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The () or ''kwagŏ'' were the national civil service examinations under the
Goryeo Goryeo (; ) was a Korean state founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korea, Korean Peninsula until the establishment of Joseon in 1392. Goryeo achieved what has b ...
(918–1392) and
Joseon Joseon ( ; ; also romanized as ''Chosun''), officially Great Joseon (), was a dynastic kingdom of Korea that existed for 505 years. It was founded by Taejo of Joseon in July 1392 and replaced by the Korean Empire in October 1897. The kingdom w ...
(1392–1897) periods of
Korea Korea is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula, Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in 1945, it has been politically Division of Korea, divided at or near the 38th parallel north, 3 ...
. Typically quite demanding, these tests measured candidates' ability of writing composition and knowledge of the
Chinese classics The Chinese classics or canonical texts are the works of Chinese literature authored prior to the establishment of the imperial Qin dynasty in 221 BC. Prominent examples include the Four Books and Five Classics in the Neo-Confucian traditi ...
. The form of writing varied from literature to proposals on management of the state. Technical subjects were also tested to appoint experts on medicine, interpretation, accounting, law etc. These were the primary route for most people to achieve positions in the bureaucracy. Based on the civil service examinations of imperial China, the first arose in
Unified Silla Unified Silla, or Late Silla, is the name often applied to the historical period of the Korean kingdom of Silla after its conquest of Goguryeo in 668 AD, which marked the end of the Three Kingdoms period. In the 7th century, a Silla–Tang alli ...
, gained importance in Goryeo, and were the centerpiece of most
education in the Joseon dynasty Education in the Joseon dynasty of Korea was largely aimed at preparing students for government service. The ultimate goal of most students was successful passage of the state examinations, known as ''gwageo''. Educational institutions were extr ...
. The tutelage provided at the '' hyanggyo'', ''
seowon () were the most common educational institutions of Korea during the Joseon Dynasty. They were private institutions, and combined the functions of a Confucian shrine and a Confucian school. In educational terms, the were primarily occupied wit ...
'', and Sungkyunkwan was aimed primarily at preparing students for the and their subsequent career in government service. Under Joseon law, high office was closed to those who were not children of officials of the second full rank or higher, unless the candidate had passed the . Those who passed the higher literary examination came to monopolize all of the dynasty's high positions of state.


