Gordon Pask

Andrew Gordon Speedie Pask (28 June 1928 – 29 March 1996) was a British cybernetician, inventor and polymath who made multiple contributions to cybernetics, educational psychology, educational technology, applied epistemology, chemical computing, architecture, and systems art. During his life, he gained three doctorate degrees. He was an avid writer, with more than two hundred and fifty publications which included a variety of journal articles, books, periodicals, patents, and technical reports (many of which can be found at the main Pask archive at the University of Vienna). He worked as an academic and researcher for a variety of educational settings, research institutes, and private stakeholders including but not limited to the University of Illinois, Concordia University, the Open University, Brunel University and the Architectural Association School of Architecture. He is known for the development of conversation theory.

Biography

Early life and education: 1928–1958

Pask was born in Derby, England, on 28 June 1928, to his parents Percy and Mary Pask. His father was a partner in Pask, Cornish and Smart, a wholesale fruit business in Covent Garden. He had two older siblings: Alfred, who trained as an engineer before becoming a Methodist minister, and Edgar, a professor of anesthetics. notes that his brother Edgar was described by Pask as his hero and role model. Edgar was noted to have fought in World War II, and "carried out a series of life threatening experiments on himself aimed at increasing the survival rate of piolets" (p. 310). Edgar was thrown into pools unconscious to examine the properties of life jackets, thrown into the icy waters of Shetland, and so on. Pickering notes that this presented a hard act to follow for Pask, but "he did, in his own unusual way" (p. 311). His family moved to the Isle of Wight shortly after his birth. He was educated at Rydal Penrhos. According to Andrew Pickering and G. M. Furtado Cardoso Lopes, school taught Pask to "be a gangster" and he was noted for having designed bombs during his time at Rydal Penrhos which was delivered to a government ministry in relation to the war effort during the Second World War. He later went on to complete two diplomas in Geology and Mining Engineering from Liverpool Polytechnic and Bangor University respectively.

Pask later attended Cambridge University around 1949 to study for a bachelor's degree, claims Pask to have been studying Psychology at the time; whereas claims Pask to have been studying Physiology. where he met his future associate and business partner Robin McKinnon-Wood, who was studying his undergraduate in Maths and Physics at the time. At the time, Pask was living in Jordan's Yard, Cambridge under the supervision of the scientist and engineer John Brickell. During this time, Pask was more known for his work in the arts and musical theatre rather than his later pursuits in science and education. He became interested in cybernetics and information theory in the early 1950s when Norbert Wiener was asked to give a presentation on the subject for the university. notes that Pask's entrance into cybernetics dates to around this time. He had begun to accumulate early additions of the works of Wiener and Shannon.

He eventually obtained an MA in natural sciences from the university in 1952, and met his future wife Elizabeth Pask (née Poole) around this time at the birthday party of a mutual friend when she was studying at Liverpool University and he was visiting his father in Wallasey, Mersey. They married in 1956 and later had two daughters together.

Beginning of System Research Ltd: 1953–1961

In 1953, Pask formally founded alongside his wife Elizabeth and Robin McKinnon-Wood the research organization System Research Ltd., in Richmond, Surrey. According to McKinnon-Wood, his and Pask's early forays in musical comedy production at Cambridge through their earlier company Sirelelle lay the groundwork for his later company which they viewed as being "wholly consistent with the development of self-adaptive systems, self-organizing systems, man-machine interactions etc". notes that Pask had fallen in love with the world of the arts through a school friend who ran a traveling cinema company in Wales (p. 313). After rebranding the company to System Research Ltd., the company became non-profit in 1961 with significant funding being derived from the United States Army and Airforce.

Throughout the company's existence, it conducted a variety of research and development initiatives on behalf of civil service organizations and research councils in both the United States and the United Kingdom. During the active period of System Research Ltd., he and his associates worked on a number of projects including SAKI (self-adaptive keyboard machine), MusiColour (a light show where the colored lights would reduce their responsiveness to a given keyboard input over time so as to induce the keyboard player to play a different range of notes), and finally educational technologies such as CASTE (Couse Assembly System Tutorial Environment) and Thoughtsticker (both of which were developed in the context of what became conversation theory).

During this period, Pask and McKinnon-Wood were asked to demonstrate their proof of concept for MusiColour on behalf of Billy Butlin. While the machine initially worked when the duo sought to demonstrate the technology to Butlin's deputy, after his arrival "it exploded in a cloud of white smoke", due to McKinnon-Wood "buying junk electronic capacitors". The duo managed to restart the machine; after which McKinnon-Wood purports Butlin to have remarked if such a machine could withstand an explosion like that, it must be reliable.

