Great Eastern Main Line

The Great Eastern Main Line (GEML, sometimes referred to as the East Anglia Main Line) is a major railway line on the British railway system which connects Liverpool Street station in central London with destinations in east London and the East of England, including , , , and . Its numerous branches also connect the main line to , , , Harwich and a number of coastal towns including Southend-on-Sea, , and .National Rail, ''Rail Services Around London & the South East'', (2006)

Its main users are commuters travelling to and from London, particularly the City of London, which is served by Liverpool Street, and areas in east London, including the Docklands financial district via the London Underground and Docklands Light Railway connections at Stratford. The line is also heavily used by leisure travellers, as it and its branches serve a number of seaside resorts, shopping areas and countryside destinations. The route also provides the main artery for substantial freight traffic to and from and Harwich, via their respective branch lines. Trains from also run into London via the GEML.Network Rail
- Route 7 - Great Eastern (PDF)

The Elizabeth line, which fully opened in November 2022, operates services from Shenfield to London Paddington via Liverpool Street, connecting Essex with Central London and West London. Additionally, it provides a direct rail link between the GEML and the Great Western Main Line.

History

Eastern Counties and Eastern Union Railways (1839–1862)

The first section of the line, built by the Eastern Counties Railway (ECR), opened in June 1839 between a short-lived temporary terminus at in the East End of London and , then in the Havering Liberty in Essex. The London terminus was moved in July 1840 to Shoreditch (later renamed Bishopsgate), after 1900 in the Metropolitan Borough of Bethnal Green, and at the eastern end the line was extended out to in the same year. A further of track was added out to by 1843. The original gauge for the line was , but this was converted to in 1844.

The section of line between Colchester and was built by the Eastern Union Railway (EUR) to standard gauge and opened to passenger traffic in June 1846. Its sister company, the Ipswich and Bury Railway, built a line to and this was completed in November 1846. Both companies shared the same office, many directors and key staff, and started operating as a unified company with the EUR name from 1 January 1847. An extension from a new junction at to opened in December 1849, although the position of the latter station was poor and a spur to allow some trains to operate into (Thorpe) station was opened to regular traffic in November 1851.

In the late 19th century, the double-track main line was expanded with additional tracks being added to cope with more traffic. In 1854, a third track was added between Bow Junction and to help accommodate London, Tilbury and Southend Railway services which at that time were operating via Stratford.

Until 1860, trains serving the town of Ipswich used a station called which was located south of the Stoke tunnel. The town's current station is located to the north of the tunnel.

The ECR had leased the EUR from 1854 but by the 1860s, the railways in East Anglia were in financial trouble and most were leased to the ECR; they wished to amalgamate formally, but could not obtain government agreement for this until 1862, when the Great Eastern Railway (GER) was formed out of the consolidation.

Great Eastern Railway (1862–1922)

From November 1872, became a temporary terminus to relieve the main high level Bishopsgate station while the GER was building its new permanent terminus at . The latter opened in stages from February 1874, beginning with the first four platforms, until it was fully open from November 1875. At that time the original 1840 Bishopsgate station closed to passengers and was converted into a goods yard.

By the 1870s, suburbia in the Forest Gate area was developing quickly and in 1872 suburban trains (this was the first distinctive suburban service on the main line as previously main-line trains had performed this duty) terminated at a bay platform at . These were followed by trains from Fenchurch Street in 1877.Fenchurch Street was served by GER and LTSR services at this time and GER services were routed via Bow Road By 1882, these services had been extended and were terminating at Ilford, Romford or Brentwood.

In 1877, a fourth track was added between Bow Junction and Stratford and two goods-only tracks were added between Stratford and Maryland Point. The four-track Bow Junction to Stratford section was extended back to James Street Junction (near Globe Road station which opened the same year) in 1884, but Bethnal Green to James Street did not follow until 1891. It was also in this year that two extra tracks were added between Bethnal Green and Liverpool Street which were for the use of West Anglia Main Line services. These tracks were built through the basement warehousing associated with Bishopsgate station located above.

The line was quadrupled to Ilford in 1895, and in 1899 out to .

In 1902, the quadruple track was extended from Seven Kings to Romford, but it wasn't until 1913 that four-tracking out to was suggested and the First World War caused delay to this plan. In 1903, the Fairlop Loop opened and a number of services that had previously terminated at Ilford were extended onto it. These services generally looped round and back to the GEML at Stratford (on the Cambridge line platforms).

