Mongolian script The traditional Mongolian script, also known as the Hudum Mongol bichig, was the first Mongolian alphabet, writing system created specifically for the Mongolian language, and was the most widespread until the introduction of Cyrillic script, Cy ...

Ilkhanate The Ilkhanate or Il-khanate was a Mongol khanate founded in the southwestern territories of the Mongol Empire. It was ruled by the Il-Khans or Ilkhanids (), and known to the Mongols as ''Hülegü Ulus'' (). The Ilkhanid realm was officially known ...

Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...

Buddhist Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...

Tibetan Tibetan may mean: * of, from, or related to Tibet * Tibetan people, an ethnic group * Tibetan language: ** Classical Tibetan, the classical language used also as a contemporary written standard ** Standard Tibetan, the most widely used spoken dial ...

Abaqa Abaqa Khan (27 February 1234 – 4 April 1282, , "paternal uncle", also transliterated Abaġa), was the second Mongol ruler ('' Ilkhan'') of the Ilkhanate. The son of Hulagu Khan and Lady Yesünčin and the grandson of Tolui, he reigned from 1265 ...

Jazira Jazira, al-Jazira, Jazeera, al-Jazeera, etc. are all transcriptions of Arabic language, Arabic meaning "the island" or "the peninsula". The term may refer to: Business *Jazeera Airways, an airlines company based in Kuwait Locations * Al-Jazir ...

Tekuder Ahmed Tekuder (; ; 10 August 1284), also known as Sultan Ahmad, was the sultan of the Ilkhanate from 1282 to 1284. He was a son of Hulegu and brother of Abaqa. He was eventually succeeded by his nephew Arghun Khan. Early life Tekuder was bor ...

Arghun Arghun Khan ( Mongolian Cyrillic: Аргун; Traditional Mongolian: ; c. 1258 – 10 March 1291) was the fourth ruler of the Mongol empire's Ilkhanate division, from 1284 to 1291. He was the son of Abaqa Khan, and like his father, was a de ...

Khorasan KhorasanDabeersiaghi, Commentary on Safarnâma-e Nâsir Khusraw, 6th Ed. Tehran, Zavvâr: 1375 (Solar Hijri Calendar) 235–236 (; , ) is a historical eastern region in the Iranian Plateau in West and Central Asia that encompasses western and no ...

Anatolia Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...

Qonqurtai Qonqurtai () was a Mongol prince and viceroy of Anatolia for the Ilkhanate khanate. Life Qonqurtai was born to Hulagu Khan and Ajuja Aguchi, his Khitan people, Khitan Concubinage, concubine wife. Qonqurtai was Hulagu's ninth son and was the seni ...

Erzincan Erzincan (; ), historically Yerznka (), is the capital of Erzincan Province in eastern Turkey. Nearby cities include Erzurum, Sivas, Tunceli, Bingöl, Elazığ, Malatya, Gümüşhane, Bayburt, and Giresun. The city is majority Turkish Sunni w ...

Persian Persian may refer to: * People and things from Iran, historically called ''Persia'' in the English language ** Persians, the majority ethnic group in Iran, not to be conflated with the Iranic peoples ** Persian language, an Iranian language of the ...

Turkish Turkish may refer to: * Something related to Turkey ** Turkish language *** Turkish alphabet ** Turkish people, a Turkic ethnic group and nation *** Turkish citizen, a citizen of Turkey *** Turkish communities in the former Ottoman Empire * The w ...

Padishah Khatun Safwat al-Din Khatun (1256–1295 ,), otherwise known as Padishah Khatun (), was the ruler of Kirman from 1292 until 1295 as a member of the Qutlugh-Khanid dynasty in Persia and a poet in Persian language. Life She was born in 125 ...

Qutlugh-Khanids The Qutlugh-Khanids (, otherwise known as the Qutlugh-Khanid dynasty, Kirmanid dynasty, or very rarely as the Later Western Liao) was a culturally Persianate dynasty of ethnic Khitan origin that ruled over Kirman (in present-day Kerman Province, ...

Masud II Ghiyath al-Dīn Me’sud ibn Kaykaus or Mesud II (, ''Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Mas'ūd bin Kaykāwūs''; , ) bore the title of Sultan of Rûm at various times between 1284 and 1308. He was a vassal of the Mongols under Mahmud Ghazan and exercised no real ...

Karamanids The Karamanids ( or ), also known as the Emirate of Karaman and Beylik of Karaman (), was a Turkish people, Turkish Anatolian beyliks, Anatolian beylik (principality) of Salur tribe origin, descended from Oghuz Turks, centered in South-Centra ...

