,
dagger A dagger is a fighting knife with a very sharp point and usually one or two sharp edges, typically designed or capable of being used as a cutting or stabbing, thrusting weapon.State v. Martin, 633 S.W.2d 80 (Mo. 1982): This is the dictionary or ...
s,
arrow An arrow is a fin-stabilized projectile launched by a bow. A typical arrow usually consists of a long, stiff, straight shaft with a weighty (and usually sharp and pointed) arrowhead attached to the front end, multiple fin-like stabilizers c ...
-heads,
bowls Bowls, also known as lawn bowls or lawn bowling, is a sport in which players try to roll their ball (called a bowl) closest to a smaller ball (known as a "jack" or sometimes a "kitty"). The bowls are shaped (biased), so that they follow a curve ...
, spoons, saucepans,
axe An axe (; sometimes spelled ax in American English; American and British English spelling differences#Miscellaneous spelling differences, see spelling differences) is an implement that has been used for thousands of years to shape, split, a ...
s,
chisel A chisel is a hand tool with a characteristic Wedge, wedge-shaped cutting edge on the end of its blade. A chisel is useful for carving or cutting a hard material such as woodworking, wood, lapidary, stone, or metalworking, metal. Using a chi ...
s, tongs, door fittings etc. ranging from 600 BCE to 200 BCE have been discovered from several archaeological sites of India.Marco Ceccarelli (2000). ''International Symposium on History of Machines and Mechanisms: Proceedings HMM Symposium''. Springer. . pp 218 Some scholars believe that by the early 13th century BCE, iron smelting was practised on a bigger scale in India, suggesting that the date the technology's inception may be placed earlier. In
Southern India South India, also known as Southern India or Peninsular India, is the southern part of the Deccan Peninsula in India encompassing the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Telangana as well as the union territories of ...
(present day
Mysore Mysore ( ), officially Mysuru (), is a city in the southern Indian state of Karnataka. It is the headquarters of Mysore district and Mysore division. As the traditional seat of the Wadiyar dynasty, the city functioned as the capital of the ...
) iron appeared as early as 11th to 12th centuries BCE; these developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country.I. M. Drakonoff (1991). ''Early Antiquity''. University of Chicago Press. . pp 372 In the time of
Chandragupta II Chandragupta II (r.c. 375–415), also known by his title Vikramaditya, as well as Chandragupta Vikramaditya, was an emperor of the Gupta Empire. Modern scholars generally identify him with King Chandra of the Iron pillar of Delhi, Delhi iron ...
Vikramaditya (375413 CE), corrosion-resistant iron was used to erect the Iron pillar of Delhi, which has withstood corrosion for over 1,600 years. *
Crucible steel Crucible steel is steel made by melting pig iron, cast iron, iron, and sometimes steel, often along with sand, glass, ashes, and other fluxes, in a crucible. Crucible steel was first developed in the middle of the 1st millennium BCE in Sout ...
– Perhaps as early as 300 BCE—although certainly by 200 BCE—high quality steel was being produced in southern India, by what Europeans would later call the crucible technique. In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon. *
Dockyard A shipyard, also called a dockyard or boatyard, is a place where ships are built and repaired. These can be yachts, military vessels, cruise liners or other cargo or passenger ships. Compared to shipyards, which are sometimes more involve ...
– The world's earliest enclosed dockyard was built in the Harappan port city of Lothal circa 2600 BC in Gujarat, India. * Diamond drills – in the 12th century BCE or 7th century BCE, Indians not only innovated use of diamond tipped drills but also invented double diamond tipped drills for bead manufacturing. * Diamond cutting and polishing – The technology of cutting and polishing diamonds was invented in India, Ratnapariksha, a text dated to 6th century talks about diamond cutting and Al-Beruni speaks about the method of using lead plate for diamond polishing in the 11th century CE. * Draw bar – The draw bar was applied to sugar-milling, with evidence of its use at
Delhi Delhi, officially the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, is a city and a union territory of India containing New Delhi, the capital of India. Straddling the Yamuna river, but spread chiefly to the west, or beyond its Bank (geography ...
in the
Mughal Empire The Mughal Empire was an Early modern period, early modern empire in South Asia. At its peak, the empire stretched from the outer fringes of the Indus River Basin in the west, northern Afghanistan in the northwest, and Kashmir in the north, to ...
by 1540, but possibly dating back several centuries earlier to the
Delhi Sultanate The Delhi Sultanate or the Sultanate of Delhi was a Medieval India, late medieval empire primarily based in Delhi that stretched over large parts of the Indian subcontinent for more than three centuries.
.
Irfan Habib Irfan Habib (born 10 August 1931) is an Indian historian of ancient and medieval India, following the methodology of Marxist historiography in his contributions to economic history. He is known for his strong stance against Hindutva. He has au ...
(2011)
''Economic History of Medieval India, 1200–1500'', page 53
Pearson Education Pearson Education, known since 2011 as simply Pearson, is the educational publishing and services subsidiary of the international corporation Pearson plc. The subsidiary was formed in 1998, when Pearson plc acquired Simon & Schuster's educatio ...
* Etched carnelian beads – are a type of ancient decorative beads made from carnelian with an etched design in white. They were made according to a technique of alkaline-etching developed by the Harappans during the 3rd millennium BCE and were widely disperced from China in the east to Greece in the west. * Glassblowing – Rudimentary form of glass blowing from
Indian subcontinent The Indian subcontinent is a physiographic region of Asia below the Himalayas which projects into the Indian Ocean between the Bay of Bengal to the east and the Arabian Sea to the west. It is now divided between Bangladesh, India, and Pakista ...
is attested earlier than Western Asian counterparts(where it is attested not earlier than 1st century BCE) in the form of Indo-Pacific beads which uses glass blowing to make cavity before being subjected to tube drawn technique for bead making dated more than 2500 BP. Beads are made by attaching molten glass gather to the end of a blowpipe, a bubble is then blown into the gather. The glass blown vessels were rarely attested and were imported commodity in 1st millennium CE though. * Lost-wax casting – Metal casting by the
Indus Valley civilization The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Indus Civilisation, was a Bronze Age civilisation in the northwestern regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300  BCE to 1300 BCE, and in its mature form from 2600 BCE ...
began around 3500 BC in the Mohenjodaro area, which produced one of the earliest known examples of lost-wax casting, an Indian bronze figurine named the " dancing girl" that dates back nearly 5,000 years to the Harappan period (c. 3300–1300 BC). Other examples include the buffalo, bull and dog found at Mohenjodaro and Harappa,Kenoyer, J. M. & H. M.-L. Miller, (1999). Metal Technologies of the Indus Valley Tradition in Pakistan and Western India., in ''The Archaeometallurgy of the Asian Old World''., ed. V. C. Pigott. Philadelphia: The University of Pennsylvania Museum. two
copper Copper is a chemical element; it has symbol Cu (from Latin ) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orang ...
figures found at the Harappan site Lothal in the district of Ahmedabad of Gujarat, and likely a covered cart with wheels missing and a complete cart with a driver found at Chanhudaro. * Seamless
celestial globe Celestial globes show the apparent positions of the stars in the sky. They omit the Sun, Moon, and planets because the positions of these bodies vary relative to those of the stars, but the ecliptic, along which the Sun moves, is indicated. ...
– Considered one of the most remarkable feats in
metallurgy Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their inter-metallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are known as alloys. Metallurgy encompasses both the ...
, it was invented in India in between 1589 and 1590 CE.Kamarustafa (1992), page 48 Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce metal globes without any seams, even with modern technology. *
Stoneware Stoneware is a broad class of pottery fired at a relatively high temperature, to be impervious to water. A modern definition is a Vitrification#Ceramics, vitreous or semi-vitreous ceramic made primarily from stoneware clay or non-refractory fire ...
– Earliest stonewares, predecessors of
porcelain Porcelain (), also called china, is a ceramic material made by heating Industrial mineral, raw materials, generally including kaolinite, in a kiln to temperatures between . The greater strength and translucence of porcelain, relative to oth ...
have been recorded at Indus Valley Civilization sites of Harappa and Mohenjo Daro, they were used for making stoneware bangles. * Tube drawn technology: Indians used tube drawn technology for glass bead manufacturing which was first developed in the 2nd century BCE. * Tumble polishing – Indians innvoted polishing method in the 10th century BCE for mass production of polished stone beads. * Wootz steel – Wootz steel is an ultra-high carbon steel and the first form of crucible steel manufactured by the applications and use of nanomaterials in its microstructure and is characterised by its ultra-high carbon content exhibiting properties such as superplasticity and high impact hardness. Archaeological and
Tamil language Tamil (, , , also written as ''Tamizhil'' according to linguistic pronunciation) is a Dravidian language natively spoken by the Tamil people of South Asia. It is one of the longest-surviving classical languages in the world,. "Tamil is one of ...
literary Literature is any collection of written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially novels, plays, and poems. It includes both print and digital writing. In recent centuries, ...
evidence suggests that this manufacturing process was already in existence in South India well before the common era, with wootz steel exported from the Chera dynasty and called ''Seric Iron'' in Rome, and later known as Damascus steel in Europe.Srinivasan 1994Srinivasan & Griffiths Reproduction research is undertaken by scientists Dr. Oleg Sherby and Dr. Jeff Wadsworth and the
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) is a Federally funded research and development centers, federally funded research and development center in Livermore, California, United States. Originally established in 1952, the laboratory now i ...
have all attempted to create steels with characteristics similar to Wootz, but without success. J.D Verhoeven and Al Pendray attained some success in the reconstruction methods of production, proved the role of impurities of ore in the pattern creation, and reproduced Wootz steel with patterns microscopically and visually identical to one of the ancient blade patterns. *
Rain gauge A rain gauge (also known as udometer, ombrometer, pluviometer and hyetometer) is an instrument used by meteorologists and Hydrology, hydrologists to gather and measure the amount of liquid precipitation in a predefined area, over a set period of t ...
– People living in
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
began to record rainfall in 400 BCE.Ian Strangeways, A History of rain gauges, TerraData, 2010 The readings were correlated against expected growth. In the
Arthashastra ''Kautilya's Arthashastra'' (, ; ) is an Ancient Indian Sanskrit treatise on statecraft, politics, economic policy and military strategy. The text is likely the work of several authors over centuries, starting as a compilation of ''Arthashas ...
, used for example in Magadha, precise standards were set as to grain production. Each state storehouse was equipped with a rain gauge to classify land for taxation purposes. * Touchstone – The touchstone was used during the Harappa period of the Indus Valley civilization ca. 2600–1900 BC for testing the purity of soft metals.