London and North Eastern Railway (1923–1947)

The GER was grouped in 1923 into the London and North Eastern Railway (LNER). In 193132, the LNER quadrupled the tracks to Shenfield which became the terminus for inner-suburban operation.

In the 1930s, a flyover was constructed just west of to switch the main and electric lines over, to enable main-line trains to utilise Liverpool Street's longer west side platforms without having to cross east side suburban traffic in the station throat. The new arrangement also facilitated cross-platform interchange with the Central line at , with services commencing in 1946. Either side of the Ilford flyover there are single-track connections between each pair of lines, with the westbound track extending to and just beyond. The eastbound track extends as far as Ilford station. It was also envisaged that a flyover would be built at the country-end of the carriage sidings at to allow trains bound for the Southend line to change from the main line to the electric line, instead of at the London-end of as they do now.

Plans were drawn up in the 1930s to electrify the suburban lines from Liverpool Street to Shenfield at 1,500VDC and work was started on implementing this. However, the outbreak of the Second World War brought the project to a temporary halt and it was not until 1949 that the scheme was completed with electrification being extended to in 1956.

During World War II, the long-distance named trains were withdrawn, and these returned after the war with the reintroduction of the "Hook Continental" and "Scandinavian" boat trains to Harwich Parkeston Quay in 1945. The East Anglian (Liverpool Street – Norwich) was restored in October 1946, and in 1947 the "Day Continental" which pre-war had operated as the "Flushing Continental", recommenced operation.

British Railways (1948–1994)

After nationalisation in 1948, the GEML formed part of the Eastern Region of British Railways.

The Summer 1950 timetable saw the introduction of a regular interval service between Liverpool Street and Clacton, which left Liverpool Street on the half-hour and Clacton on the hour. Summer Saturdays in 1950 also saw the introduction of the ''Holiday Camps Express'' workings to Gorleston, near Lowestoft. The latter half of 1950 and early 1951 saw the testing of new EM1 electric locomotives for use over the Woodhead Line between Manchester and Sheffield.

January 1951 saw the introduction of the Britannia class 4-6-2 express locomotives and a speeding up of services on the GEML. However, not everyone was a fan; British Railways' chairman Sir Michael Barrington Ward exclaimed "What? Send the first British Railways standard engines to that tramline? No!"

Twenty-three Britannias were allocated to the GE section and, in summer 1951, the Liverpool Street–Norwich service went over to an hourly clockface interval service.

The British Railways 1955 Modernisation Plan called for overhead line systems in Great Britain to be standardised at 25kVAC. However, due to low clearances under bridges, the route was electrified at 6.25kVAC. The section between Liverpool Street and was completed in November 1960. Extensive testing showed that smaller electrical clearances could be tolerated for the 25kV system than originally thought necessary. As a result, it was now possible to increase the voltage without having to either raise bridges or lower the tracks along the route to obtain larger clearances. The route between Liverpool Street and Southend Victoria was converted to 25kV AC between 1976 and 1980.

By the late 1970s, the costs of running the dated mechanical signalling systems north of Colchester was recognised and, in 1978, a scheme for track rationalisation and re-signalling was duly submitted to the Department of Transport. This was followed by a proposal, in 1980, to electrify the remainder of the Great Eastern Main Line.

The early 1980s saw track rationalisation and signalling work carried out in the Ipswich area and, on 9 April 1985, the first electric train consisting of two Class 305 electric multiple units (EMUs) worked into Ipswich station. The previous year, another member of the class had been dragged to Ipswich by a diesel locomotive and was used for crew training. The first passenger-carrying train was formed of Class 309 EMUs, which ran on 17 April 1985.

InterCity electric-hauled trains commenced on the route on 1 May 1985. Class 86 locomotives initially only powered services between Liverpool Street and Ipswich; after a switchover, Class 47s would complete the journey between Ipswich and Norwich. This last section was finally energised in May 1987, when through electric services commenced.

In 1986, the line as far as became part of Network SouthEast, although some NSE services actually terminated at Ipswich, whilst longer-distance Norwich services were operated by InterCity. Local services operating from the Ipswich and Norwich areas were operated by Regional Railways.