Overview

Korea started implementing examinations for the selection of administrative posts during the
Silla Silla (; Old Korean: wikt:徐羅伐#Old Korean, 徐羅伐, Yale romanization of Korean, Yale: Syerapel, Revised Romanization of Korean, RR: ''Seorabeol''; International Phonetic Alphabet, IPA: ) was a Korean kingdom that existed between ...
period (57 BCE – 935 CE) and some Sillans even took the imperial exam in the
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...
, receiving degrees after passing it. In 788, under the influence of Confucian scholar Ch'oe Ch'i-wŏn, Silla implemented an exam system that allowed lower nobility to take exams without attending the Gukhak, which was a national education institution exclusive to the aristocracy. During the
Goryeo Goryeo (; ) was a Korean state founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korea, Korean Peninsula until the establishment of Joseon in 1392. Goryeo achieved what has b ...
period (918–1392), a Chinese style civil service examination system was imported from China through the Hanlin scholar Shuang Ji, who visited Goryeo in 958. Shuang Ji was invited by
Gwangjong of Goryeo Gwangjong (925 – 4 July 975), personal name Wang So, was the fourth monarch of the Goryeo dynasty of Korea. Biography Birth and early life Gwangjong was born in 925 as Wang So, fourth son of King Taejo, who had founded Goryeo in 918. His moth ...
to stay at his court permanently and set up the civil examination system. According to a
Song dynasty The Song dynasty ( ) was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Fiv ...
writer named Xu Jing, the Korean examination recruitment system was largely the same as the Chinese one with some differences. Unlike in China, the examination papers were written in both the
Idu script Idu () was a writing system developed during the Three Kingdoms period of Korea (57 BC-668 AD) to write the Korean language using Chinese characters ("hanja"). It used Hanja to represent both native Korean words and grammatical morphemes as we ...
and
Classical Chinese Classical Chinese is the language in which the classics of Chinese literature were written, from . For millennia thereafter, the written Chinese used in these works was imitated and iterated upon by scholars in a form now called Literary ...
. The exam takers did not sit in separate cells like in China, but rather sat on the ground in the open under sunshades. By the end of the Goryeo period, a military exam had been added, the triennial schedule observed, and the exam hierarchy organized into provincial, metropolitan, and palace levels, similar to the Chinese. Other practices, such as the inclusion of exams on
Buddhism Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
and the worship of
Confucius Confucius (; pinyin: ; ; ), born Kong Qiu (), was a Chinese philosopher of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages. Much of the shared cultural heritage of the Sinosphere originates in the phil ...
, were particular to Korea and not shared with China. Outside China, the examination system was most widely implemented in Korea, with enrollment rates surpassing even that of China. In theory, any free man (not
Nobi ''Nobi'' were members of the slave class during the Korean dynasties of Goryeo and Joseon. Legally, they held the lowest rank in medieval Korean society. ''Nobi'' were considered property or personal property, chattel, and could be bought, s ...
) was able to take the examinations, but in practice the
yangban The ''yangban'' () were part of the traditional ruling class or gentry of dynastic Korea during the Joseon period. The ''yangban'' were mainly composed of highly educated civil officials and military officers—landed or unlanded aristocrats wh ...
aristocratic class eventually monopolized the system. At the start of the
Joseon Joseon ( ; ; also romanized as ''Chosun''), officially Great Joseon (), was a dynastic kingdom of Korea that existed for 505 years. It was founded by Taejo of Joseon in July 1392 and replaced by the Korean Empire in October 1897. The kingdom w ...
period, 33 candidates were selected from every triennial examination, and the number increased to 50 later on. In comparison, China's selected candidates after each palace examination were no more than 40 to 300 from the Tang to Ming dynasties while encompassing a landmass six times larger than Korea. By the
Joseon Joseon ( ; ; also romanized as ''Chosun''), officially Great Joseon (), was a dynastic kingdom of Korea that existed for 505 years. It was founded by Taejo of Joseon in July 1392 and replaced by the Korean Empire in October 1897. The kingdom w ...
period, high offices were closed to aristocrats who had not passed the exams. Over the span of 600 years, the Joseon civil service selected more than 14,606 candidates in the highest level examinations on 744 occasions. The examination system continued until 1894 when it was abolished by the
Gabo Reform The Kabo Reform () describes a series of sweeping reforms suggested to the government of Korea, beginning in 1894 and ending in 1896 during the reign of Gojong of Korea in response to the Donghak Peasant Revolution. Historians debate the degre ...
.


Pre-Joseon


Silla

In the 7th century, the Gukhak (National University) of
Silla Silla (; Old Korean: wikt:徐羅伐#Old Korean, 徐羅伐, Yale romanization of Korean, Yale: Syerapel, Revised Romanization of Korean, RR: ''Seorabeol''; International Phonetic Alphabet, IPA: ) was a Korean kingdom that existed between ...
(57 BCE – 935 CE) taught its students the
Confucian Classics The Chinese classics or canonical texts are the works of Chinese literature authored prior to the establishment of the imperial Qin dynasty in 221 BC. Prominent examples include the Four Books and Five Classics in the Neo-Confucian traditi ...
and assigned its graduates into three categories based on their knowledge of Confucian literature. The graduates were all invariably members of the aristocracy and were appointed to administrative posts. The first national examinations were administered in the kingdom of
Silla Silla (; Old Korean: wikt:徐羅伐#Old Korean, 徐羅伐, Yale romanization of Korean, Yale: Syerapel, Revised Romanization of Korean, RR: ''Seorabeol''; International Phonetic Alphabet, IPA: ) was a Korean kingdom that existed between ...
beginning in 788 after the Confucian scholar Ch'oe Ch'i-wŏn submitted the ''Ten Urgent Points of Reform'' to Queen Jinseong, the ruler of Silla at the time. The exam system, known as ''Sambun-gwa'', allowed lower nobility to take the exams without attending the Gukhak (also called Daehakgam for a time). However the exams were still only available to aristocrats.. In the 9th century, Koreans directly participated in the Chinese imperial examination system and as many as 88 Sillans received degrees after passing the Tang examinations.