Cilician Armenia The Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, also known as Cilician Armenia, Lesser Armenia, Little Armenia or New Armenia, and formerly known as the Armenian Principality of Cilicia, was an Armenians, Armenian state formed during the High Middle Ages b ...

Güneri of Karaman Güneri of Karaman was the third bey of Karaman Beylik, a Turkish principality in Anatolia in the 13th century. His father was Karaman Bey. After his elder brother Mehmet I was executed by the Mongols in 1277, he became the leader of the ...

Cilician Kingdom The Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, also known as Cilician Armenia, Lesser Armenia, Little Armenia or New Armenia, and formerly known as the Armenian Principality of Cilicia, was an Armenian state formed during the High Middle Ages by Armenian ...

Karaman Karaman is a city in south central Turkey, located in Central Anatolia, north of the Taurus Mountains, about south of Konya. It is the seat of Karaman Province and Karaman District. forcing Güneri to retreat to mountains. Gaykhatu's viceroyalty was briefly interrupted by appointment of

Samagar Samagar, also Cemakar, was a Mongol general of the Il-Khan ruler Abaqa Khan (1234–1282), mentioned as leading a Mongol invasion force in 1271, in attempted coordination with the Ninth Crusade. Background Little is known about Samagar, but he ...

from 1289 to 1290. He resumed his activities when Samagar was arrested on 15 October 1290 in

Tokat Tokat is a city of Turkey in the mid-Black Sea region of Anatolia. It is the seat of Tokat Province and Tokat District.

on charges of corruption and was sent back to Iran. Gaykhatu visited

Konya Konya is a major city in central Turkey, on the southwestern edge of the Central Anatolian Plateau, and is the capital of Konya Province. During antiquity and into Seljuk times it was known as Iconium. In 19th-century accounts of the city in En ...

on 3 January 1291, confirming appointment of his new tax officer Khwaja Nasir ud-Din and conduction of a new general census.

Reign

Gaykhatu heard of Arghun's death in his wintering pastures near

Antalya Antalya is the fifth-most populous city in Turkey and the capital of Antalya Province. Recognized as the "capital of tourism" in Turkey and a pivotal part of the Turkish Riviera, Antalya sits on Anatolia's southwest coast, flanked by the Tau ...

from Lagzi Küregen (son of

Arghun Aqa Arghun Agha, also Arghun Aqa or Arghun the Elder (; ; - 1275) was a Mongol noble of the Oirat clan in the 13th century. He was a governor in the Mongol-controlled area of Persia from 1243 to 1255, before the Ilkhanate was created by Hulagu. Ar ...

and in-law of

Hulagu Khan Hulegu Khan, also known as Hülegü or Hulagu; ; ; ; ( 8 February 1265), was a Mongol ruler who conquered much of Western Asia. As a son of Tolui and the Keraite princess Sorghaghtani Beki, he was a grandson of Genghis Khan and brother of ...

). The main contenders for the throne were his nephew

Ghazan Mahmud Ghazan (5 November 1271 – 11 May 1304) (, Ghazan Khan, sometimes westernized as Casanus was the seventh ruler of the Mongol Empire's Ilkhanate division in modern-day Iran from 1295 to 1304. He was the son of Arghun, grandson of Abaqa K ...

and cousin

Baydu Baydu (Mongolian script:; ) (died 1295) was the sixth ruler of the Mongol empire's Ilkhanate division in Iran. He was the son of Taraqai, who was in turn the fifth son of Hulagu Khan.Stevens, John. ''The history of Persia. Containing, the lives and ...

. Baydu was nominated for the throne by an influential Mongol commander,

Ta'achar Taghachar, also spelled Tajir, Ta'achar (, ; died c. 1296) was a commander in the Mongol Empire's army. He was one of the conspirators involved in the overthrow of three Ilkhanate khans, and placed the short-lived Baydu on the throne in 1295. Ba ...

, who had sent an envoy to Gaykhatu falsely announcing that Baydu had already taken the throne. Suspicious, Gaykhatu headed to the kurultai. While nobles like

Taghachar Taghachar, also spelled Tajir, Ta'achar (, ; died c. 1296) was a commander in the Mongol Empire's army. He was one of the conspirators involved in the overthrow of three Ilkhanate khans, and placed the short-lived Baydu on the throne in 1295. Ba ...

, Qoncuqbal, Toghan and Tuqal supported Baydu, historians suggest Baydu simply refused the throne stating it belonged to the brother or a son according to

yassa The Yassa (alternatively ''Yasa'', ''Yasaq'', ''Jazag'' or ''Zasag''; ) was the oral law code of the Mongols, gradually built up through the reign of Genghis Khan. It was the '' de facto'' law of the Mongol Empire, even though the "law" was kep ...