Metrology

* Standardisation – The oldest applications and evidence of standardisation come from the Indus Valley Civilisation in the 5th millennium BCE characterised by the existence of weights in various standards and categories as well as the Indus merchants usage of a centralised weight and measure system. Small weights were used to measure luxury goods, and larger weights were used for buying bulkier items, such as food grains etc.Kenoyer, 265 The weights and measures of the Indus civilisation also reached
Persia Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...
and
Central Asia Central Asia is a region of Asia consisting of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The countries as a group are also colloquially referred to as the "-stans" as all have names ending with the Persian language, Pers ...
, where they were further modified.In the third millennium BCE the Indus measuring system was further developed in the ancient regions of Iran and Afghanistan – Iwata, 2254.
A total of 558 weights were excavated from Mohenjodaro, Harappa, and Chanhu-daro, not including defective weights. They did not find statistically significant differences between weights that were excavated from five different layers, each about 1.5 m in thickness. This was evidence that strong control existed for at least a 500-year period. The 13.7-g weight seems to be one of the units used in the Indus valley. The notation was based on the binary and
decimal The decimal numeral system (also called the base-ten positional numeral system and denary or decanary) is the standard system for denoting integer and non-integer numbers. It is the extension to non-integer numbers (''decimal fractions'') of th ...
systems. 83% of the weights which were excavated from the above three cities were cubic, and 68% were made of
chert Chert () is a hard, fine-grained sedimentary rock composed of microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline quartz, the mineral form of silicon dioxide (SiO2). Chert is characteristically of biological origin, but may also occur inorganically as a prec ...
.Iwata2254
* Technical standards – Technical standards were being applied and used in the
Indus Valley civilisation The Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC), also known as the Indus Civilisation, was a Bronze Age civilisation in the Northwestern South Asia, northwestern regions of South Asia, lasting from 3300 Common Era, BCE to 1300 BCE, and in i ...
since the 5th millennium BCE to enable gauging devices to be effectively used in
angular measurement In Euclidean geometry, an angle can refer to a number of concepts relating to the intersection of two straight lines at a point. Formally, an angle is a figure lying in a plane formed by two rays, called the '' sides'' of the angle, sharing ...
and
measurement Measurement is the quantification of attributes of an object or event, which can be used to compare with other objects or events. In other words, measurement is a process of determining how large or small a physical quantity is as compared to ...
in construction.Baber, 23 Uniform units of length were used in the planning and construction of towns such as Lothal, Surkotada, Kalibangan,
Dholavira Dholavira () is an archaeological site at Khadirbet in Bhachau Taluka of Kutch District, in the state of Gujarat in western India, which has taken its name from a modern-day village south of it. This village is from Radhanpur. Also known loc ...
, Harappa, and
Mohenjo-daro Mohenjo-daro (; , ; ) is an archaeological site in Larkana District, Sindh, Pakistan. Built 2500 BCE, it was one of the largest settlements of the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation, and one of the world's earliest major city, cities, contemp ...
. The weights and measures of the Indus civilisation also reached
Persia Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...
and
Central Asia Central Asia is a region of Asia consisting of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. The countries as a group are also colloquially referred to as the "-stans" as all have names ending with the Persian language, Pers ...
, where they were further modified.


Weapons

* Metal cylinder
rocket A rocket (from , and so named for its shape) is a vehicle that uses jet propulsion to accelerate without using any surrounding air. A rocket engine produces thrust by reaction to exhaust expelled at high speed. Rocket engines work entirely ...
: In the 16th century, Akbar was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder rockets known as ''bans'', particularly against
war elephant A war elephant is an elephant that is Animal training, trained and guided by humans for combat purposes. Historically, the war elephant's main use was to charge (warfare), charge the enemy, break their ranks, and instill terror and fear. Elep ...
s, during the Battle of Sanbal. * Mysorean rockets – One of the first iron-cased
rocket A rocket (from , and so named for its shape) is a vehicle that uses jet propulsion to accelerate without using any surrounding air. A rocket engine produces thrust by reaction to exhaust expelled at high speed. Rocket engines work entirely ...
s were deployed by Hyder Ali's army, ruler of the South Indian
Kingdom of Mysore The Kingdom of Mysore was a geopolitical realm in southern India founded in around 1399 in the vicinity of the modern-day city of Mysore and prevailed until 1950. The territorial boundaries and the form of government transmuted substantially ...
. *
Rocket artillery Rocket artillery is artillery that uses rockets as the projectile. The use of rocket artillery dates back to medieval China where devices such as fire arrows were used (albeit mostly as a psychological weapon). Fire arrows were also used in mult ...
- The first true rocket artillery was developed by
Tipu Sultan Tipu Sultan (, , ''Sultan Fateh Ali Sahab Tipu''; 1 December 1751 – 4 May 1799) commonly referred to as Sher-e-Mysore or "Tiger of Mysore", was a ruler of the Kingdom of Mysore based in South India. He was a pioneer of rocket artillery ...
and was notably in use during the Anglo-Mysore Wars.


Philosophy and logic

* Catuskoti (Tetralemma) – The four-cornered system of logical argumentation with a suite of four distinct functions that refers to a logical proposition P, with four possibilities that can arise. The tetralemma has many logico-epistemological applications and has been made ample use of by the Indian philosopher Nāgarjuna in the
Madhyamaka Madhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; ; Tibetic languages, Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ་ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as Śūnyavāda ("the Śūnyatā, emptiness doctrine") and Niḥsvabhāvavāda ("the no Svabhava, ''svabhāva'' d ...
school. The tetralemma also features prominently in the Greek skepticist school of Pyrrhonism, the teachings of which are based on Buddhism. According to Christopher I. Beckwith ,the founder of the Pyrrhonist school lived in India for 18 months and likely learned the language, which allowed him to carry these teachings to Greece. However, other scholars, such as Stephen Batchelor and Charles Goodman question Beckwith's conclusions about the degree of Buddhist influence on Pyrrho * Trairūpya – Trairūpya is a logical argument that contains three constituents which a logical ‘sign’ or ‘mark’ (linga) must fulfill to be 'valid source of knowledge' (
pramana ''Pramana'' (; IAST: Pramāṇa) literally means " proof" and "means of knowledge".
): #It should be present in the case or object under consideration, the ‘subject-locus' (pakṣa) #It should be present in a ‘similar case’ or a homologue (sapakṣa) #It should not be present in any ‘dissimilar case’ or heterologue (vipakṣa) :When a ‘sign’ or ‘mark’ (linga) is identified, there are three possibilities: the sign may be present in all, some, or none of the sapakṣas. Likewise, the sign may be present in all, some or none of the vipakṣas. To identify a sign, we have to assume that it is present in the pakṣa, however; that is the first condition is already satisfied. Combining these, Dignaga constructed his ‘Wheel of Reason’ (Sanskrit: Hetucakra). * Jaina seven-valued logic – The ''Saptabhangivada'', the seven predicate theory may be summarized as follows: :The seven predicate theory consists in the use of seven claims about sentences, each preceded by "arguably" or "conditionally" (), concerning a single object and its particular properties, composed of assertions and denials, either simultaneously or successively, and without contradiction. These seven claims are the following. # Arguably, it (that is, some object) exists (). # Arguably, it does not exist (). # Arguably, it exists; arguably, it doesn't exist (). # Arguably, it is non-assertible (). # Arguably, it exists; arguably, it is non-assertible (). # Arguably, it doesn't exist; arguably, it is non-assertible (). # Arguably, it exists; arguably, it doesn't exist; arguably it is non-assertible ().