The privatisation era (1994 onwards)

Between 1997 and 2004, services into Essex and some into Suffolk were operated by First Great Eastern, whilst services into Norfolk and other Suffolk services were operated by Anglia Railways. Between 2004 and 2012, services out of Liverpool Street, except for a limited number of c2c trains, were all operated by National Express East Anglia. Since 2012, the franchise has been operated by Abellio Greater Anglia; in May 2015, the Shenfield "metro" stopping service transferred to TfL Rail, as a precursor to Elizabeth Line services.

Liverpool Street IECC replaced signal boxes at Bethnal Green (closed 1997), Bow (closed 1996), Stratford (GE panel closed 1997), Ilford (closed 1996), Romford (closed 1998), Gidea Park (closed 1998), Shenfield (closed 1992) and Chelmsford (closed 1994). The system uses BR Mark 3 solid state interlockings, predominantly four-aspect signals and a combination of Smiths clamp-lock and GEC-Alsthom HW2000 point machines.

The first signal box to be closed and transferred to Liverpool Street IECC was Shenfield in 1992, which had only opened 10 years earlier. The last boxes to be transferred were at Romford and Gidea Park in 1998; these were the oldest of those being transferred, having been opened under the GER/LNER 1924 resignalling scheme.

Accidents and incidents

A number of fatal accidents have occurred on the line throughout its history:

* 1840: ; four killed
* 1872: ; one killed and 16 injured in a derailment
* 1905: Witham; 11 killed and 71 injured in a derailment
* 1913: ; three killed and 14 injured in a collision and derailment
* 1915: Ilford; 10 killed and 500 injured in a collision between two trains
* 1941: Brentwood; seven killed in a collision between two trains
* 1944: Ilford; nine killed and 38 injured in a collision between two trains
* 1944: ; one killed and three injured in a collision between two trains

Infrastructure

The line is owned and maintained by Network Rail. It is part of Network Rail Strategic Route 7, which is composed of SRSs 07.01, 07.02 and 07.03, and is classified as a primary line. The GEML has a loading gauge of W10 between Liverpool Street and Haughley Junction (approximately 13 miles 63 chains north of Ipswich) and from there is W9 to Norwich. The maximum line speed is .

Between and , there is a Network Rail maintenance depot adjacent to the Jutsums Lane overbridge. In addition, at the London-end of the depot, is Network Rail's Electrical Control Room that controls the supply and switching of the overhead line system for the whole of the former Anglia Region.

Signalling is controlled by two main signalling centres: Liverpool Street IECC (opened in 1992) and Colchester PSB (opened in December 1983). Liverpool Street IECC controls signalling up to , where it fringes with Colchester PSB, which has control to . There are also several small signal boxes that control local infrastructure, such as Ingatestone box, which has jurisdiction over several local level crossings.

Line-side train monitoring equipment includes hot axle box detectors (HABD) on the down main and down electric lines near Brentwood (17 miles 35 chains from Liverpool Street) and on the up main near Margaretting (25 miles 78 chains). Other equipment includes wheel impact load detectors (WILD) ‘Wheelchex’ on the down main and up main west of Church Lane level crossing (24 miles 75 chains).

Track layout

On leaving Liverpool Street, the route comprises two pairs of tracks, known as the mains and the electrics, with a further pair of tracks, the suburbans, which carry the West Anglia Main Line alongside the GEML to .

From Bethnal Green, the GEML has four lines to Bow junction, where there is a complex set of switches and crossings. A line from the LTS (Fenchurch Street) route joins the "up" (London-bound) electric and there are a further two lines, the "up" and "down" Temple Mills, giving access to the North London Line and Temple Mills. The GEML has six tracks up to the London-end of and the junction to Temple Mills; there are five lines through the station, dropping to four at the country end.

At , the line to diverges and the main-line route drops from four tracks to two; this arrangement continues for the vast majority of the way to Norwich. There are several locations where the route has more than two tracks, predominantly through stations such as Colchester and Ipswich, along with goods loops, such as at the London end of . There is also a short stretch of single track on approach to Norwich, as the line passes over the River Wensum on the Trowse Bridge.