Stafford Beer also claims to have met Pask sometime during this period at a dinner party in Sheffield, claims this would have been 40 years prior to the publication of his article, implying the date of their meeting would have been 1953 (p. 13). However, no exact confirmation of their first meeting is given to Beer. He also notes his "abysmal memory" (p. 14), such that the correctness of specific details in Beer's account cannot be confirmed. and notes of both his genius, the difficulty in following his thought, and getting hold of; remarking both that " ask'sconception of things is not anyone else's perception of things", and that "The man can be quite infuriating". Between the early to mid-1950s, Pask began to develop electrochemical devices designed to find their own "relevance criteria". Pask performed experiments utilizing "electrochemical assemblages, passing current through various aqueous solutions of metallic salts (e.g., ferrous sulfate) in order to construct an analog control system". During the late 1950s, Pask managed to get a prototype device working. Oliver Selfridge noted that it was the second such mechanism, whereby "a machine build a machine electronically without any physical motion", actually worked.

In September 1958 in Namur, Belgium, he attended the second International Congress of Cybernetics. Pask was first introduced to Heinz von Foerster during this time, who were both informed by the attendees of the conference of having submitted similar papers. After searching for Pask through the streets of Namur, von Foerster described his first observation of Pask as that of a "leprechaun in a black double-breasted jacket over a white shirt with a black bow tie, puffing a cigarette through a long cigarette holder, and fielding questions, always with a polite smile, that were tossed at him from all directions". von Foerster later asked Pask to join him at the Biological Computer Laboratory at the University of Illinois; subsequently describing him after his death as both being difficult and yet a genius. He also this year produced SAKI (self-adaptive keyboard machine) for the instruction and development of keyboard skills aimed at the commercial marketplace.

His former research assistant Bernard Scott argues that "The Mechanisation of Thought Processes" conference at the National Physics Laboratory in Teddington, argues that the "Mechanization of Thought Processes" conference was likely the last large interdisciplinary meeting on general problems relating to artificial intelligence during the 20th century (p. 22). It contained people from direct programming ( McCarthy, Minsky, Backus, Hopper, Bar-Hillel), neural nets ( Selfridge, Uttley), cybernetics ( Ashby, Pask), and neurophysiology (Barlow, McCulloch, Whitfield). London represented a critical point in the development of Pask's thinking: states the event occurred in 1959 (p. 33), while states the event took place in November 1958 (p. 22). It was here Pask first published his paper "Physical Analogues to the Growth of a Concept" (1959) which contained a theoretical discussion on how the "growth of crystals hrough the use ofelectrodes suspended in an electronic solution", could be used to represent in purely physical phenomenon the growth of a concept. Warren McCulloch wrote in relation to the presentation that: " ask'sgadget does work; it does "take habbits" by a mechanism that Charles Peirce proposed". expresses issue with the view that the organic evolution occurs through a brute force trial-and-error style process. He suggests other parameters must be at play which leads to the emergence of viable organisms: “I believe they are sought in the nature of her building blocks, ubatomicparticles, atoms, and molecules, proceeding discretely through well-regulated autocatalytic reactions to produce cells and cell aggregates, or, as in Pask's example, crystals" (p. 251). During the later years of this period, Pask had begun to describe himself as a '' mechanic philosopher'' to emphasize both the theoretical and experimental aspects of his role. is of the opinion that Pask's primary emphasis in his activity was not system building or inventing. Instead, he was a thinker or theoretician who wanted to embed his theory in tangible artefacts (p. 32).

Later period of System Research Ltd: 1961–1978

During the 1960s, Pask worked significantly with psychologist B. N. Lewis and computer scientist G. L. Mallen.Mallen later went on to help found the Computer Arts Society in 1968, alongside Alan Sutcliffe and John Lansdown. In 1961, Pask published ''An Approach to Cybernetics.'' According to Ranulph Glanville, the work argued in favour of the notion that cybernetics was at its heart the art of creating defensible metaphors; this being in reference to the cross-disciplinary nature of the early cybernetics movement, which specifically stressed how analogous forms of control and communication could be found operating between disciplines.