. Another source, Mahmud Aqsarai said that Baydu didn't appear at the ''

kurultai A kurultai (, ),Derived from Russian language, Russian , ultimately from Middle Mongol ( ), whence Chinese language, Chinese 忽里勒台 ''Hūlǐlēitái'' (); ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; (). also called a qurultai, was a political and military counc ...

'' at all. The other contender to the throne, Ghazan, was engaged in a rebellion with Nawrūz (another son of

Arghun Aqa Arghun Agha, also Arghun Aqa or Arghun the Elder (; ; - 1275) was a Mongol noble of the Oirat clan in the 13th century. He was a governor in the Mongol-controlled area of Persia from 1243 to 1255, before the Ilkhanate was created by Hulagu. Ar ...

), and couldn't attend the kurultai either, thus losing a bid to throne. As a consequence, Gaykhatu was elected il-khan on 23 July 1291,

Ahlat Ahlat (; ) is a town in Turkey's Bitlis Province in Eastern Anatolia Region. It is the seat of Ahlat District.Öljaitü Öljaitü, also known as Mohammad-e Khodabandeh (24 March 1282 – 16 December 1316), was the eighth Ilkhanid dynasty ruler from 1304 to 1316 in Tabriz, Iran. His name 'Öjaitü' means 'blessed' in the Mongolian language and his last name 'Khod ...

. His first orders upon taking throne was to punish several emirs including

Taghachar Taghachar, also spelled Tajir, Ta'achar (, ; died c. 1296) was a commander in the Mongol Empire's army. He was one of the conspirators involved in the overthrow of three Ilkhanate khans, and placed the short-lived Baydu on the throne in 1295. Ba ...

and Tuqal. Taghachar's (or in some sources, Qoncuqbal's) 10.000 army was given to Shiktur Noyan of

Jalairs Jalair (; ; ), also Djalair, Yyalair, Jalayir, is one of the Darliqin Mongol tribes according to Rashid-al-Din Hamadani's ''Jami' al-tawarikh''.They lived along the Orkhon River in modern day Central Mongolia.History of Mongolia, Volume II, 2003 ...

, while Tuqal's army was given to an amir named Narin Ahmad. Another Baydu supporter, Toghan was arrested on his way to escape to Khorasan. Meanwhile, a rebellion by Turkmen emirs started in Anatolia, Gaykhatu had to move into his former domains, appointing Shiktur Noyan as regent of the state while confirming Anbarchi (son of Möngke Temür) as viceroy of East stationed in

Ray Ray or RAY may refer to: Fish * Ray (fish), any cartilaginous fish of the superorder Batoidea * Ray (fish fin anatomy), the bony or horny spine on ray-finned fish Science and mathematics * Half-line (geometry) or ray, half of a line split at an ...

.

Rebellion of Afrasiyab

Hazaraspid The Hazaraspids also known as Fadluyids or Fadlawi, Fazlavi dynasty(1115–1424) were a Kurdish Sunni Muslim dynasty that ruled the Zagros Mountains region of southwestern Iran, essentially in Lorestan and which flourished in the later Saljuq, ...

ruler Afrasiab I took the opportunity to extend his rule to

Isfahan Isfahan or Esfahan ( ) is a city in the Central District (Isfahan County), Central District of Isfahan County, Isfahan province, Iran. It is the capital of the province, the county, and the district. It is located south of Tehran. The city ...

upon hearing of Arghun's death in 1291. Gaykhatu's retribution was brutal, sending a commander of his personal ''

keshig Kheshig ( Mongolian: ; also Khishig, Keshik, Khishigten; "mugay", "blessed") were the imperial guard and shock troops for Mongol royalty in the Mongol Empire, particularly for rulers like Genghis Khan and his wife Börte. Their primary purpose w ...

'' Tuladai to pillage Lorestan who obtained Afrasiab's submission. Gaykhatu's wives

Padshah Padishah (; ) is a superlative sovereign title of Persian origin. A form of the word is known already from Middle Persian (or Pahlavi) as ''pātaxšā(h)'' or ''pādixšā(y)''. Middle Persian ''pād'' may stem from Avestan ''paiti'', and is ...

and Uruk interceded on behalf of Afrasiab, asking for forgiveness. As a consequence, while Afrasiab was reinstated as ruler of

Lorestan Lorestan province () is one of the 31 provinces of Iran. Its capital is the city of Khorramabad. Lorestan is in the western part of the country in the Zagros Mountains and covers an area of 28,392 km2. In 2014 it was placed in Region ...