Tunnel and viaducts

Major civil engineering structures on the Great Eastern Main Line include the following:

Stoke tunnel

The only tunnel on the line is immediately south of station. The long tunnel was built by Peter Bruff as part of the Ipswich & Bury Railway. It was completed in 1846 and it is thought to be the earliest driven on a sharp continuous curve. During the excavation of the tunnel, many important fossils were discovered, including rhinoceros, lion and mammoth; the site was known as the "Stoke Bone Beds". The finds are considered important in understanding climate change during the Ice Age. This tunnel had the trackbed lowered so the line could accommodate taller freight trains.

Electrification

The main line is electrified at 25 kV AC 50hz using overhead wires under the control of Romford Electrical Control Room. The branches to , , , , , and are also electrified. The history of electrification on the GEML and adjoining routes is unusually complicated with parts of the line having been electrified with three different systems. Due to this, as well as traffic demands growing throughout the 21st century, the traction supply feeding arrangements are complex and somewhat unintuitive with several seemingly redundant features.

The earliest stretch of electrification was between Liverpool Street (only platforms 11–18) to Shenfield along with the branch from Fenchurch Street (platforms 1 and 2) down the Bow Curve in 1949. This was an overhead line system (OLE) at 1.5kV DC and was extended to Chelmsford and Southend Victoria in 1956. Over the weekend of the 5th and 6th of November 1960, the system was converted to 6.25kV AC at mains frequency (50hz) between Liverpool Street and Southend Victoria, with the wires from Shenfield to Chelmsford taken out of use to be converted to 25kV AC until re-energisation on the 20th March 1961.(although passenger service with electric trains did not return until the next year). The low voltage AC utilised broadly the same substations, grid connections, OLE components and electrical clearances as the previous DC system. At around the same time, the rest of the platforms and lines out of Liverpool Street (the Lea Valley lines) and out of Fenchurch Street were electrified also at 6.25kV AC in November 1960 and November 1961 respectively.

After this point, electrification was extended up the Great Eastern Main Line and on several branches all at 25kV AC. The line from Colchester to Clacton-on-Sea and Walton-on-the-Naze was previously electrified in 1959 at 25kV AC and the gap was filled between Colchester and Chelmsford in 18th June 1962. From 1975 until 1988, all the sections of 6.25kV AC around London and Southend across all lines in the Anglia region were converted to 25kV AC requiring new substations and significant modifications to the OLE components. In 2022, a small section between Bow Junction and Gidea Park was upgraded to a 2x25kV AC autotransformer system in order to support the Elizabeth Line service. The full timeline for the electrification on the GEML and branches is summarised below.

Historic 6.25kV/25kV voltage changeover

Since trains would through-run between 6.25kV and 25kV sections in regular operation, all EMUs built for the Anglia region between 1960 and 1980 were fitted for dual AC voltage with equipment to automatically switch between the two power systems while running. The main transformer on the train had four identical primary windings which could be connected in series for 25 kV working, or in parallel for 6.25kV working, by means of a "supply changeover switch". It was vital that the changeover switch was in the correct position since, if the voltage was too low, the train could not operate, while if the voltage was too high, serious damage could occur. For this reason, the switchover had to be made automatically by way of voltage sensing equipment rather than rely on the driver operating controls.

At the points where the two systems met – such as on the main line just east of Shenfield – there was a short length of overhead line which was electrically neutral. Neutral sections were installed either at breaks between supply areas or where the two voltages met. Whether or not the voltage was different on the other side of the neutral section, the on-train equipment operated in exactly the same way. At each end of the neutral section there were track-mounted permeant magnets referred to as Automatic Power Control (APC) magnets.

On board the train, the operation of the dual-voltage mechanism depended on the action of the main air-blast circuit breaker and voltage-sensing relays. When passing the first APC magnet, detection equipment fitted to the bogies would activate the circuit breaker cutting all power to the train. Once the train had passed the neutral section, the second set of APC magnets are detected by the bogie-mounted inducers which causes a lock to be released on the circuit breaker meaning its reclosing would be under the control of the voltage-detection equipment. This consisted of four voltage relays that would allow for a line voltage between 4.1 and 6.9kV for the low-voltage mode, and 16.5 to 27.5kV for the high-voltage mode. If the first relay was tripped, the changeover switch at the transformer was set to the low-voltage mode and the circuit breaker closed. All four relays were activated if the voltage was above 16.5kV. In that case, the current was sent to a magnetic switch that would set the changeover switch at the transformer to the 25kV position.