Mallen joined System Research Ltd., in 1964 as a research associate on a project to analyse decision-making in crime investigation. This led to the development of SIMPOL (SIMulation of a POLice system), which was an information management game. Results from the project were reported back to the home office and were believed by Mallen to have had some impact on policy decisions taken by the police. Mallen described Gordon as "a great gadgeteer and had built adaptive teaching machines, for example, to train teleprinter operators, and he used these as a way into understanding human skill learning processes". Mallen suggests that also during this year, Pask presented a lecture to Ealing College of Art on system theory and cybernetics. He writes this influenced several students there, and represented a general ethos in the 1960s regarding the breaking of disciplinary boundaries for which Systems Research Ltd., became a central convergence point. One notable project Pask became involved with involved the Fun Palace, conceived of with the aid of Joan Littlewood and Cedric Price.

Sometime during this period, Pask met George Spencer-Brown who became a lodger at the Pask family's home while working at Stafford Beer and Roger Eddison's operational research consultancy SIGMA (Science in General Management) ''via'' strong recommendation from Bertrand Russell. It was here where Spencer-Brown is said to have written his Laws of Form for long hours whilst inebriated in the Pask family's bathtub. According to Vanilla Beer, Stafford's daughter, Pask is purported to have claimed while reminiscing about Spencer-Brown's time at his and his wife's household, that "When pencer-Brownbathed, it wasn't often. He used my gin, to wash in". His wife Elizabeth is also purported to have said, in reference to Spencer-Brown having forgot her name after he ceased to be a lodger, "I wouldn't mind, but I cooked for him for six months".

Pask later earned a PhD in psychology from the University of London in 1964, and later joined Brunel University in 1968 as one of the founding Professors of the Cybernetics Department at Brunel. The department was originally intended to be a research institute that was originally spearheaded by the media proprietor Cecil Harmsworth King, who was influenced by Stafford Beer's work in management consulting. King died however shortly before its opening, meaning that the Brunel enterprise mostly became a post-graduate teaching department rather than a research institute. Since Pask could not find a viable solution for intersecting his work at System Research Ltd., with the department's permission decided to become a part-time Professor there while Frank George became full-time head of the Cybernetics Department. It was here he recruited Bernard Scott who he was introduced to by David Stuart, a newly appointed lecturer at Brunel in the Department of Psychology. Scott later went on a sixth-month internship as a research assistant at System Research Ltd., who himself would later be a major contributor to the development of conversation theory.

Pask later discontinued his work on chemical computers. This may have happened during the early 1960s, or during the mid-1960s. According to Peter Cariani, funding for alternative approaches to artificial intelligence had dried up. This turn in direction was triggered by a greater emphasis on research utilizing symbolic artificial intelligence. Previous approaches to artificial intelligence, which included the use of neural nets, evolutionary programming, cybernetics, bionics, and bio-inspired computing, were side-lined by various funding bodies and interest groups. This placed greater pressure on System Research Ltd., to use more orthodox digital computer approaches to technology-based issues. Peter Cariani has expressed the view, that if we were to build physical devices ''a la'' Pask, we would replicate a kind of electrochemical assemblages, which would "have properties radically different from contemporary neural networks".

Mallen documents that in 1968, Pask arrived to "create an exhibit for Jasia Reichardt's planned Cybernetic Serendipity project at the Institute of Contemporary Arts". It was here where Pask's Colloquy of Mobiles was first exhibited. The figures in the exhibit would dance and rotate when spectators entered their vicinity. The system was built by Mark Dowson and Tony Watts, based on Pask's initial conception and with Mallen helping to install it. According to Mallen, " It proved popular when it worked, but was a mite unreliable".

In 1970, Mallen and others designed Ecogame, a system dynamics model of a hypothetical national economy, which encouraged participants to reflect on their own behavior in the system. The pedagogical function was influenced by Pask's research and activity in cybernetics and media-art. According to Claudia Costa Pederson, Pask understood and put emphasis on the view that learning was a self-organized, mutual and participatory process. Ecogame was therefore a pedagogical simulation, that was supposed to engage the viewer with an intuitive interface. It was successfully demonstrated in September 1970 at the Computer '70 trade show at the Olympia conference centre in London. Ecogame was subsequently incorporated into the program of the First European Management Forum during February 1971, which later emerged as the forerunner to the World Economic Forum in Davos. A version of Ecogame was sold to IBM for management education in the Blaricum IBM center. The slide projection technology of Ecogame was incorporated by Stafford Beer into Project Cybersyn, implemented by Salvador Allende in Chile.