Mathematics

*
Zero 0 (zero) is a number representing an empty quantity. Adding (or subtracting) 0 to any number leaves that number unchanged; in mathematical terminology, 0 is the additive identity of the integers, rational numbers, real numbers, and compl ...
– Zero and its operation are first defined by (Hindu astronomer and mathematician) Brahmagupta in 628. The Babylonians used a space, and later a zero glyph, in their written
Sexagesimal Sexagesimal, also known as base 60, is a numeral system with 60 (number), sixty as its radix, base. It originated with the ancient Sumerians in the 3rd millennium BC, was passed down to the ancient Babylonians, and is still used—in a modified fo ...
system, to signify the 'absent', the Olmecs used a positional zero glyph in their
Vigesimal A vigesimal ( ) or base-20 (base-score) numeral system is based on 20 (number), twenty (in the same way in which the decimal, decimal numeral system is based on 10 (number), ten). ''wikt:vigesimal#English, Vigesimal'' is derived from the Latin a ...
system, the Greeks, from
Ptolemy Claudius Ptolemy (; , ; ; – 160s/170s AD) was a Greco-Roman mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist who wrote about a dozen scientific treatises, three of which were important to later Byzantine science, Byzant ...
's Almagest, in a
Sexagesimal Sexagesimal, also known as base 60, is a numeral system with 60 (number), sixty as its radix, base. It originated with the ancient Sumerians in the 3rd millennium BC, was passed down to the ancient Babylonians, and is still used—in a modified fo ...
system. The Chinese used a blank, in the written form of their decimal
Counting rods Counting rods (筭) are small bars, typically 3–14 cm (1" to 6") long, that were used by mathematicians for calculation in ancient East Asia. They are placed either horizontally or vertically to represent any integer or rational number. ...
system. A dot, rather than a blank, was first seen to denote zero, in a decimal system, in the Bakhshali manuscript. The usage of the zero in the Bakhshali manuscript was dated from between 3rd and 4th centuries, making it the earliest known usage of a written zero, in a decimal place value system. * Hindu number system – With
decimal The decimal numeral system (also called the base-ten positional numeral system and denary or decanary) is the standard system for denoting integer and non-integer numbers. It is the extension to non-integer numbers (''decimal fractions'') of th ...
place-value and a symbol for zero, this system was the ancestor of the widely used
Arabic numeral The ten Arabic numerals (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9) are the most commonly used symbols for writing numbers. The term often also implies a positional notation number with a decimal base, in particular when contrasted with Roman numerals. ...
system. It was developed in the Indian subcontinent between the 1st and 6th centuries CE. * Law of signs in multiplication – The earliest use of notation for negative numbers, as subtrahend, is credited by scholars to the Chinese, dating back to the 2nd century BCE.Smith (1958), pp. 257258 Like the Chinese, the Indians used negative numbers as subtrahend, but were the first to establish the "law of signs" with regards to the multiplication of positive and negative numbers, which did not appear in Chinese texts until 1299. Indian mathematicians were aware of negative numbers by the 7th century, and their role in mathematical problems of debt was understood.Bourbaki (1998), page 49 Mostly consistent and correct rules for working with negative numbers were formulated,Britannica Concise Encyclopedia (2007). ''algebra'' and the diffusion of these rules led the Arab intermediaries to pass it on to Europe., for example (+)×(-)=(-),(-)×(-)=(+) etc. * Sign convention – Symbols, signs and mathematical notation were employed in an early form in India by the 6th century when the mathematician-astronomer Aryabhata recommended the use of letters to represent unknown quantities.Bell (1992), page 96 By the 7th century Brahmagupta had already begun using abbreviations for unknowns, even for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem. Brahmagupta also managed to use abbreviations for square roots and cube roots. By the 7th century fractions were written in a manner similar to the modern times, except for the bar separating the numerator and the
denominator A fraction (from , "broken") represents a part of a whole or, more generally, any number of equal parts. When spoken in everyday English, a fraction describes how many parts of a certain size there are, for example, one-half, eight-fifths, thre ...
. A dot symbol for negative numbers was also employed. The Bakhshali Manuscript displays a cross, much like the modern '+' sign, except that it symbolised subtraction when written just after the number affected. The '=' sign for equality did not exist. Indian mathematics was transmitted to the Islamic world where this notation was seldom accepted initially and the scribes continued to write mathematics in full and without symbols.Bell (1992), page 97 * Modern
elementary arithmetic Elementary arithmetic is a branch of mathematics involving addition, subtraction, multiplication, and Division (mathematics), division. Due to its low level of abstraction, broad range of application, and position as the foundation of all mathema ...
– Modum indorum or the method of the Indians for arithmetic operations was popularised by Al-Khwarizmi and Al-Kindi by means of their respective works such as in Al-Khwarizmi's on the Calculation with Hindu Numerals (ca. 825), On the Use of the Indian Numerals (ca. 830) as early as the 8th and 9th centuries.They, amongst other works, contributed to the diffusion of the Indian system of arithmetic in the Middle-East and the West.The significance of the development of the positional number system is described by the French mathematician Pierre Simon Laplace (17491827) who wrote:
"It is India that gave us the ingenuous method of expressing all numbers by the means of ten symbols, each symbol receiving a value of position, as well as an absolute value; a profound and important idea which appears so simple to us now that we ignore its true merit, but its very simplicity, the great ease which it has lent to all computations, puts our arithmetic in the first rank of useful inventions, and we shall appreciate the grandeur of this achievement when we remember that it escaped the genius of Archimedes and Apollonius, two of the greatest minds produced by antiquity."
*
Chakravala method The ''chakravala'' method () is a cyclic algorithm to solve indeterminate quadratic equations, including Pell's equation. It is commonly attributed to Bhāskara II, (c. 1114 – 1185 CE)Hoiberg & Ramchandani – Students' Britannica India: Bhask ...
– The Chakravala method, a cyclic algorithm to solve indeterminate
quadratic equation In mathematics, a quadratic equation () is an equation that can be rearranged in standard form as ax^2 + bx + c = 0\,, where the variable (mathematics), variable represents an unknown number, and , , and represent known numbers, where . (If and ...
s is commonly attributed to
Bhāskara II Bhāskara II ('; 1114–1185), also known as Bhāskarāchārya (), was an Indian people, Indian polymath, Indian mathematicians, mathematician, astronomer and engineer. From verses in his main work, Siddhānta Śiromaṇi, it can be inferre ...
, (c. 1114 – 1185 CE)"Bhaskaracharya II". ''Students' Encyclopedia India'' (2000). (Volume 1: Adb Allah ibn al Abbas – Cypress). p. 200. Kumar (2004), page 23Singh, Manpal (2005), page 385 although some attribute it to Jayadeva (c. 950~1000 CE).Plofker (2007), page 474 Jayadeva pointed out that Brahmagupta's approach to solving equations of this type would yield infinitely large number of solutions, to which he then described a general method of solving such equations.Goonatilake (1998), page 127 – 128 Jayadeva's method was later refined by Bhāskara II in his '' Bijaganita'' treatise to be known as the Chakravala method, '' chakra'' (derived from ''cakraṃ'' चक्रं) meaning 'wheel' in
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
, relevant to the cyclic nature of the algorithm.Baber (1996), page 34 With reference to the Chakravala method, E. O. Selenuis held that no European performances at the time of Bhāskara, nor much later, came up to its marvellous height of mathematical complexity.Rao K. A. (2000), page 252 *
Trigonometric function In mathematics, the trigonometric functions (also called circular functions, angle functions or goniometric functions) are real functions which relate an angle of a right-angled triangle to ratios of two side lengths. They are widely used in all ...
s – The trigonometric functions ''sine'' and ''versine'' originated in
Indian astronomy Astronomy has a long history in the Indian subcontinent, stretching from History of India, pre-historic to History of India (1947–present), modern times. Some of the earliest roots of Indian astronomy can be dated to the period of Indus Valle ...
along with the ''cosine'' and '' inversine '', adapted from the full-chord Greek versions (to the modern half-chord versions). They were described in detail by
Aryabhata Aryabhata ( ISO: ) or Aryabhata I (476–550 CE) was the first of the major mathematician-astronomers from the classical age of Indian mathematics and Indian astronomy. His works include the '' Āryabhaṭīya'' (which mentions that in 3600 ' ...
in the late 5th century, but were likely developed earlier in the Siddhantas, astronomical treatises of the 3rd or 4th century.Pingree (2003): J. J. O'Connor and E.F. Robertson (1996)
Trigonometric functions
. MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive
Later, the 6th-century astronomer Varahamihira discovered a few basic trigonometric formulas and identities, such as sin^2(x) + cos^2(x) = 1. *
Mean value theorem In mathematics, the mean value theorem (or Lagrange's mean value theorem) states, roughly, that for a given planar arc (geometry), arc between two endpoints, there is at least one point at which the tangent to the arc is parallel to the secant lin ...
– A special case of this
theorem In mathematics and formal logic, a theorem is a statement (logic), statement that has been Mathematical proof, proven, or can be proven. The ''proof'' of a theorem is a logical argument that uses the inference rules of a deductive system to esta ...
for inverse interpolation of the sine was first described by Parameshvara (1380–1460), from the
Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics or the Kerala school was a school of Indian mathematics, mathematics and Indian astronomy, astronomy founded by Madhava of Sangamagrama in Kingdom of Tanur, Tirur, Malappuram district, Malappuram, K ...
in
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
, in his commentaries on Govindasvāmi and
Bhāskara II Bhāskara II ('; 1114–1185), also known as Bhāskarāchārya (), was an Indian people, Indian polymath, Indian mathematicians, mathematician, astronomer and engineer. From verses in his main work, Siddhānta Śiromaṇi, it can be inferre ...
. * Bhāskara I's sine approximation formula * Madhava series – The infinite series for and for the trigonometric
sine In mathematics, sine and cosine are trigonometric functions of an angle. The sine and cosine of an acute angle are defined in the context of a right triangle: for the specified angle, its sine is the ratio of the length of the side opposite th ...
,
cosine In mathematics, sine and cosine are trigonometric functions of an angle. The sine and cosine of an acute angle are defined in the context of a right triangle: for the specified angle, its sine is the ratio of the length of the side opposite that ...
, and
arctangent In mathematics, the inverse trigonometric functions (occasionally also called ''antitrigonometric'', ''cyclometric'', or ''arcus'' functions) are the inverse functions of the trigonometric functions, under suitably restricted domains. Specific ...
is now attributed to Madhava of Sangamagrama (c. 1340 – 1425) and his Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics.Goonatilake (1998), page 37Amma (1999), pp. 182183 He made use of the series expansion of \arctan x to obtain an infinite series expression for . Their rational approximation of the ''error'' for the finite sum of their series are of particular interest. They manipulated the error term to derive a faster converging series for .Roy (1990) They used the improved series to derive a rational expression,104348/33215 for correct up to eleven decimal places, ''i.e.'' 3.1415926539214.Borwein (2004), page 107Plofker (2007), page 481 Madhava of Sangamagrama and his successors at the
Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics or the Kerala school was a school of Indian mathematics, mathematics and Indian astronomy, astronomy founded by Madhava of Sangamagrama in Kingdom of Tanur, Tirur, Malappuram district, Malappuram, K ...
used geometric methods to derive large sum approximations for sine, cosine, and arctangent. They found a number of special cases of series later derived by Brook Taylor series. They also found the second-order Taylor approximations for these functions, and the third-order Taylor approximation for sine.Bressoud (2002)Plofker (2001)Katz (1995) *
Power series In mathematics, a power series (in one variable) is an infinite series of the form \sum_^\infty a_n \left(x - c\right)^n = a_0 + a_1 (x - c) + a_2 (x - c)^2 + \dots where ''a_n'' represents the coefficient of the ''n''th term and ''c'' is a co ...
– The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics or the Kerala school was a school of mathematics and astronomy founded by Madhava of Sangamagrama in Tirur, Malappuram, Kerala, India. Their work, completed two centuries before the invention of calculus in Europe, provided what is now considered the first example of a power series (apart from geometric series). However, they did not formulate a systematic theory of differentiation and integration. * Finite difference
interpolation In the mathematics, mathematical field of numerical analysis, interpolation is a type of estimation, a method of constructing (finding) new data points based on the range of a discrete set of known data points. In engineering and science, one ...
– The Indian mathematician
Brahmagupta Brahmagupta ( – ) was an Indian Indian mathematics, mathematician and Indian astronomy, astronomer. He is the author of two early works on mathematics and astronomy: the ''Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta'' (BSS, "correctly established Siddhanta, do ...
presented what is possibly the first instance of finite difference interpolation around 665 CE. Reprinted as: * Algebraic abbreviations – The mathematician
Brahmagupta Brahmagupta ( – ) was an Indian Indian mathematics, mathematician and Indian astronomy, astronomer. He is the author of two early works on mathematics and astronomy: the ''Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta'' (BSS, "correctly established Siddhanta, do ...
had begun using abbreviations for unknowns by the 7th century. He employed abbreviations for multiple unknowns occurring in one complex problem. Brahmagupta also used abbreviations for square roots and cube roots. * Systematic generation of all permutations – The method goes back to Narayana Pandita in 14th century India, and has been rediscovered frequently. * Discovered by the Indian mathematician, Brahmagupta (598668 CE):Plofker (2007), pp. 419436Joseph (2000), page 306 ** Brahmagupta–Fibonacci identity ** Brahmagupta formula ** Brahmagupta theorem *
Combinatorics Combinatorics is an area of mathematics primarily concerned with counting, both as a means and as an end to obtaining results, and certain properties of finite structures. It is closely related to many other areas of mathematics and has many ...
– the Bhagavati Sutra had the first mention of a combinatorics problem; the problem asked how many possible combinations of tastes were possible from selecting tastes in ones, twos, threes, etc. from a selection of six different tastes (sweet, pungent, astringent, sour, salt, and bitter). The Bhagavati is also the first text to mention the choose function. In the second century BC, Pingala included an enumeration problem in the Chanda Sutra (also Chandahsutra) which asked how many ways a six-syllable metre could be made from short and long notes. Pingala found the number of metres that had n long notes and k short notes; this is equivalent to finding the
binomial coefficients In mathematics, the binomial coefficients are the positive integers that occur as coefficients in the binomial theorem. Commonly, a binomial coefficient is indexed by a pair of integers and is written \tbinom. It is the coefficient of the te ...
. * Jain texts define five different types of
infinity Infinity is something which is boundless, endless, or larger than any natural number. It is denoted by \infty, called the infinity symbol. From the time of the Ancient Greek mathematics, ancient Greeks, the Infinity (philosophy), philosophic ...
– the infinite in one direction, the infinite in two directions, the infinite in area, the infinite everywhere, and the infinite perpetually. and the '' Satkhandagama'' *
Fibonacci numbers In mathematics, the Fibonacci sequence is a sequence in which each element is the sum of the two elements that precede it. Numbers that are part of the Fibonacci sequence are known as Fibonacci numbers, commonly denoted . Many writers begin the s ...
– This sequence was first described by
Virahanka Virahanka (Devanagari: विरहाङ्क) was an Indian prosodist who is also known for his work on mathematics. He may have lived in the 6th century, but it is also possible that he worked as late as the 8th century. His work on prosod ...
(c. 700 CE), Gopāla (c. 1135), and
Hemachandra Hemacandra was a 12th century () Śvetāmbara Jaina acharya, ācārya, scholar, poet, mathematician, philosopher, yogi, wikt:grammarian, grammarian, Law, law theorist, historian, Lexicography, lexicographer, rhetorician, logician, and Prosody ...
(c. 1150), as an outgrowth of the earlier writings on Sanskrit prosody by Pingala (c. 200 BCE). * Madhava's correction terms – Madhava's correction term is a mathematical expression attributed to
Madhava of Sangamagrama Mādhava of Sangamagrāma (Mādhavan) Availabl/ref> () was an Indian mathematician and astronomer who is considered to be the founder of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics in the Late Middle Ages. Madhava made pioneering contributio ...
(c. 1340 – c. 1425), the founder of the
Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics or the Kerala school was a school of Indian mathematics, mathematics and Indian astronomy, astronomy founded by Madhava of Sangamagrama in Kingdom of Tanur, Tirur, Malappuram district, Malappuram, K ...
, that can be used to give a better approximation to the value of the mathematical constant (''pi'') than the partial sum approximation obtained by truncating the Madhava-Leibniz infinite series for . The Madhava-Leibniz infinite series for . *
Pascal's triangle In mathematics, Pascal's triangle is an infinite triangular array of the binomial coefficients which play a crucial role in probability theory, combinatorics, and algebra. In much of the Western world, it is named after the French mathematician Bla ...
– Described in the 6th century CE by Varahamihira and in the 10th century by Halayudha, commenting on an obscure reference by Pingala (the author of an earlier work on prosody) to the "Meru-prastaara", or the "Staircase of Mount Meru", in relation to binomial coefficients. (It was also independently discovered in the 10th or 11th century in Persia and China.) * Integral solution to
Pell's equation Pell's equation, also called the Pell–Fermat equation, is any Diophantine equation of the form x^2 - ny^2 = 1, where ''n'' is a given positive Square number, nonsquare integer, and integer solutions are sought for ''x'' and ''y''. In Cartesian ...
– About a thousand years before Pell's time, Indian scholar Brahmagupta (598668 CE) was able to find integral solutions to ''vargaprakṛiti'' (Pell's equation):Puttaswamy (2000), page 416 \ x^2-Ny^2=1, where ''N'' is a non-square integer, in his ''Brâhma-sphuṭa-siddhânta'' treatise.Stillwell (2004), pages 7273 * Ardhacheda – Earlier than Michael Stifel, the 8th century Jain mathematician Virasena is credited with a precursor to the binary logarithm. Virasena's concept of ''ardhacheda'' has been defined as the number of times a given number can be divided evenly by two. This definition gives rise to a function that coincides with the binary logarithm on the powers of two, but it is different for other integers, giving the 2-adic order rather than the logarithm. * Kuṭṭaka – The Kuṭṭaka algorithm has much similarity with and can be considered as a precursor of the modern day
extended Euclidean algorithm In arithmetic and computer programming, the extended Euclidean algorithm is an extension to the Euclidean algorithm, and computes, in addition to the greatest common divisor (gcd) of integers ''a'' and ''b'', also the coefficients of Bézout's id ...
. The latter algorithm is a procedure for finding integers ''x'' and ''y'' satisfying the condition ''ax'' + ''by'' = gcd(''a'', ''b''). * Preliminary differentiation – Preliminary concept of differentiation and the differential coefficient were known to bhaskaracharya