The other relays were installed to stop the changeover switch from being activated to low-voltage mode if the line voltage fell under 16.5kV but greater than 6.9kV. The changeover system was interlocked with the circuit breaker and the action of the APC magnets since any movement of the changeover switch while the circuit breaker was closed and connecting the system to any live current would cause destructive arcing for the internal components. Following testing and some in service incidents, modifications were made to the changeover equipment such that a switch to the low-voltage mode could only be made when the line voltage had dropped to below 3kV and then risen to 4.1kV, and that the re-closing of the circuit breaker is only made after a two-second wait following the detection of the second APC magnet to ensure a correct reading of the voltage.

As well as new EMUs introduced after 1960, the previous class 306 and 307 units originally built for the 1.5kV DC system underwent conversion to become 6.25/25kV dual-mode EMUs. The conversion of both these classes of train involved significant interventions particularly the relocating of the pantograph to a different carriage and the associated internal layout changes this caused. The full 92-unit fleet of class 306s and the 32 units of class 307 fleet underwent alterations at Stratford Works with new equipment provided by Associated Electrical Industries at Manchester.

Neutral sections are, or course, still required on the modern 25kV system and APC magnets are still used to automatically trigger the opening of the train's circuit breaker so that an arc is not caused at OLE when the pantograph travels between live and earthed wire.

Feeding arrangements

The majority of the GEML network is electrified using the 'classic' feeding arrangement connected to the 132kV distribution grid all controlled by UK Power Networks. In accordance with the Crossrail project, autotransformer feeding was fitted between the new autotransformer feeder station (ATFS) at Pudding Mill Lane and Gidea Park. Pudding Mill Lane ATFS also feeds the Crossrail core from that point to the Westbourne Park tunnel portal and towards Abbey Wood. This entirely replaced Crowlands classic feeder station (located between Chadwell Heath and Romford) and significantly reduced the load of the Bow Junction classic feeder station. The feeder station is connected to the National Grid 400kV transmission substation also named Pudding Mill Lane.

The line between Gidea Park and Shenfield is fitted out to be converted to autotransformer feeding in the near future with a sectioning autotransformer station (SATS) already completed at Shenfield in 2018. Autotransformer feeding is also due to be extended as far as Beulieu Park as a new ATFS is being constructed just north of the station at the same site as the Springfield classic feeder station.

The original 1.5kV DC system of 1949 used traction substations at Bethnal Green, Stratford, Chadwell Heath, Gidea Park, and Shenfield all supplied by 33kV 3 phase AC distribution ring owned and operated by the railway. The 33kV ring was itself supplied by the utility grid at Chadwell Heath and Crosswall (near Fenchurch Street). Beyond Shenfield, the DC system installed in 1956 to Chelmsford and Southend Victoria did not use the railway distribution lines but were connected directly to the public utility grid at 33kV. Between Liverpool Street and Shenfield, the DC substations were significantly altered but retained for the conversion to 6.25kV in 1960 but were unsuitable for the further upgrades to 25kV. So too were the 33kV distribution lines which were reinforced by replacing the Crosswall grid connection with a stronger one at Bethnal Green. However after 1960, the distribution lines no longer powered Shenfield substation as a new feeder station was built that could supply both 6.25kV southwards and on the Southend line and 25kV for the line north to Chelmsford and for the future upgrade.

From 1976 to 1980 the 6.25kV lines between Liverpool Street and Southend Victoria were upgraded to 25kV which required entirely new grid connections and substations. New feeder stations were installed at Crowlands and at Bow Junction. The substation at Gidea Park became the MPTSC between Shenfield and Crowlands, and a brand new MPTSC was installed at Manor Park to separate Crowlands and Bow Junction feeder stations. Bow Junction feeder station also supplied the WAML up to a new MPTSC at Hackney Downs by way of a new Spitalfields TSC around Bethnal Green junction.

Rolling stock

Inter-city

Steam-hauled inter-city trains on the London-Norwich service were replaced by diesel power in the 1960s; locomotives from classes 40, 37 and 47 hauled services until the mid-1980s.