During the early 1970s, Pask became heavily involved in joint initiatives between his company and the Centre for the Study of Human Learning (CSHL) alongside Laurie Thomas and Shelia Harri-Augstein at Brunel on behalf of the Ministry of Defence to examine conversational approaches to anger, where he exhibited alongside his associates at his company his CASTE and BOSS technologies. By 1972, Pask began the process of compiling his work into the form of "a formal theory of conversational processes". Due to the academic environment, Pask was working in, he decided early on from 1972 to 1973 to report on the experimental contents of his research due to the emphasis on empirical studies and general distrust of grand theory. Whilst visiting professor of educational technology, he obtained a DSc in cybernetics from the Open University in 1974.

The collective work on Pask's interest in conversation at this time culminated in three major publications with the aid of Bernard Scott, Dionysius Kallikourdis, and others. At the same time Pask, with the assistance of the computer scientist Nick Green and others, had begun to work on military contracts on behalf of the United States Army and the United States Army Air Forces respectively. In 1975, Pask's team at System Research Ltd. had written and published ''The Cybernetics of Human Learning & Performance'' and ''Conversation, Cognition and Learning: A Cybernetic Theory and Methodology''. In the subsequent year 1976, they published ''Conversation Theory: Applications in Education and Epistemology''. It has been claimed that due to the prevailing orthodox attitudes of psychological research at the time, his work did not gain widespread acceptance in the area but found more success in educational research. Pask also sometime between 1975 and 1978, received funding from the Science and Engineering Research Council to develop the "Spy Ring" test in relation to his theory of learning styles.

Dissolution of company and death: 1978–1996

Around 1978, Pask became more heavily involved in Ministry of Defence projects; yet he was struggling to keep his own company viable. The company later disbanded in the early 1980s, whereby he moved on to teach for a time at Concordia University and then the University of Amsterdam (in the Centre for Innovation and Co-operative Technology), and the Architectural Association in London, where he acted as a doctoral supervisor for Ranulph Glanville. During the early 1980s, Pask co-authored ''Calculator Saturnalia'' (1980) with the help of Ranulph Glanville and Mike Robinson, which consisted of a collection of games to play on a calculator; he also co-authored ''Microman Living and Growing with Computers'' (1982) with Susan Curran Macmillan. Edward Barnes asserts that during this period, his work on conversation theory "was further refined during the 1980s and until Pask's death in 1996 by his research group in Amsterdam. This latter refinement is called interaction of actors (IA) theory".Pask's interaction of actors theory is noted here as being mostly incomplete, with its contents being dispersed across his later articles of this period, and an unpublished manuscript co-authored with Gerard de Zeeuw.

According to Glanville, Pask semi-retired on 28 June 1993. During the last few years of his life, Pask set up the company Pask Associates, a management consultancy firm, whose clients included the Club of Rome, Hydro Aluminium, and the Architecture Association. He also provided some preliminary work for a project on behalf of the London Underground and received initial support from Greenpeace International at the Imperial College London's Department of Electronics for a project in quantitative chemical analysis. He obtained a ScD from his college, Downing Cambridge in 1995, and later died on 29 March 1996 at the London Clinic.

Legacy and impact

Pask's primary contributions to cybernetics, educational psychology, learning theory, and systems theory, as well as to numerous other fields, were his emphasis on the personal nature of reality, and on the process of learning as stemming from the consensual agreement of interacting actors in a given environment ("conversation").

In later life, Pask benefited less often from the critical feedback of research peers, reviewers of proposals, or reports to government bodies in the US and UK. Nevertheless, his publications were considered a storehouse of ideas that are not fully theorized.

Ted Nelson, who coined the concept of hypermedia, references Pask in Computer Lib/Dream Machines.

Pask acted as a consultant to Nicholas Negroponte, whose earliest research efforts at the Architecture Machine Group on Idiosyncrasy and software-based partners for design have their roots in Pask's work.

Personality

Andrew Pickering argues that Pask was a "character" in the traditional British sense of the term, as he likens both Stafford Beer and Grey Walter. His dress sense was eccentric and flamboyant for his time, adopting the dress of an Edwardian dandy with his signature bow tie, double-breasted jacket, and cape. His sleep pattern, later in life, was described as "nocturnal" and would often begin his work at night and sleep during the day. Mallen meanwhile has suggested: "He ran his life on a 36-hour rhythm which meant sleep times and meal times seldom coincided with those of us on normal 24-hour diurnal rhythms. Nevertheless the theories and ideas which came of the resulting late night conversations were intellectually very stimulating, if physically demanding". Furtado Cardoso Lopes notes that even from an early age, it was "Pask's curiosity, interdisciplinarity and interest in the complex nature of things that fuelled his incursion into cybernetics".