Linguistics and Literature

*
Formal grammar A formal grammar is a set of Terminal and nonterminal symbols, symbols and the Production (computer science), production rules for rewriting some of them into every possible string of a formal language over an Alphabet (formal languages), alphabe ...
/
Formal systems A formal system is an abstract structure and formalization of an axiomatic system used for deducing, using rules of inference, theorems from axioms. In 1921, David Hilbert proposed to use formal systems as the foundation of knowledge in mathe ...
– In his treatise Astadhyayi, Panini gives formal production rules and definitions to describe the formal grammar of
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
. In
formal language theory In logic, mathematics, computer science, and linguistics, a formal language is a set of string (computer science), strings whose symbols are taken from a set called "#Definition, alphabet". The alphabet of a formal language consists of symbol ...
, a ''grammar'' (when the context is not given, often called a ''formal grammar'' for clarity) is a set of production rules for strings in a
formal language In logic, mathematics, computer science, and linguistics, a formal language is a set of strings whose symbols are taken from a set called "alphabet". The alphabet of a formal language consists of symbols that concatenate into strings (also c ...
. The rules describe how to form strings from the language's
alphabet An alphabet is a standard set of letter (alphabet), letters written to represent particular sounds in a spoken language. Specifically, letters largely correspond to phonemes as the smallest sound segments that can distinguish one word from a ...
that are valid according to the language's
syntax In linguistics, syntax ( ) is the study of how words and morphemes combine to form larger units such as phrases and sentences. Central concerns of syntax include word order, grammatical relations, hierarchical sentence structure (constituenc ...
. A grammar does not describe the meaning of the strings or what can be done with them in whatever context—only their form. The Backus-Naur form, used to describe the
syntax In linguistics, syntax ( ) is the study of how words and morphemes combine to form larger units such as phrases and sentences. Central concerns of syntax include word order, grammatical relations, hierarchical sentence structure (constituenc ...
of programming languages, applies similar concepts. *Sarvatobhadra Palindrome: The most complex palindrome, an example of which is in the
Shishupala Vadha The Shishupala Vadha (, IAST: ''Śiśupāla-vadha'', ''lit.'' "the slaying of Shishupala") is a work of classical Sanskrit poetry (''kāvya'') composed by Māgha in the 7th or 8th century. It is an epic poem in 20 ''sarga''s (cantos) of about 180 ...
of Magha.
सकारनानारकास-
कायसाददसायका ।
रसाहवा वाहसार-
नादवाददवादना ॥
sakāranānārakāsa-
kāyasādadasāyakā
rasāhavā vāhasāra-
nādavādadavādanā.
Palindromic Novel: The Ramakrishna Vilomakavyam by Dyvagnya Surya Pandita is an example of a narrative that, when read forward, relate the story of the Ramayana and, when read backward, relate the story of the Mahabharata.


Mining

* Diamond mining and diamond tools: Diamonds were first recognised and mined in central India,Hershey (2004), page 22Malkin (1996), page 12 where significant alluvial deposits of the stone could then be found along the rivers Penner,
Krishna Krishna (; Sanskrit language, Sanskrit: कृष्ण, ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme God (Hinduism), Supreme God in his own right. He is the god of protection, c ...
and Godavari. It is unclear when diamonds were first mined in India, although estimated to be at least 5,000 years ago.Hershey (2004), pages 3 & 23 India remained the world's only source of diamonds until the discovery of diamonds in Brazil in the 18th century.Thomas (2007), page 46Read (2005), page 17Lee, page 685 Golconda served as an important centre for diamonds in
central India Central India refers to a geographical region of India that generally includes the states of Chhattisgarh and Madhya Pradesh. The Central Zonal Council, established by the Government of India, includes these states as well as Uttar Prades ...
.Wenk, pages 535539 Diamonds then were exported to other parts of the world, including Europe. Early references to diamonds in India come from
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
texts.MSN Encarta (2007)
''Diamond''
1 November 2009.
The ''
Arthashastra ''Kautilya's Arthashastra'' (, ; ) is an Ancient Indian Sanskrit treatise on statecraft, politics, economic policy and military strategy. The text is likely the work of several authors over centuries, starting as a compilation of ''Arthashas ...
'' of Kautilya mentions diamond trade in India.
Buddhist Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
works dating from the 4th century BCE mention it as a well-known and precious stone but don't mention the details of diamond cutting. Another Indian description written at the beginning of the 3rd century describes strength, regularity, brilliance, ability to scratch metals, and good refractive properties as the desirable qualities of a diamond.Dickinson, pages 13 A Chinese work from the 3rd century BCE mentions: "Foreigners wear it iamondin the belief that it can ward off evil influences". The Chinese, who did not find diamonds in their country, initially used diamonds as a "jade cutting knife" instead of as a jewel. * Zinc mining and medicinal zinc – Zinc was first smelted from zinc ore in India. Zinc mines of Zawar, near Udaipur,
Rajasthan Rajasthan (; Literal translation, lit. 'Land of Kings') is a States and union territories of India, state in northwestern India. It covers or 10.4 per cent of India's total geographical area. It is the List of states and union territories of ...
, were active during early Christian era. There are references of medicinal uses of zinc in the
Charaka Samhita The ''Charaka Samhita'' () is a Sanskrit text on Ayurveda (Indian traditional medicine). Along with the '' Sushruta Samhita'', it is one of the two foundational texts of this field that have survived from ancient India. It is one of the three w ...
(300 BCE).Craddock (1983) The Rasaratna Samuccaya which dates back to the Tantric period () explains the existence of two types of ores for zinc metal, one of which is ideal for metal extraction while the other is used for medicinal purpose.Biswas (1986), page 11 India was to melt the first derived from a long experience of the old alchemy zinc by the distillation process, an advanced technique. The ancient Persians had also tried to reduce zinc oxide in an open stove, but had failed. Zawar in Tiri valley of Rajasthan is the first known old zinc smelting site in the world. The distillation technique of zinc production dates back to the 12th century CE and is an important contribution of India in the world of science.


Space

* * Preliminary concept of gravity – The concept of gravity as attracting objects towards Earth was already known to Greek scholars,
Brahmagupta Brahmagupta ( – ) was an Indian Indian mathematics, mathematician and Indian astronomy, astronomer. He is the author of two early works on mathematics and astronomy: the ''Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta'' (BSS, "correctly established Siddhanta, do ...
in sixth century CE also described gravity as an attractive force, using the term in which heavier objects attract towards the earth. * Periodicity of comets – Indian astronomers by the 6th century CE believed that comets were apparitions that re-appeared periodically. This was the view expressed in the 6th century by the astronomers Varahamihira and Bhadrabahu, and the 10th-century astronomer Bhattotpala listed the names and estimated periods of certain comets, but it is unfortunately not known how these figures were calculated or how accurate they were. *
Tychonic system The Tychonic system (or Tychonian system) is a model of the universe published by Tycho Brahe in 1588, which combines what he saw as the mathematical benefits of the Copernican heliocentrism, Copernican system with the philosophical and "physic ...
– A similar model was implicitly mentioned in the Hindu astronomical treatise '' Tantrasamgraha'' () by Nilakantha Somayaji of the
Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics or the Kerala school was a school of Indian mathematics, mathematics and Indian astronomy, astronomy founded by Madhava of Sangamagrama in Kingdom of Tanur, Tirur, Malappuram district, Malappuram, K ...
. * Reduction of the
ecliptic The ecliptic or ecliptic plane is the orbital plane of Earth's orbit, Earth around the Sun. It was a central concept in a number of ancient sciences, providing the framework for key measurements in astronomy, astrology and calendar-making. Fr ...
: Achyutha Pisharadi discovered the techniques.