Electric locomotives replaced diesel haulage from the mid-1980s, when the remainder of the GEML was electrified north of Colchester; their utilisation continued until March 2020. Class 86 locomotives powered the service from 1985 until 2005,Class 86s hauled services only as far as Ipswich between 1985 and 1987; Class 47s would continue to operate the Ipswich to Norwich section until electrification of this final stage was completed with rakes of Mark 2 coaches. Push-pull services were introduced during their tenure, initially using a DBSO coach at the Norwich end and latterly with Mark 3 Driving Van Trailers, cascaded from the West Coast Main Line. From 2004, Class 90 locomotives replaced the ageing Class 86s and rolling stock was updated with refurbished former West Coast Main Line Mark 3 coaches, following the introduction of the Class 390 ''Pendolino'' stock on that route.

By March 2020, new EMUs had fully replaced Class 90 and Mark 3 coaches; thereby ending locomotive operation on the inter-city services on the Great Eastern Main Line.

Suburban

Electric multiple units are used for inner and outer suburban passenger trains and diesel multiple units are used on non-electrified branch lines. The main passenger units utilised are:

*: 450 seats across nine cars.Running in reduced seven car formation from 2017-2020. Maximum speed . (Operated by Elizabeth Line)
*: 757 seats across 12 cars. Maximum speed . (Operated by Greater Anglia)
* Class 720: 545 seats across five cars. . (Operated by Greater Anglia)
*: 167 seats across three cars (class 755/3) or 229 seats across four cars (class 755/4). Maximum speed . (Operated by Greater Anglia)
On weekends and when engineering work occurs, c2c run services into Liverpool Street via Stratford using Class 357 electric multiple units (EMU).

Freight

Freight services also operate frequently on the Great Eastern Main Line, with its easy access to the Port of Felixstowe. A pool of Class 90s, including most of the locomotives that operated inter-city services on the GEML, provide electric haulage with Class 66 and Class 70 providing diesel power.

Developments

Crossrail

In 2015, TfL Rail, the precursor of the Elizabeth Line, took over operation of the Shenfield stopping "metro" service and, since 2022, the service runs via a tunnel through central London and links up with the Great Western Main Line to and Heathrow Airport.

The first new rolling stock entered service on the service on 22 June 2017. The new trains, built at Bombardier's Derby factory, provide air conditioned walk-through carriages, intelligent lighting and temperature control, closed-circuit television and passenger information displays showing travel information, including about onward journeys. It was planned that by September 2017, half of the services between Shenfield and Liverpool Street will have switched to the new Class 345 trains. From May 2015, Crossrail services (re-branded as the Elizabeth Line) have an interchange with existing GEML services at Liverpool Street (via new underground platforms) as well as , and .

In November 2022, Crossrail services began to operate between and London Paddington via Farringdon. However no services operate further than Paddington onto the likes of Heathrow Airport and Reading. Instead, these services start from Abbey Wood, the Elizabeth line's southeast branch.

Proposed developments

A new station is planned at Great Blakenham as part of the SnOasis development approximately halfway between and , Another is planned at Beaulieu, 3 miles north-east of Chelmsford entailing a long section of extra tracks on viaduct/bridge.

Services

The majority of trains are operated by Abellio Greater Anglia, with the Elizabeth line operating the Liverpool Street to Shenfield stopping "metro" trains. A limited number of weekend (and when engineering work is planned) c2c services, operate on part of the line between Stratford and Liverpool Street.

Main line

Fast and semi-fast services utilise the main line between Liverpool Street and Shenfield. Branch lines diverge at Romford, Shenfield, Witham, Marks Tey, Colchester, Ipswich, Stowmarket and Norwich.

Additionally, a very limited number of main-line services call at Ilford, Seven Kings and Gidea Park during early mornings and late nights, often for the convenience of train drivers who may be working from these locations.

† Needham Market is not served by main-line trains.

Electric line

The Elizabeth line is a high-frequency service that operates between London Paddington and via London Liverpool Street since 2022 and serves all stations.

In 2006 the off-peak stopping service on the Great Eastern Main Line consisted of six trains per hour, with some additional services during peak times. During peak times, some trains start or terminate at . The line is mostly within Greater London, with two stations in the Essex borough of Brentwood.

The electric line is also used by limited services extending to and from .

Passenger volume

These are the passenger usage statistics from the year beginning April 2002 to the year beginning April 2013 and for those beginning April 2016 to April 2022. Needham Market is the only station on the line that is not served by trains to/from London.

Notes

References

Further reading

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