Goryeo

In 958, an envoy from the
Hanlin Academy The Hanlin Academy was an academic and administrative institution of higher learning founded in the 8th century Tang China by Emperor Xuanzong in Chang'an. It has also been translated as "College of Literature" and "Academy of the Forest of Pen ...
of
Later Zhou Zhou, known as the Later Zhou (; ) in historiography, was a short-lived Chinese imperial dynasty and the last of the Five Dynasties that controlled most of northern China during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Founded by Guo Wei ...
named Shuang Ji visited
Kaesong Kaesong (, ; ) is a special city in the southern part of North Korea (formerly in North Hwanghae Province), and the capital of Korea during the Taebong kingdom and subsequent Goryeo dynasty. The city is near the Kaesong Industrial Region cl ...
and advised
Gwangjong of Goryeo Gwangjong (925 – 4 July 975), personal name Wang So, was the fourth monarch of the Goryeo dynasty of Korea. Biography Birth and early life Gwangjong was born in 925 as Wang So, fourth son of King Taejo, who had founded Goryeo in 918. His moth ...
to establish a Chinese style civil service examination system. Gwangjong was highly pleased with Shuang Ji and requested that he remain at the Korean court permanently. The examination system expanded the bureaucracy and opened it to a wider demographic, breaking the hold of a few powerful families over the government. Throughout the dynasty, they retained this character of strengthening the throne against the aristocracy. This also took the form of aligning the throne with the provincial elites, and the kings of Goryeo strove to extend educational opportunities to the local elites throughout the country. Any member of the '' yangmin'' (commoner) freeborn class was permitted to take the examination, although the descendants of monks, criminals and ''
cheonmin ''Cheonmin'' (), or "vulgar commoners", were the lowest caste of commoners in dynastical Korea. They abounded during the Goryeo (918–1392) and Joseon (1392–1897) periods of Korea's agrarian bureaucracy. Social class system In the caste s ...
'' were excluded. The major examinations were literary, and came in two forms: a composition test (''chinsa'' or ''jesul eop''), and a test of classical knowledge (''myeonggyeong eop''). The composition test, which tested Chinese literary forms, came to be viewed as more prestigious, and its successful applicants were divided into three grades. On the other hand, successful candidates of the classical examination, which tested for knowledge on the Confucian Classics, were not ranked. In the course of the dynasty, some 6000 men passed the composition examination, while only about 450 passed the classics examination. These tests were supposed to be held on a triennial basis, but in practice it was common for them to be held at other times as well. The classics examination was revised in 1344, under the reign of Chunghye, on the model of the examination system then employed in the
Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty ( ; zh, c=元朝, p=Yuáncháo), officially the Great Yuan (; Mongolian language, Mongolian: , , literally 'Great Yuan State'), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after Div ...
. The Yuan examination hierarchy of local, provincial, and metropolitan exams were instituted in 1369 by Yi Saek. The former examination system based on the traditional classics was replaced with one based on
Neo-Confucian Neo-Confucianism (, often shortened to ''lǐxué'' 理學, literally "School of Principle") is a Morality, moral, Ethics, ethical, and metaphysics, metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, which originated with Han Yu (768 ...
interpretations of the classics. By 1390 there was a military exam. The national examinations became more systematic and powerful under Goryeo than they had been under Silla. However, they remained only one among several avenues to power. A man who had reached a position of the fifth rank or higher could automatically have one son placed in a position of rank. Over time government-run educational institutions such as the '' hyanggyo'' (provincial schools) and Gukjagam (National University) lost ground to private institutions like the Twelve Assemblies. There were other miscellaneous examinations (''jabeop'') that were administered in various fields. One among them was Buddhism; monks who passed received a special clerical title, beginning with ''daeseon'', or "monk designate." The Buddhist examinations were ended in the 15th century as part of a Buddhism suppression campaign. Another examination was the ''chapkwa'', which tested fields such as law, mathematics, medicine, ''p'ungsu'' (
Fengshui Feng shui ( or ), sometimes called Chinese geomancy, is a traditional form of geomancy that originated in ancient China and claims to use energy forces to harmonize individuals with their surrounding environment. The term ''feng shui'' mean ...
), and divination. The ''chapkwa'' examination was mainly taken by the '' jungin'' upper middle class.