Miscellaneous

* Punch (drink) a
mixed drink A mixed drink is a Drink, beverage in which two or more ingredients are Drink mixer, mixed. Types * List of non-alcoholic mixed drinks—A non-alcoholic mixed drink (also known as virgin cocktail, temperance drink, or mocktail) is a cocktail-sty ...
containing fruits or fruit juice that can be both alcoholic and non-alcoholic originated in the Indian subcontinent before making its way into England by passage through the
East India Company The East India Company (EIC) was an English, and later British, joint-stock company that was founded in 1600 and dissolved in 1874. It was formed to Indian Ocean trade, trade in the Indian Ocean region, initially with the East Indies (South A ...
.Edwards, Graham and Sue. ''The Language of Drink'', Alan Sutton Publishing, 1988. This beverage is very popular among the world with many varietal flavors and brands throughout the
beverage industry The drink industry (or drinks industry, also known as the beverage industry) produces drinks, in particular alcoholic beverage, ready to drink and soft drink products. Drink production can vary greatly depending on the product being made. Manuf ...
. * Hookah or water pipe: according to Cyril Elgood (PP.41, 110), the physician Irfan Shaikh, at the court of the Mughal emperor Akbar I (15421605) invented the Hookah or water pipe used most commonly for smoking
tobacco Tobacco is the common name of several plants in the genus '' Nicotiana'' of the family Solanaceae, and the general term for any product prepared from the cured leaves of these plants. More than 70 species of tobacco are known, but the ...
.


Modern India


Medicine

* NexCAR19, is designed to target cancer cells carrying the CD19 protein, a marker on cancer cells, enhancing precision in treatment. *
Urea Urea, also called carbamide (because it is a diamide of carbonic acid), is an organic compound with chemical formula . This amide has two Amine, amino groups (–) joined by a carbonyl functional group (–C(=O)–). It is thus the simplest am ...
stibamine – Sir Upendranath Brahmachari synthesised
urea Urea, also called carbamide (because it is a diamide of carbonic acid), is an organic compound with chemical formula . This amide has two Amine, amino groups (–) joined by a carbonyl functional group (–C(=O)–). It is thus the simplest am ...
-stibamine (carbostibamide) in 1922 and determined that it was an effective treatment for kala-azar (visceral leishmaniasis). * post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis – n 1922, Brahmachari also discovered a new, deadly form of
leishmaniasis Leishmaniasis is a wide array of clinical manifestations caused by protozoal parasites of the Trypanosomatida genus ''Leishmania''. It is generally spread through the bite of Phlebotominae, phlebotomine Sandfly, sandflies, ''Phlebotomus'' an ...
. He called it dermal leishmanoid, marked by the appearance of sudden eruptions on the face of the patients without fever or other complaints. He observed it as a disease in partially cured cases of kala-azar, along with those who had no history of the disease at all. It has since been termed as post-kala-azar dermal leishmaniasis. * Oral Rehydrated Solution (ORS), In 1952 Hemendra Nath Chatterjee was an Indian scientist from West Bengal known for the earliest publication of a formula for Orally Rehydrated Saline (ORS) for diarrhea. According to his paper, he treated 186 patients with his oral glucose with an oral glucose-sodium electrolyte solution and was able to rehydrate his patients with mild to moderately severe cholera. * Cholera toxin – Cholera toxin was discovered in 1959 by Indian microbiologist Sambhu Nath De. *
In vitro fertilisation In vitro fertilisation (IVF) is a process of fertilisation in which an ovum, egg is combined with spermatozoon, sperm in vitro ("in glass"). The process involves monitoring and stimulating the Ovulation cycle, ovulatory process, then removing ...
– the second successful birth of a 'test tube baby' occurred in India just 67 days after Louise Brown was born. The girl, named Durga, was conceived in vitro using a method developed independently by Subhash Mukhopadhyay, a physician and researcher from
Kolkata Kolkata, also known as Calcutta ( its official name until 2001), is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of West Bengal. It lies on the eastern bank of the Hooghly River, west of the border with Bangladesh. It is the primary ...
. Mukhopadhyay had been performing experiments on his own with primitive instruments and a household refrigerator. However, state authorities prevented him from presenting his work at scientific conferences, and it was many years before Mukhopadhyay's contribution was acknowledged in works dealing with the subject. * Cervical cerclage – was first described by V. N. Shirodkar in
Bombay Mumbai ( ; ), also known as Bombay ( ; its official name until 1995), is the capital city of the Indian States and union territories of India, state of Maharashtra. Mumbai is the financial centre, financial capital and the list of cities i ...
in 1955.


Electronics and communications

* Carrier Ethernet Switch Router (CESR) are high capacity routers which provides carrier class ethernet service, developed by IIT Bombay in 2011 and technology was transferred to ECIL. * Direct-to-Mobile (D2M) technology, developed by Saankya Labs and IIT Kanpur, This tech will enable mobile users to stream videos on their smartphones without an active internet connection. *
Horn antenna A horn antenna or microwave horn is an antenna (radio), antenna that consists of a flaring metal waveguide shaped like a horn (acoustic), horn to direct radio waves in a beam. Horns are widely used as antennas at Ultrahigh frequency, UHF and m ...
or microwave horn, One of the first horn antennas was constructed by Jagadish Chandra Bose in 1897. *
Microwave Microwave is a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths shorter than other radio waves but longer than infrared waves. Its wavelength ranges from about one meter to one millimeter, corresponding to frequency, frequencies between 300&n ...
-Indian physicist Jagadish Chandra Bose performed the first experiments with microwaves. * Radiowave communication – In November 1894, the Indian physicist, Jagadish Chandra Bose, demonstrated publicly the use of radio waves in
Calcutta Kolkata, also known as Calcutta (List of renamed places in India#West Bengal, its official name until 2001), is the capital and largest city of the Indian States and union territories of India, state of West Bengal. It lies on the eastern ba ...
. * Low Mobility Large cell (LMLC), is a feature of 5G and is designed to enhance the signal transmission range of a basestation several times, helping service providers cost-effectively expand coverage in rural areas. * WaveguideJagadish Chandra Bose researched millimetre wavelengths using waveguides, and in 1897 described to the Royal Institution in London his research carried out in Kolkata. * Phantom connectivity, a system for providing a higher level security to data communication in computer networks developed by
ISRO The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO ) is India's national space agency, headquartered in Bengaluru, Karnataka. It serves as the principal research and development arm of the Department of Space (DoS), overseen by the Prime Minister o ...
. Phantom connectivity model enables organization to copy users download data from Internet to Intranet without connecting both the networks.


Computers and programming languages

* Autolay, is an interactive GUI CAD software for the design of aircraft composite components developed by Aeronautical Development Agency, this tool was developed in late 1980's and used by all big aerospace companies such as
Boeing The Boeing Company, or simply Boeing (), is an American multinational corporation that designs, manufactures, and sells airplanes, rotorcraft, rockets, satellites, and missiles worldwide. The company also provides leasing and product support s ...
,
Airbus Airbus SE ( ; ; ; ) is a Pan-European aerospace corporation. The company's primary business is the design and manufacturing of commercial aircraft but it also has separate Airbus Defence and Space, defence and space and Airbus Helicopters, he ...
and
Dassault Systèmes Dassault Systèmes SE () (abbreviated 3DS) is a French Multinational corporation, multinational software corporation which develops software for 3D product design, simulation, manufacturing and other 3D related products. Founded in 1981, it is ...
* Fragalyst, is a software for analysis of fragments from an explosion or blast developed by CSIR-CIMFR, the technology allows us to visualize the blast & fragments in a computer GUI. * chatbot-based conversational AI, one of early modern AI/ML based chatbot was released by Haptik.ai in 2013, when chatbots were not common. * Visual J# – A transitional
programming language A programming language is a system of notation for writing computer programs. Programming languages are described in terms of their Syntax (programming languages), syntax (form) and semantics (computer science), semantics (meaning), usually def ...
for programmers of
Java Java is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea (a part of Pacific Ocean) to the north. With a population of 156.9 million people (including Madura) in mid 2024, proje ...
and Visual J++ languages, so they could use their existing knowledge and applications on .NET Framework. It was developed by the
Hyderabad Hyderabad is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Telangana. It occupies on the Deccan Plateau along the banks of the Musi River (India), Musi River, in the northern part of Southern India. With an average altitude of , much ...
-based Microsoft India Development Center at HITEC City in India. * Julia is a high-level, dynamic programming language. Its features are well suited for numerical analysis and computational science. Viral B. Shah an Indian computer scientist contributed to the development of the language in Bangalore while also actively involved in the initial design of the Aadhaar project in India using India Stack. * Kojo – A
programming language A programming language is a system of notation for writing computer programs. Programming languages are described in terms of their Syntax (programming languages), syntax (form) and semantics (computer science), semantics (meaning), usually def ...
and
integrated development environment An integrated development environment (IDE) is a Application software, software application that provides comprehensive facilities for software development. An IDE normally consists of at least a source-code editor, build automation tools, an ...
(IDE) for computer programming and learning. Kojo is an
open-source software Open-source software (OSS) is Software, computer software that is released under a Open-source license, license in which the copyright holder grants users the rights to use, study, change, and Software distribution, distribute the software an ...
. It was created, and is actively developed, by Lalit Pant, a computer programmer and teacher living in
Dehradun Dehradun (), also known as Dehra Doon, is the winter capital and the List of cities in Uttarakhand by population, most populous city of the Indian state of Uttarakhand. It is the administrative headquarters of the eponymous Dehradun district, d ...
, India. *
RISC-V RISC-V (pronounced "risk-five") is an open standard instruction set architecture (ISA) based on established reduced instruction set computer (RISC) principles. The project commenced in 2010 at the University of California, Berkeley. It transfer ...
ISA (microprocessor) implementations (a US standard, not from India, but some implementations are such as those below): **
SHAKTI Shakti (Devanagari: शक्ति, IAST: Śakti; 'energy, ability, strength, effort, power, might, capability') in Hinduism, is the "Universal Power" that underlies and sustains all existence. Conceived as feminine in essence, Shakti refer ...
– Open Source, Bluespec System
Verilog Verilog, standardized as IEEE 1364, is a hardware description language (HDL) used to model electronic systems. It is most commonly used in the design and verification of digital circuits, with the highest level of abstraction being at the re ...
definitions, for FinFET implementations of the ISA, have been created at IIT Madras, and are hosted on
GitLab GitLab is a software forge primarily developed by GitLab Inc. It is available as a community edition and a commercial edition. History GitLab was created in 2011 by Ukrainian programmer Dmitriy Zaporozhets as a side project written in Rub ...
. ** VEGA Microprocessors – India's first indigenous 64-bit, superscalar, out-of-order, multi-core RISC-V Processor design, developed by C-DAC. *
File Transfer Protocol The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is a standard communication protocol used for the transfer of computer files from a server to a client on a computer network. FTP is built on a client–server model architecture using separate control and d ...
(FTP) – A standard communication protocol used for the transfer of computer files from a server to a client on a computer network. FTP is built on a client–server model architecture using separate control and data connections between the client and the server. Abhay Bhushan is the author of the File Transfer Protocol (which he started working on while he was a student at IIT-Kanpur) and the early versions of email protocols * TCS BaNCS, was one of the first core banking software started implemented in late 1970s and released in early 80s.