Pask's "power to inspire therswas evident throughout his working life". He was noted by his former colleagues as being capable of great kindness and generosity,, who studied under Gregory Bateson, notes of having received an informal certificate by Pask after having requested Pask to teach him cybernetics. They saw each other for private lessons for the last two years of Pask's life, and he even received an informal certificate from Pask (p.545) yet also sometimes the utter disregard for the individuals he associated himself with. Part of this was due to his view that "conflict is a source of cognitive energy and thereby a means for moving a system forward more rapidly". According to Luis Rocha, "Conflict was in fact one of his preferred tools to achieve consensual understanding between participants in a conversation".

This generation of conflict, however, is noted to have sometimes driven those around him further away than he would have preferred. This is evidenced in his own technological pursuits, where "His touch-typing tutor pushed the learner harder and harder, to the point where the rate of learning is greatest but also closest to the brink of system collapse". While his friends and colleagues often recognized his genius, they would also acknowledge him as being at times difficult to get along with, as well as "some need ngtime to recover".

He mellowed in later years and, inspired by his wife Elizabeth, converted to Roman Catholicism, which according to Scott, "deeply satisfied his need for understandings that address the great mysteries of life". Even with this mellowing, however, his innate intensity of character and interests was nonetheless always there.

Personal views

Artificial Intelligence

According to Paul Pangaro, a former collaborator and PhD student of his, Pask was critical of certain interpretations of artificial intelligence which were common during the eras he was active in. Alex Andrew has argued that Pask's interest in what is now labelled as "artificial intelligence", came from his general interest "in constructing artefacts with brain-like properties". Pangaro claims that Pask had managed to simulate intelligence-like behaviours with electro-mechanical machines in the 1950s, with Pangaro further arguing "By realising that intelligence resides in interaction, not inside a head or box, his path was clear. To those who didn't understand his philosophical stance, the value of his work was invisible o them. The emphasis for Pask, according to Pangaro, was that human intellectual activity existed as part of a kind of resonance that looped from a human individual through an environment or apparatus, back through to the individual.This ''looping-throughness'' as puts it, is a key characteristic of Pask's theory of intelligence.

Cybernetics

Pask took a broad understanding of what cybernetics entailed. Unlike physics, cybernetics had in Pask's mind no necessary commitment to a particular image as to what constitutes the environment. Instead, the focus is on the observations one makes via observation. Pask saw it as mistaken to view cybernetics reductively. For him, cybernetics was not merely a derivative of other disciplines or applied science. Instead, Pask held true to Norbert Wiener's original vision by acknowledging that cybernetics attempts to provide a unifying framework for various disciplines by establishing "a common language and set of shared principles for understanding the organization of complex systems".

Work

Colloquy of mobiles

Pask participated in the seminal exhibition "Cybernetic Serendipity" (ICA London, 1968) with the interactive installation "Colloquy of Mobiles", continuing his ongoing dialogue with the visual and performing arts. (cf Rosen 2008, and Dreher's History of Computer Art)

Fun Palace

Pask collaborated with architect Cedric Price and theatre director Joan Littlewood on the radical Fun Palace project during the 1960s, setting up the project's 'Cybernetics Subcommittee'.

Musicolour

Musicolour was an interactive light installation developed by Pask in 1953. It responded to musicians' variations and, if they did not vary their playing, it would become 'bored' and stop responding, prompting the musicians to respond.

Musicolour was influential on Cedric Price's Generator project, via the work of consultants Julia and John Frazer.

SAKI

SAKI (self-adaptive keyboard machine) was an adaptable keyboard machine created by Pask which fostered interactivity between user and machine.

Thoughtsticker

''Thoughtsticker'' (written as THOUGHTSTICKER) was described by Pask and his fellow collaborators in the 1970s as a special type of educational operating system.It may be better described today as a type of educational software or educational application. In the operating system, a user makes a ''concrete model'' or collection of concrete models in the ''concrete modeling facility'' of that operating system. The user then sets out to describe why and how the model or collection of models relates to satisfying some overarching goal or thesis ''via'' describing their ''cognitive model'' or personal construct of that relation in the ''cognitive modeling facility'' of that operating system. In explaining why and how the model or collection of models satisfies the goal or thesis, the user may add to their original concrete model, or provide new descriptions of topics for their cognitive model that had not been sufficiently elaborated upon. Compared to Pask's EXTEND unit, Thoughtsticker was said to exteriorize the innovation of ideas in learning, whereas EXTEND merely permitted and recorded the product of such a process.