Joseon

Under the
Joseon Joseon ( ; ; also romanized as ''Chosun''), officially Great Joseon (), was a dynastic kingdom of Korea that existed for 505 years. It was founded by Taejo of Joseon in July 1392 and replaced by the Korean Empire in October 1897. The kingdom w ...
Dynasty (1392–1910), the examinations fell under three broad categories: the literary examinations (), military examinations (), and miscellaneous examinations () covering topics such as medicine, geography, astronomy, and translation. As other roads to advancement were much more closed than during the Goryeo period, the became virtually the only pathway to a position of rank. In theory, anyone other than ''
nobi ''Nobi'' were members of the slave class during the Korean dynasties of Goryeo and Joseon. Legally, they held the lowest rank in medieval Korean society. ''Nobi'' were considered property or personal property, chattel, and could be bought, s ...
'' could take examinations, but in reality only yangban who had the luxury of spending much of their childhood and early adulthood studying could hope to pass the exam. In the case of literary administration, children of remarried women, concubines, and officials who were dismissed for corruption were excluded from taking the exam. examinations were very important not only for an individual but for his family because a
yangban The ''yangban'' () were part of the traditional ruling class or gentry of dynastic Korea during the Joseon period. The ''yangban'' were mainly composed of highly educated civil officials and military officers—landed or unlanded aristocrats wh ...
family that did not produce a government official for four generations lost their status as yangban. When writing the examination, candidates had to record the names and positions of their four great-grandfathers. The higher literary examination was restricted to those who either were already in a position of rank, or who had already passed the lower examination. The miscellaneous examinations were looked down upon by the yangban, and were generally restricted to the ''
chungin The ''jungin'' or ''chungin'' () were the upper middle class of the Joseon Dynasty in medieval and early modern Korean society. The name "jungin" directly means "middle people". This privileged class of commoners consisted of a small group of ...
'' class of hereditary technical workers. Criteria for the military examination varied, but over time it became open even to members of the lowest class (the ''cheonmin''). The provided a basis for various forms of regionalism. Due to the strength of regional factions in Joseon Dynasty politics, scholars from out-of-favor factions often did not bother to take the examination at all. In the late Joseon Dynasty, an increasing percentage of successful candidates came from the northern province of
Pyongan Pyongan Province (; ) was one of Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon dynasty. Pyongan was located in the northwest of Korea. The provincial capital was Pyongyang. History Pyongan Province was formed in 1413. Its name derived from the name ...
, and the small county of Chŏngju came to produce more successful candidates than any other county.


Administration

The were originally administered every three years; these regular examinations were known as the ''singnyeonsi'' (). However, the ''singnyeonsi'' became less important over time, and an increasing percentage of candidates took the on special occasions. These included the ''alseongsi'' (visitation examinations), which were administered when the king visited the Shrine of Confucius at the Seonggyungwan royal academy, the ''jeunggwangsi'' (augmented examinations) held during national celebrations, and the ''byeolsi'' (special examinations) held on other special occasions.These translations are taken from Lee (1984), p. 181. However, these special examinations were usually limited to the literary and military examinations. Over the course of the dynasty, a total of 581 irregular examinations were held, in comparison to 163 of the triennial ''singneonsi'' examinations. The literary and military examinations were administered in three stages: an initial qualifying test (''chosi'') administered in the provinces, a second examination (''hoesi'') conducted in the capital (in which the qualifying candidates were selected), and a third examination (''jeonsi'') in the presence of the king, in which the successful candidates were ranked in order. Each stage was norm-referenced, with a set number of successful applicants. The candidate who received the highest score (''jangwon'') in the literary examination was given a post of the 6th junior (''jong'') rank. If the ''jangwon'' was already employed in a position of rank, he was raised 4 levels. The candidates with second and third highest scores were given posts of the 7th junior rank. The rest were not guaranteed a post, but had to wait until one became vacant. The miscellaneous examinations had only the first two stages; their candidates were not ranked. Testing procedures were a frequent flashpoint of controversy, with various factions vying for control of the examination criteria. In particular, the question of whether the first phase of the higher examination should be oral or written became a hot topic of debate in early Joseon.