Construction, civil engineering and architecture

* Coal Mine to PSP, Coal India will turn abandoned mines or de-coaled mine to Pumped Storage Projects(PSP) with help of NHPC hence saving huge amount of capital for development of reservoir or dams. * -treated-C&D, researchers at the Centre for Sustainable Technologies (CST), IISc, are exploring ways to store carbon dioxide from industrial flue gas in excavated soil in Construction and Demolition (C&D) waste. the effect of injecting carbon dioxide gas into clayey soil—typically excavated from construction sites. This resulted in better stabilization of clay by cement and lime, and reduced the surface area, pore volume and lime reactivity of clay in soil, thereby improving the bulk engineering performance of the material. * Rib & spine/Spine & Wing technique, NHAI has developed a flyover design which allows to save cost, time, minimum material usage and allows light under the flyover using the same technique. * (I)-TM Tunneling technique:(I)-TM as Himalayan tunnelling method for tunnelling through the Himalayan geology to build tunnels in Jammu and Kashmir. Engineers decided to provide rigid supports using 'ISHB' as against the lattice girder method used in the New Austrian Tunnelling Method.ISHB uses nine-metre pipes in the mountains. It is called pipe roofing. Engineers made an umbrella using these perforated poles and filled them with PU grout. * waterproof roads, zydex industries has developed waterproof road by forming a skin like layer that is water resistant using inhouse silane nanotechnology. * Plastic road are made entirely of plastic or of composites of plastic with other materials. Plastic roads are different from standard roads in the respect that standard roads are made from asphalt concrete, which consists of mineral aggregates and asphalt. Most plastic roads sequester
plastic waste Plastic pollution is the accumulation of plastic objects and particles (e.g. plastic bottles, bags and microbeads) in the Earth's environment that adversely affects humans, wildlife and their habitat. Plastics that act as pollutants are cate ...
within the asphalt as an aggregate. Plastic roads first developed by Rajagopalan Vasudevan in 2001


Finance and banking

* Payments bank is an Indian new model of banks conceptualised by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) without issuing credit.


Paleontology

* In 2024, one of the longest snakes to ever exist, Vasuki indicus, was discovered by scientists from the Indian Institute of Technology. The snake was estimated to be between 10.9 and 15.2 metres in length and lived 47 million years ago. The fossilised vertebrae of Vasuki indicus were discovered in a lignite mine in
Gujarat Gujarat () is a States of India, state along the Western India, western coast of India. Its coastline of about is the longest in the country, most of which lies on the Kathiawar peninsula. Gujarat is the List of states and union territories ...
. It was likely a slow moving predator who killed its prey through constriction. * In 2018, scientists from the Geological Survey of India and the Indian Institute of Technology discovered the fossil remains of a previously unknown dinosaur species in the
Thar Desert The Thar Desert (), also known as the Great Indian Desert, is an arid region in the north-western part of the Indian subcontinent that covers an area of in India and Pakistan. It is the world's 18th-largest desert, and the world's 9th-large ...
region of Jaisalmer, Rajasthan. The dinosaur is named Tharosaurus indicus, after the Thar Desert and India.


Zoology

* The world's first white tiger was Mohan, a mutant Bengal tiger captured in 1951 by Maharaja Martand Singh of Rewa. These type of tiger are found in White Tiger Safari & Zoo Mukundpur


Genetics

* Amrapali mango – A named mango cultivar introduced in 1971 by Dr. Pijush Kanti Majumdar at the Indian Agriculture Research Institute in Delhi. * Asmon, is a plant based drug that is used to treat bronchial asthma developed by CSIR. * Mynvax – The world's first "warm" COVID-19 vaccine, developed by IISc, capable of withstanding for a month and neutralise all coronavirus variants of concern. * ZyCoV-D vaccine – The world's first DNA-based vaccine for humans.


Metallurgy, manufacturing, and industry

* Carbon nitride solar reactor – In September 2021, A team from the Institute of Nano Science and Technology (INST), Mohali, has fabricated a prototype reactor which operates under natural sunlight to produce hydrogen at a scale of around 6.1 litres in eight hours. They have used an earth-abundant chemical called carbon nitrides as a catalyst for the purpose. * NML Magnetherm process is a large scale magnesium producing process, it is a kind of electrothermal process that produces at pilot scale of 300-450 kg raw material producing ~40 kg Magnesium/batch. A pilot plant is being constructed at Jamshedpur for using this process. * Contactless Handwasher, is a device which provides automated touchless handwashing process, major advantage of this type of system is that it uses very less water and hand Washing for 2000 people requires only one soap refill.It was developed by CSIR-CMERI. * Hydrogen DRI steel, Jindal Steel is making world's first hydrogen based DRI process in its steel plants in Angul. * High ash coal gasification (coal to methanol) – The central government gave the country world's first 'coal to methanol' (CTM) plant built by the Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited (BHEL). The plant was inaugurated in BHEL's Hyderabad unit, The pilot project is the first that uses the gasification method for converting high-ash coal into methanol. Handling of high ash and heat required to melt this high amount of ash is a challenge in the case of Indian coal, which generally has high ash content. Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited has developed the fluidized bed gasification technology suitable for high ash Indian coals to produce syngas and then convert syngas to methanol with 99% purity. * Controlled shunt reactor – In 2002, Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited has successfully developed a first-of-its-kind in the world device for improving power transfer capability and reducing transmission losses in the country's highest rating (400 kV) transmission lines.The device is called Controlled Shunt Reactor. * DMR 1700 steel – For several high-technology applications, such as military hardware and aerospace, need to possess ultrahigh strength (UHS; minimum yield strength of 1380 MPa (200 ksi)) coupled with high fracture toughness in order to meet the requirement of minimum weight while ensuring high reliability. * DMR SN 742 is a nickel-based superalloy developed by the Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory (DMRL) in India. It is specifically designed for aero-engine applications, such as high-pressure compressors (HPC) and turbine rotors (HPT) in gas turbine engines. * GTM-900 is a high-temperature alpha-beta titanium alloy developed by National Aerospace Laboratories and DMRL used for components like compressor blades due to its strength and creep resistance at elevated temperatures. * TITAN 26A and TITAN 29A, These are high-performance titanium-based alloys which are known for their high strength, creep resistance, and corrosion resistance, particularly in high-temperature environments. * Magnesium-lithium alloy grade(Mg-9Li-7.5Al-1.2Sn), ISRO has successfully mastered melting and casting of this alloy using inert atmosphere. It is now possible to melt up to 20 kg of this alloy and gave stable properties up to 1000C. * JD-1 alloy – A special lightweight alloy developed by Jindal Defence with a minimum guaranteed hardness of 500 HB. It can be used in aerospace, small arms, and engineering solutions. It is mainly used in armoured jacket. * Polymetallic nodules, India is considered a pioneer in the exploration of polymetallic nodules, In 1981, Indian scientists recovered manganese nodules, marking the beginning of deep sea exploration in the country.In 1987, India became the first country to receive Pioneer Investor status from the International Seabed Authority (ISA). * Sorption-enhanced steam methane reforming (SESMR) – In April 2022, the scientists from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology (CSIR-IICT), Hyderabad developed a fluidized bed reactor (FBR) facility in Hyderabad to perform sorption enhanced steam methane reforming (SESMR) to achieve clean hydrogen in its purest form. The team of scientists have designed a hybrid material to simulate capturing carbon dioxide in-situ (onsite) and converting it into clean hydrogen from non-fuel grade bioethanol. * Spray-drying buffalo milk – The collective consensus of dairy experts worldwide was that buffalo milk could not be spray-dried due to its high fat content. Harichand Megha Dalaya & his invention of the spray dry equipment, led to the world's first buffalo milk spray-dryer, at Amul Dairy in Gujarat. * Neem-coated urea is an agriculture fertilizer in which the urea is neem oil-coated. The coating of neem slows the nitrification of urea thereby helps in increased absorption of nutrients in the soil as well as reduces groundwater pollution. * Jackal steel – An advanced grade high-strength, low-alloy steel. The technology of Jackal steel has been passed on to Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) and MIDHANI for its bulk production. * High-Rise Pantograph – The new-design world record pantograph, developed completely in-house for use in DFC & other freight routes with height of . * Commercial CCU plant: Tuticorin Alkali Chemicals and Fertilizers Limited (TFL) partnered with Carbon Clean to create the world's first fully commercial CCU plant. The 10 MW facility captures coal-fired boiler flue gas and uses it to deliver industrial quality . The 10 MW facility captures coal-fired boiler flue gas and uses it to deliver industrial quality . The technology has been developed by Carbon Clean Solutions, headquartered in London – a start-up by two Indian engineers focusing on carbon dioxide separation technology.There are many chemicals exported out of India where is the raw material. * Triple-stack container freight train – In order to ensure new streams of traffic and commodities and to bring about a modal shift, the DFC is undertaking trials for running smaller than usual containers, known as dwarf containers (where the container height is lower by 660 mm than normal containers), in triple-stack formation to further improve the profitability of train operations. It may be possible to run these as double-stack on conventional routes and triple-stack on routes with high-rise OHE, once the trials are successfully completed.


Metrology

* Crescograph – The crescograph, a device for measuring growth in plants, was invented in the early 20th century by the Bengali scientist Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose. * Shearing interferometer – Invented by M.V.R.K. Murty, a type of Lateral Shearing Interferometer utilises a laser source for measuring refractive index.


Rocket science and jet propulsion

* Air-breathing rocket, On 23 July 2024 ISRO successfully fired world's first air-breathing rocket, using a modified Rohini 560 rocket. * Solid Fuel Ducted Ramjet, is a jet propulsion technology which uses solid propellant, developed by Defence Research and Development Organisation. * Small Satellite Launch Vehicle, is a multi-stage solid propellent rocket that is cost-effective and very less complex used to deliver micro-satellites less than 500 kg weight. it is innovative as its three stages are solid propellent making it very efficient.