Selected publications and projects

Pask wrote extensively and contributed to a variety of institutions, journals, and publishing houses. Many items in the following list of publications have been identified at the Pask archive at the University of Vienna. and contain a list of Pask's various publications and projects. For information on the Pask archives, see for the University of Vienna archive and for the North America archive.

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* A volume dedicated to Professor P. Anohkin.
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* Reprinted in Cybernetica No 3 1970, 140–159, and in No 4 1970, 240–250. Reprinted in Artorga Communications, 140-148
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*Reprinted in Cybernetics, Art and Ideas, Reichardt, J., (Ed.) Studio Vista, London, 1971, 76-99
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* Reprinted in Policy Analysis and System Science, 1977.
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* Prestentations took place at Recent Developments and Trends conference in Binghampton, New York and the Realities Conference via the EST Foundation at San Francisco. Reprinted in Autopoiesis (1981), Zelany, M., (Ed.) New York, North Holland Elsevier, 1981, 265-307.
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* In Journal of Cybernetics, Hemisphere, Washington, 211-258, published in 1978.
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* Reprinted in Ars Semiotica III, 93-127, Amsterdam, John Benjamin, 1980.
* Invited Address to IFIP World Congress in Tokyo and Melbourne.
* Vol XI, Progress in Cybernetics and Systems Research, 1982, 421-432, Hemisphere and John Wiley.
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* Progress in Cybernetics and Systems Research, 1982, 407-420, Hemisphere and John Wiley.
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* Includes Cybernetics of Cybernetics, available in reduced paperback form from Intersciences Publications, Seaside, California.
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* In School of Information Science Reports, Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, 1973.
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Footnotes

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Further reading

* Bird, J., and Di Paolo, E. A., (2008) Gordon Pask and his maverick machines. In P. Husbands, M. Wheeler, O. Holland (eds), ''The Mechanical Mind in History'', Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, pp. 185 – 211.
* Barnes, G. (1994) "Justice, Love and Wisdom" Medicinska Naklada, Zagreb .
* Glanville, R. and Scott, B. (2001). "About Gordon Pask", Special double issue of Kybernetes, Gordon Pask, Remembered and Celebrated, Part I, 30, 5/6, pp. 507–508.
* Green, N. (2004). "Axioms from Interactions of Actors Theory", Kybernetes, 33, 9/10, pp. 1433–1462
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* Glanville, R. (ed.) (1993). ''Gordon Pask—A Festschrift'' Systems Research, 10, 3.
* Pangaro, P. (1987). ''An Examination and Confirmation of a Macro Theory of Conversations through a Realization of the Protologic Lp by Microscopic Simulation'

* Margit Rosen: "The control of control" – Gordon Pasks kybernetische Ästhetik. In: Ranulph Glanville, Albert Müller (eds.): Pask Present. Cat. of exhib. Atelier Färbergasse, Vienna, 2008, pp. 130–191.
* Scott, B. and Glanville G. (eds.) (2001). ''Special double issue of Kybernetes, Gordon Pask, Remembered and Celebrated'', Part I, 30, 5/6.
* Scott, B. and Glanville G. (eds.) (2001). ''Special double issue of Kybernetes, Gordon Pask, Remembered and Celebrated'', Part II, 30, 7/8.
* Scott, B. (ed. and commentary) (2011). "Gordon Pask: ''The Cybernetics of Self-Organisation, Learning and Evolution Papers 1960–1972''" pp 64

(2011).

External links

Pask: Biography
at International Federation for Systems Research
Biography
at George Washington University
PDFs of Pask's books and key papers at pangaro.comPask archiveConversation theory
* ttp://cyberneticians.com/index.html#pan QuickTime videos of Paul Pangaro teaching Cybernetics and Pask's Entailment Meshes at Stanfordbr>QuickTime clip of Pask on Entailment Meshes

* ttp://nickgreencyb.co.uk/PIA2.PDF Nick Green. (2004). "Axioms from Interactions of Actors Theory"''Kybernetes'', vol.33, no. 9/10, pp. 1433–1455.

Thomas Dreher: History of Computer Art
chap. II.3.1.1 Gordon Pask's "Musicolour System", chap. II.3.2.3 Gordon Pask's "Colloquy of Mobiles".

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1996 deaths
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