Literary examinations

The literary examination was divided into a lower and higher examination. In turn, in the lower literary examination some candidates applied for a "classics licentiate" (or ''saengwon'') and others for a "literary licentiate" (or ''jinsa''). After passing these lower examinations (''saengjin-gwa''), they could proceed to the higher examination. This lower examination may have originated in the
entrance examination In education, an entrance examination or admission examination is an examination that educational institutions conduct to select prospective students. It may be held at any stage of education, from primary to tertiary, even though it is typica ...
s for the Gukjagam of Goryeo. In the lower examination, the literary licentiate tested compositional skill in various forms of Chinese poetry and prose, including shi poetry, '' fu'' rhyming prose, ''piao'' documentary prose, and '' ts'e'' problem-essays. The classics licentiate tested knowledge of the
Four Books and Five Classics The Four Books and Five Classics are authoritative and important books associated with Confucianism, written before 300 BC. They are traditionally believed to have been either written, edited or commented by Confucius or one of his disciples. S ...
from an orthodox
Neo-Confucian Neo-Confucianism (, often shortened to ''lǐxué'' 理學, literally "School of Principle") is a Morality, moral, Ethics, ethical, and metaphysics, metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, which originated with Han Yu (768 ...
interpretation. From each regular administration of the test, a total of 100 successful candidates were selected for each licentiate. These were drawn from a pool of 600 (for each licentiate), of which 200 were chosen from the capital and 400 were apportioned from the various provinces.These figures are given by SNUERI (1997), but Byeon (1999, p. 278) says that the total number from the provinces was 700. The higher literary examination was administered every three years, and a total of 33 successful candidates were selected from a pool of 240. These 240, in turn, were sent from the Seonggyungwan (50), the capital (40), and the Eight Provinces (the number sent from each province varied, with
Hwanghae Hwanghae Province (''Hwanghae-do'' ) was one of the Eight Provinces of Korea during the Joseon era. Hwanghae was located in the northwest of Korea. The provincial capital was Haeju. The regional name for the province was Haeseo (). It is a reg ...
and Yeongan sending only 10 while
Gyeongsang Gyeongsang Province (; ) was one of the Eight Provinces of Joseon Korea. Gyeongsang was located in southeastern Korea. The provincial capital of Gyeongsang was Daegu. The region was the birthplace of the kingdom of Silla, which unified Korea in ...
sent 30). Each of the first two of the higher examination was in turn divided into three parts: in the first section, the candidates showed their understanding of the Confucian canon, in the second part they demonstrated their ability to compose in various literary forms, and in the last portion they wrote a problem-essay which was intended to show their political aptitude. Over the course of the Joseon Dynasty, a total of 14,620 men passed the literary examination. The triennial ''singneonsi'' passed roughly 41% of these; the remainder passed in the course of irregular examinations. This proportion shifted over time; as the dynasty progressed, the irregular examinations became increasingly important. This may in part have been because the number of candidates in triennial examinations was fixed, while the number in the irregular examinations was not fixed.


Military examinations (''mugwa'')

Military examinations were instituted by the end of the Goryeo period and were continued in Joseon. The military exams tested a mixture of military arts as well as knowledge in the Classics and military texts. This included
Korean archery The Korean Bow ( hanja: , or ''horn bow'') is a water buffalo horn-based composite bow, composite Bow shape#Reflex bows, reflex bow, standardized centuries ago from a variety of similar weapons in earlier use. Due to its long use by Koreans, it is ...
, horsemanship, and mounted archery. The exam was carried out in three stages on a triennial basis. The first stage tested 190 or 200 candidates consisting of 70 candidates from the capital, 30 from Gyeongsang, 25 from Chungcheong and Jeolla, and the remaining provinces 10 candidates each. Out of the 190 candidates, 28 moved on to the second stage for an oral examination on their knowledge of the Confucian canon and certain military texts, including
Sun Tzu Sun Tzu (; zh, t=孫子, s=孙子, first= t, p=Sūnzǐ) may have been a Chinese General, military general, strategist, philosopher, and writer who lived during the Eastern Zhou period (771–256 BC). Sun Tzu is traditionally credited as the au ...
's '' Art of War'', the ''
Wuzi The ''Wuzi'' is a classic Chinese work on military strategy attributed to Wu Qi. It is considered one of China's Seven Military Classics. It is said there were two books on the art of war by Wu Qi, but one was lost, hence leaving the ''Wuzi'' ...
'' and ''Hanbizi''. The third stage tested horsemanship and mounted archery again. Those who passed the military exam were known as ''söndal'' (meaning those who were reading for appointment to office). The military examination was not considered as important as the civil counterpart. It later became an avenue through which the lowborn class (''cheonmin'') could advance their careers.Byeon (1999, p. 279) gives 200 for the initial stage, but agrees with 28 for the second stage.