Science and technology

* Bipyrazole Organic Crystals, the piezoelectric molecules developed by IISER scientists recombine following mechanical fracture without any external intervention, autonomously self-healing in milliseconds with crystallographic precision. * SEBEX 2, is a high performance explosive, it is said to be 2.01 times more lethal than TNT and most powerful non-nuclear explosives in the world. The Indian Navy has certified the explosive. * magnetic superatoms, In 2009 a team of Harish Chandra Research Institute, Allahabad discovered magnetic superatoms. * Silica fiber based composite or Silica-Silica composite, In 2012
ISRO The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO ) is India's national space agency, headquartered in Bengaluru, Karnataka. It serves as the principal research and development arm of the Department of Space (DoS), overseen by the Prime Minister o ...
developed world's first pure silica fiber composite without carbon element known as ''silica fiber-silica matrix composite'' and also a new technology for developing silica fibres by sol-gel process. These fibres can be used for high temperature insulation up to 1500C and cheaper than Carbon fiber composite. Silica-silica composite are prepared by leaching glass cloth with hydrochloric acid, rinsing to remove acid therefrom, vacuum drying, moulding and treating with ethyl silicate and cationic starch binder further drying and sintering. The patent was filed by VSSC in 2005 and was granted in 2012. * Single-crystalline Scandium Nitride, that has the ability to convert infrared light into energy, Scientists based in Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research (JNCASR), Bengaluru have discovered a novel material that can emit, detect, and modulate infrared light with high efficiency making it useful for solar and thermal energy harvesting and for optical communication devices. * Low-threshold gain lasers, researchers from IISER, Bhopal have made a breakthrough in field of low threshold gain lasers using crystals of cesium lead bromide they are able to produce high-intensity lasers with very low energy output. * Indian Ocean Dipole is an unusual pattern in the ocean-atmosphere system of the equatorial Indian Ocean that influences the monsoon and can offset the adverse impact of El Nino. It is typically characterized by cooler than normal eastern equatorial Indian Ocean and warmer than normal west and unusual equatorial easterly winds. It was discovered in Centre for Atmospheric And Oceanic Sciences, IISc. team led by NH Saji in 1999. *
Iron Iron is a chemical element; it has symbol Fe () and atomic number 26. It is a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the most common element on Earth, forming much of Earth's o ...
Ion battery,In 2019 world's 1st iron-ion battery was first invented by team of researchers in IIT Madras. * Solution combustion synthesis (SCS) was accidentally discovered in 1988 at Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru, India. SCS involves an exothermic redox chemical reaction between an oxidizer like metal nitrate and a fuel in an aqueous medium. * Nalgonda Technique is a technique for defluoridation to reduce the fluoride levels in water developed by National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur. * Electrically Excited Synchronous Motor (EESM) or Rare earth free motor: In 2021 deep-tech startup Chara Technologies has built scalable, cloud-controlled electric vehicle motors free of toxic rare-earth metals, thus cutting a massive dependency on imports to accelerate electric mobility in India. * MD-15 is a new methanol fuel grade in which Methanol is blended with diesel. Research Design and Standards Organisation (RDSO), in collaboration with the Indian Oil Corporation Ltd (IOCL), has developed a special cost-effective fuel that would not only minimize IR's dependency on diesel, but will also be emit fewer pollutants. IOCL developed the composition, adding 14% additives (developed indigenously by IOCL) along with 71% mineral diesel, 15% methanol. MD-15 fuelled engine has shown superior performance, emission and combustion characteristics than the mineral diesel fuelled engine. * Photon Multiplicity Detector, is a detector for study of Quark-gluon plasma and
photons A photon () is an elementary particle that is a quantum of the electromagnetic field, including electromagnetic radiation such as light and radio waves, and the force carrier for the electromagnetic force. Photons are massless particles that ...
developed by
Institute of Physics The Institute of Physics (IOP) is a UK-based not-for-profit learned society and professional body that works to advance physics education, physics research, research and applied physics, application. It was founded in 1874 and has a worldwide ...
and Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre, PMD is used in
Large Hadron Collider The Large Hadron Collider (LHC) is the world's largest and highest-energy particle accelerator. It was built by the CERN, European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) between 1998 and 2008, in collaboration with over 10,000 scientists, ...
to measure the multiplicity of photons. * Phytorid Wastewater Treatment Technology, is a solution for sustainable wastewater treatment, developed by NEERI (CSIR), It is particularly useful for regions lacking advanced sewage infrastructure. * Unified Payments Interface – An instant real-time bank to bank payments protocol system developed by National Payments Corporation of India (NPCI) facilitated by QR code and Virtual Private Address(VPA) or UPI ID. UPI has able to make India a cashless and cardless economy, also strain on ATM infrastructure has reduced significantly. * Digital rupee (e₹) or eINR or e-rupee is a world's first digital national currency, to be issued by the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) as a central bank digital currency (CBDC). Digital Rupee is using blockchain distributed-ledger technology. Digital rupee users to hit 50,000 by Jan-end on better acceptance.


Weapon systems

* ATAGS – Bharat Forge and the DRDO has developed world's first electric artillery gun * Bhargavastra, is the world's first kind of multi-micro-missile system to counter swarm drones, low-cost portable system developed by Solar Defence and Aerospace. * Rifle-rated ballistic helmet, MKU has developed what it bills as "a first-of-its-kind rifle-rated ballistic helmet", MKU states that the Kavro Doma 360 is "the first anti-rifle helmet in the world that does not have bolts or any metal parts" * Critical Situation Response Vehicle (CSRV) – The Central Reserve Police Force (CRPF) has made and inducted a bomb/bulletproof armoured vehicle. The latest all-terrain highly sophisticated vehicle 'CSRV' has given a shot in the arm to the Central Reserve Police Force engaged in counter-terror operations. * E-bomb – The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) has been developing an e-bomb which will emit electromagnetic shock waves that destroy electronic circuits and communication networks of enemy force. The tow bodies in Lakshya-2 Weapon Delivery Configuration carry High Energy Weapon Payload. * Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell air-independent propulsion (PAFC AIP) is a 270 kilowatt phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) air-independent propulsion (AIP) system to power the Kalvari-class submarines is developed by the Naval Materials Research Laboratory of Indian Defence Research and Development Organisation in collaboration with Larsen & Toubro and Thermax. The patent is owned by DRDO. Its application is considered to be wide and it can also power ships in future.


Automotive innovations

* Suri Transmission, is a hydromechanical transmission unit for diesel locomotives developed by Man Mohan Suri. * Helmet AC - Featuring a plastic top and built-in-fan-like structure, the AC helmets are powered by a battery pack, which is worn by the traffic police officials on their waist. These helmets work for around 8 hours on a single full charge. * CNG car/vehicle – Bajaj Auto launched the first 'commercial' lot of its CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) autorickshaws in Delhi on 29 May 2000.By 1 December 2002, the last diesel bus had disappeared from Delhi's roads, all buses were running on CNG.At the beginning of 2005, 10,300 CNG busses, 10,000 CNG taxis and 10,000 CNG cars run on Delhi's roads.


Mathematics

*
AKS primality test The AKS primality test (also known as Agrawal–Kayal–Saxena primality test and cyclotomic AKS test) is a deterministic primality-proving algorithm created and published by Manindra Agrawal, Neeraj Kayal, and Nitin Saxena, computer scientist ...
and Agrawal's conjecture– The AKS primality test is a
deterministic Determinism is the metaphysical view that all events within the universe (or multiverse) can occur only in one possible way. Deterministic theories throughout the history of philosophy have developed from diverse and sometimes overlapping mo ...
primality-proving
algorithm In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm () is a finite sequence of Rigour#Mathematics, mathematically rigorous instructions, typically used to solve a class of specific Computational problem, problems or to perform a computation. Algo ...
created and published by three
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur The Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur (IIT- Kanpur or IIT-K) is a public institute of technology located in Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh, India. As an Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), it was declared an Institute of National Importance by ...
computer scientists, Manindra Agrawal, Neeraj Kayal, and Nitin Saxena on 6 August 2002 in a paper title
''PRIMES is in P''
Crandall & Pomerance (2005), pages 200201 Commenting on the impact of this discovery, Paul Leyland noted: "One reason for the excitement within the mathematical community is not only does this algorithm settle a long-standing problem, it also does so in a brilliantly simple manner. Everyone is now wondering what else has been similarly overlooked".Crandall & Papadopoulos (2003), page 2 * Partial Balanced Incomplete Block Designs (BIBD) was developed by Raj Chandra Bose and Kesavan Raghavan Nair in 1939. * Multivariate Statistical Theory, is one of the base foundational concept of statistics was developed by C. R. Rao in 1952 when he was in Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata. * Rao's Score Test was first published in 1948 in ''Sankhya: The Indian Journal of Statistics'' titled ''On Distributions of the Maximum Likelihood Estimates'' by C. R. Rao. * Roy’s Largest Root Test, proposed the test in 1953 as part of his "union-intersection principle", a unified approach to multivariate hypothesis testing. * Roy-Hotelling Theorem, is used to connects the eigenvalues of matrices in multivariate statistics proposed in 1953. * Seshadri constant – In
algebraic geometry Algebraic geometry is a branch of mathematics which uses abstract algebraic techniques, mainly from commutative algebra, to solve geometry, geometrical problems. Classically, it studies zero of a function, zeros of multivariate polynomials; th ...
, a Seshadri constant is an invariant of an ample line bundle L at a point P on an
algebraic variety Algebraic varieties are the central objects of study in algebraic geometry, a sub-field of mathematics. Classically, an algebraic variety is defined as the solution set, set of solutions of a system of polynomial equations over the real number, ...
.The name is in honour of the Indian mathematician C. S. Seshadri. * Basu's theorem – The Basu's theorem, a result of Debabrata Basu (1955) states that any complete sufficient statistic is independent of any ancillary statistic.Nitis (2000), page 325Boos & Oliver (1998) * Kosambi–Karhunen–Loève theorem (also known as the Karhunen–Loève theorem) The Kosambi-Karhunen-Loève theorem is a representation of a stochastic process as an infinite linear combination of orthogonal functions, analogous to a
Fourier series A Fourier series () is an Series expansion, expansion of a periodic function into a sum of trigonometric functions. The Fourier series is an example of a trigonometric series. By expressing a function as a sum of sines and cosines, many problems ...
representation of a function on a bounded interval. Stochastic processes given by infinite series of this form were first considered by Damodar Dharmananda Kosambi.. * Kaprekar Constants: Numbers 495 and 6174. The Indian mathematician D.R.Kaprekar discovered the number 6174 is reached after repeatedly subtracting the smallest number from the largest number that can be formed from any four digits not all the same. The number 495 is similarly reached for three digits number. * Kosaraju's algorithm is a linear time algorithm to find the strongly connected components of a directed graph. Aho, Hopcroft and Ullman credit it to S. Rao Kosaraju and Micha Sharir. Kosaraju suggested it in 1978. * Ramanujan theta function, Ramanujan prime, Ramanujan summation,
Ramanujan graph In the mathematical field of spectral graph theory, a Ramanujan graph is a regular graph whose spectral gap is almost as large as possible (see extremal graph theory). Such graphs are excellent expander graph, spectral expanders. As Murty's survey ...
and Ramanujan's sum – Discovered by the Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan in the early 20th century. * Shrikhande graphGraph invented by the Indian mathematician S.S. Shrikhande in 1959.


Sciences

* Ammonium nitrite, synthesis in pure formPrafulla Chandra Roy synthesised NH4NO2 in its pure form, and became the first scientist to have done so. Prior to Ray's synthesis of Ammonium nitrite it was thought that the compound undergoes rapid thermal decomposition releasing nitrogen and water in the process. * Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance: Invented jointly by Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar and K.N. Mathur in 1928, the so-called 'Bhatnagar-Mathur Magnetic Interference Balance' was a modern instrument used for measuring various magnetic properties. The first appearance of this instrument in Europe was at a
Royal Society The Royal Society, formally The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, is a learned society and the United Kingdom's national academy of sciences. The society fulfils a number of roles: promoting science and its benefits, re ...
exhibition in London, where it was later marketed by British firm Messers Adam Hilger and Co, London.''Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar''
. Vigyan Prasar: Government of India.
* Bhabha scattering – In 1935, Indian nuclear physicist Homi J. Bhabha published a paper in the '' Proceedings of the Royal Society, Series A'', in which he performed the first calculation to determine the cross section of electron-positron scattering. Electron-positron scattering was later named Bhabha scattering, in honour of his contributions in the field.Penney (1967), page 39 * Bose–Einstein statistics, condensate – On 4 June 1924 the Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose mailed a short manuscript to
Albert Einstein Albert Einstein (14 March 187918 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who is best known for developing the theory of relativity. Einstein also made important contributions to quantum mechanics. His mass–energy equivalence f ...
entitle
''Planck's Law and the Light Quantum Hypothesis''
seeking Einstein's influence to get it published after it was rejected by the prestigious journal '' Philosophical Magazine''.Rigden (2005), pages 143144 The paper introduced what is today called ''Bose statistics'', which showed how it could be used to derive the Planck blackbody spectrum from the assumption that light was made of
photons A photon () is an elementary particle that is a quantum of the electromagnetic field, including electromagnetic radiation such as light and radio waves, and the force carrier for the electromagnetic force. Photons are massless particles that ...
.Fraser (2006), page 238 Einstein, recognizing the importance of the paper translated it into German himself and submitted it on Bose's behalf to the prestigious '' Zeitschrift für Physik''. Einstein later applied Bose's principles on particles with mass and quickly predicted the ''Bose-Einstein condensate''.Dauxois & Peyrard (2006), pages 297298 * Braunstein-Ghosh-Severini Entropy – This modelling of entropy using network theory is used in the analysis of
quantum gravity Quantum gravity (QG) is a field of theoretical physics that seeks to describe gravity according to the principles of quantum mechanics. It deals with environments in which neither gravitational nor quantum effects can be ignored, such as in the v ...
and is named after Sibasish Ghosh and his teammates, Samuel L. Braunstein and Simone Severini. * Dual-phase steel, was publicly first described in "Microstructure and tensile properties of high strength duplex ferrite–martensite (DFM) steels" by P.C. Chakraborti and M.K. Mitra. * Galena, applied use in electronics of – Bengali scientist Sir Jagadish Chandra Bose effectively used Galena crystals for constructing radio receivers."Indian Scientists"
(November 2004), Science Popularisation and Public Outreach Committee, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research.
The Galena receivers of Bose were used to receive signals consisting of shortwave, white light and ultraviolet light. In 1904 Bose patented the use of Galena Detector which he called ''Point Contact Diode using Galena''.Sarkar (2006), page 94 *
Mahalanobis distance The Mahalanobis distance is a distance measure, measure of the distance between a point P and a probability distribution D, introduced by Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis, P. C. Mahalanobis in 1936. The mathematical details of Mahalanobis distance ...
– Introduced in 1936 by the Indian (Bengali) statistician Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis (29 June 1893 – 28 June 1972), this distance measure, based upon the correlation between variables, is used to identify and analyze differing pattern with respect to one base. * Mercurous nitrite – The compound mercurous nitrite was discovered in 1896 by the Bengali chemist Prafulla Chandra Roy, who published his findings in the '' Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal''."Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray"
, Viyan Prasar, Department of Science and Technology, Government of India.
The discovery contributed as a base for significant future research in the field of chemistry. *
Ramachandran plot In biochemistry, a Ramachandran plot (also known as a Rama plot, a Ramachandran diagram or a ,ψplot), originally developed in 1963 by G. N. Ramachandran, C. Ramakrishnan, and V. Sasisekharan, is a way to visualize energetically allowed regio ...
, Ramachandran map, and Ramachandran angles: The Ramachandran plot and Ramachandran map were developed by Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran, who published his results in the '' Journal of Molecular Biology'' in 1963. He also developed the Ramachandran angles, which serve as a convenient tool for
communication Communication is commonly defined as the transmission of information. Its precise definition is disputed and there are disagreements about whether Intention, unintentional or failed transmissions are included and whether communication not onl ...
, representation, and various kinds of
data analysis Data analysis is the process of inspecting, Data cleansing, cleansing, Data transformation, transforming, and Data modeling, modeling data with the goal of discovering useful information, informing conclusions, and supporting decision-making. Da ...
.Ramakrishnan (2001) * Raman effect – The Encyclopædia Britannica (2008) reports: "change in the wavelength of light that occurs when a light beam is deflected by molecules. The phenomenon is named for Sir Chandrasekhara Venkata Raman, who discovered it in 1928. When a beam of light traverses a dust-free, transparent sample of a chemical compound, a small fraction of the light emerges in directions other than that of the incident (incoming) beam. Most of this scattered light is of unchanged wavelength. A small part, however, has wavelengths different from that of the incident light; its presence is a result of the Raman effect." * Raychaudhuri equation – Discovered by the Bengali physicist Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri in 1954. This was a key ingredient of the Penrose-Hawking singularity theorems of
general relativity General relativity, also known as the general theory of relativity, and as Einstein's theory of gravity, is the differential geometry, geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert Einstein in 1915 and is the current description of grav ...
. * Saha ionization equation is an expression that relates the ionization state of a gas in thermal equilibrium to the temperature and pressure. * Periodicity in Nuclear Properties: A sharp pattern is discovered by an Indian researcher regarding the nuclear properties of chemical elements. The remarkable deviations are noticed near the magic numbers. * Process of formation of the E layer of the ionosphere and night sky luminiscence: Discovered by the Indian physicist, Sisir Kumar Mitra. *
Boson In particle physics, a boson ( ) is a subatomic particle whose spin quantum number has an integer value (0, 1, 2, ...). Bosons form one of the two fundamental classes of subatomic particle, the other being fermions, which have half odd-intege ...
: Satyendra Nath Bose's research led to the discovery of the
Boson In particle physics, a boson ( ) is a subatomic particle whose spin quantum number has an integer value (0, 1, 2, ...). Bosons form one of the two fundamental classes of subatomic particle, the other being fermions, which have half odd-intege ...
, one of the
elementary particles In particle physics, an elementary particle or fundamental particle is a subatomic particle that is not composed of other particles. The Standard Model presently recognizes seventeen distinct particles—twelve fermions and five bosons. As a con ...
on the
Standard Model The Standard Model of particle physics is the Scientific theory, theory describing three of the four known fundamental forces (electromagnetism, electromagnetic, weak interaction, weak and strong interactions – excluding gravity) in the unive ...
of
Particle Physics Particle physics or high-energy physics is the study of Elementary particle, fundamental particles and fundamental interaction, forces that constitute matter and radiation. The field also studies combinations of elementary particles up to the s ...
.


Space

* Lunar water – Although the presence of water ice on the Moon has been conjectured by various scientists since the 1960s, inconclusive evidence of free water ice had also been identified. The first incontrovertible evidence of water on the Moon was provided by the payload Chace carried by the Moon Impact Probe released by Chandrayaan-1 in 2009, confirmed and established by
NASA The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA ) is an independent agencies of the United States government, independent agency of the federal government of the United States, US federal government responsible for the United States ...
. * Saha ionisation equation – The Saha equation, derived by the Bengali scientist
Meghnad Saha Meghnad Saha (6 October 1893 – 16 February 1956) was an Indian astrophysicist and politician who helped devise the theory of Thermal ionization, thermal ionisation. His Saha ionization equation, Saha ionisation equation allowed astronomers to ...
(6 October 1893 – 16 February 1956) in 1920, conceptualises
ionisation Ionization or ionisation is the process by which an atom or a molecule acquires a negative or positive charge by gaining or losing electrons, often in conjunction with other chemical changes. The resulting electrically charged atom or molecule i ...
s in context of stellar atmospheres. * Quasi-normal modes of
black holes A black hole is a massive, compact astronomical object so dense that its gravity prevents anything from escaping, even light. Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity predicts that a sufficiently compact mass will form a black hole. Th ...
C. V. Vishveshwara discovered the quasi-normal modes of black holes.Vishveshwara, C.V., Nature, 1970, 227, 936 These modes of black hole vibrations are one of the main targets of observation using the gravitational wave detector. * Chandrasekhar limit: Subramanyan Chandrasekhar discovered the maximum mass of a stable
white dwarf A white dwarf is a Compact star, stellar core remnant composed mostly of electron-degenerate matter. A white dwarf is very density, dense: in an Earth sized volume, it packs a mass that is comparable to the Sun. No nuclear fusion takes place i ...
star.


See also

* Timeline of Indian innovation * History of science and technology in India * Timeline of historic inventions *
List of Indian mathematicians Indian mathematicians have made a number of contributions to mathematics that have significantly influenced scientists and mathematicians in the modern era. One of such works is Hindu numeral system which is predominantly used today and is likely ...
* List of Indian scientists * List of Indian physicists


Notes


References


Bibliography

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:
Kessinger Publishing Kessinger Publishing, LLC is an American print-on-demand publishing company located in Whitefish, Montana, that specializes in rare, out-of-print books. In 2009, the company produced 190,175 titles and was reported to be the third-largest prod ...
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Oxford University Press Oxford University Press (OUP) is the publishing house of the University of Oxford. It is the largest university press in the world. Its first book was printed in Oxford in 1478, with the Press officially granted the legal right to print books ...
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University of Chicago Press The University of Chicago Press is the university press of the University of Chicago, a Private university, private research university in Chicago, Illinois. It is the largest and one of the oldest university presses in the United States. It pu ...
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External links


Ancient India's Inventions In Science And Technology

Essays on Indian Science and Technology.

P. K. Ray, SCIENCE, CULTURE AND DEVELOPMENT – A CONNECTED PHENOMENA, Everyman's Science Vol.
* ''History of Science in South Asia''
hssa-journal.org
. HSSA is a peer-reviewed, open-access, online journal for the history of science in India. {{DEFAULTSORT:Indian Inventions And Discoveries
Inventions An invention is a unique or novel device, method, composition, idea, or process. An invention may be an improvement upon a machine, product, or process for increasing efficiency or lowering cost. It may also be an entirely new concept. If an ...
Lists of inventions or discoveries India science and technology-related lists Inventions and discoveries