Miscellaneous examinations

The miscellaneous examinations, or ''japgwa'', were divided into four parts: translation, medicine, natural science (astrology, geography, and others), and recordkeeping. These examinations were overseen by the government office which employed specialists in the field. They were closely connected to the Sahak royal technical academies, which were overseen by the same offices. In the case of translation, the languages tested were the four in which the Joseon court maintained interpreters: contemporary Chinese, Mongolian, Jurchen/Manchu, and Japanese. This examination was overseen by the
Bureau of Interpreters The Bureau of Interpreters or Sayŏgwŏn was an agency of the Joseon government of Korea from 1393 to 1894 responsible for training and supplying official interpreters. Textbooks for foreign languages produced by the bureau aimed to accurately de ...
, which maintained interpreters in the capital and in the major border-ports and cities. At the first level, 45 candidates were accepted in spoken Chinese and 4 in each of the other languages; the second level selected 13 successful applicants in Chinese and 2 in each of the other languages. The medical examination selected 18 finalists, narrowed to 9 successful applicants in the second round. These were then given positions in the Bureau of Medicine, which sent some of them to the palace and others to each provincial division down to the ''
hyeon Korea has had administrative districts that can be considered provinces since the 7th century. These divisions were initially called ''ju'' () in Unified Silla and Later Baekje, and there were nine in total. After Goryeo conquered these states in t ...
'' level. Those who passed the ''japgwa'' were originally given a crimson certificate, the same color obtained by those who passed the literary examination. However, pressure from the yangban eventually changed this color to white, signifying a lower level of achievement and entitling the bearer to a position of lower rank. Those who passed this examination became known as
chungin The ''jungin'' or ''chungin'' () were the upper middle class of the Joseon Dynasty in medieval and early modern Korean society. The name "jungin" directly means "middle people". This privileged class of commoners consisted of a small group of ...
.


Historical change

The were supplemented in the reign of
Jungjong of Joseon Jungjong (; 25 April 1488 – 9 December 1544), personal name Yi Yeok (), firstly titled Grand Prince Jinseong (), was the 11th monarch of the Joseon dynasty of Korea. He succeeded to the throne after the deposition of his elder half-brother ...
(1506–1544), at the suggestion of the high official Jo Gwang-jo. The supplementary examination was called an "examination for the learned and the virtuous" (''hyeollanggwa''). This was an abbreviated examination, held in the presence of the king. The candidates had to be recommended by their local magistrate as men of the highest integrity. The system became increasingly corrupt in the later years of the Joseon Dynasty. Scholars who were unable to pass the examination began to form a class of disaffected yangban; notable among these was early 19th-century rebel leader Hong Gyeong-nae. Many of the later
Silhak ''Silhak'' () was a Korean Confucian social reform movement in the late Joseon Dynasty. ''Sil'' means "actual" or "practical", and ''hak'' means "studies" or "learning". It developed in response to the increasingly metaphysical nature of Neo-C ...
scholars also turned away from state service. The were finally abolished in the Gabo Reforms of 1894, along with legal class discrimination and the old rank system.


See also

*
Imperial examination The imperial examination was a civil service examination system in History of China#Imperial China, Imperial China administered for the purpose of selecting candidates for the Civil service#China, state bureaucracy. The concept of choosing bureau ...
*
Education in the Joseon Dynasty Education in the Joseon dynasty of Korea was largely aimed at preparing students for government service. The ultimate goal of most students was successful passage of the state examinations, known as ''gwageo''. Educational institutions were extr ...
*
History of education The history of education, like other history, extends at least as far back as the first written records recovered from ancient civilizations. Historical studies have included virtually every nation. The earliest known formal school was develope ...
* Republic of Korea public service examinations


Notes


References


Sources

* * * * * * * * *


External links

{{Authority control Education in Joseon Education in Goryeo Korean Confucianism Imperial examination Government of Joseon Government of Goryeo ko:과거 제도#한국의 과거