, his brother Ahmad was held at Ilkhanid court as hostage.

Campaign in Anatolia

Gaykhatu left for Anatolia in pursuit of the Karamanids who were besieging Konya on 31 August 1291 with 20.000 men. Despite

Konya Konya is a major city in central Turkey, on the southwestern edge of the Central Anatolian Plateau, and is the capital of Konya Province. During antiquity and into Seljuk times it was known as Iconium. In 19th-century accounts of the city in En ...

was enforced by a brother of

Masud II Ghiyath al-Dīn Me’sud ibn Kaykaus or Mesud II (, ''Ghiyāth ad-Dīn Mas'ūd bin Kaykāwūs''; , ) bore the title of Sultan of Rûm at various times between 1284 and 1308. He was a vassal of the Mongols under Mahmud Ghazan and exercised no real ...

and

Sahib Ataids Sahib Ataids ( Modern Turkish: ''Sâhipataoğulları'' or ''Sâhipataoğulları Beyliği'') was a Turkish Anatolian beylik (principality) centred in Kara Hisar-i Sâhib (Afyonkarahisar) and founded by one of the last viziers of the Seljuk Sult ...

, the Karamanids didn't leave until Gaykhatu's arrival at

Kayseri Kayseri () is a large List of cities in Turkey, city in Central Anatolia, Turkey, and the capital of Kayseri Province, Kayseri province. Historically known as Caesarea (Mazaca), Caesarea, it has been the historical capital of Cappadocia since anc ...

. Gaykhatu divided his army into two, sending a part to

Menteshe __NOTOC__ Menteshe (, ) was the first of the Turkish Anatolian beyliks (principality), the frontier principalities established by the Oghuz Turks after the decline of the Seljuk Sultanate of Rum. Founded in 1260/1290, it was named for its found ...

, while he himself raided the Karamanid capital Ereğli. His next target was Eshrefid beylik to the west, from whom he captured 7000 women and children, sending them to Konya. After returning to Kayseri, he sent Goktai and Girai

noyan ''Noyan'' (pl. noyad), or ''Toyon'', was a Central Asian title of authority which was used to refer to civil-military leaders of noble ancestry in the Central Asian Khanates with origins in ''Noyon'', which was used as a title of authority in ...

s to punish former supporters of

Kilij Arslan IV Kilij Arslan IV () or Rukn ad-Dīn Qilij Arslān ibn Kaykhusraw (, ) was twice the Seljuk Sultan of Rûm from 1249 to 1254 and later from 1257 to 1266. However, a jarlig issued by Güyük Khan Güyük Khan or Güyüg Khagan, mononymously Gü ...

in northern Anatolia accompanied by Seljuk armies. Using this opportunity, the Karamanids and Eshrefids again besieged Konya, but withdrew their armies when

Henry II of Cyprus Henry II (June 1270 – 31 March 1324) was the last crowned Kingdom of Jerusalem, King of Jerusalem (after the fall of Acre on 28 May 1291, this title became empty) and also ruled as Kingdom of Cyprus, King of Cyprus. He was of the Lusignan ...

besieged

Alaiye Alaiye () is the medieval Seljuq name for Alanya (on the southern coast of Turkey). It refers to the Turkish city-state in a specific period and the beylik (principality) which developed around there, at times under the Karamanid dynasty. After ...

with 15 ships. Gaykhatu continued on to capture Denizli and looted the city for 3 days. Masud also went on to fight against Kilij Arslan who was supported by Masud's brothers Faramurz and Kayumars in addition to the

Chobanids The Chobanids or the Chupanids () were descendants of a Mongol family of the Suldus clan that came to prominence in 14th century Persian Empire, Persia. At first serving under the Ilkhans, they took ''de facto'' control of the territory after the ...

. Gaykhatu sent an additional 3000 men with commanders Goktai, Girai and Anit. It was Girai and Temür Yaman Jandar who rescued Masud II from Turkmen captivity. Temür Yaman Jandar was granted the former Chobanid city of

Kastamonu Kastamonu, formerly Kastamone/Castamone () and Kastamon/Castamon (), is a city in northern Turkey. It is the seat of Kastamonu Province and Kastamonu District.

by Gaykhatu as an

iqta An iqta () and occasionally iqtaʿa () was an Islamic practice of farming out tax revenues yielded by land granted temporarily to army officials in place of a regular wage; it became common in the Muslim empire of the Caliphate. Iqta has been defi ...

due to this service. Gaykhatu Farman

Return to Iran

Gaykhatu spent 11 months in the Anatolian campaign and went back to Iran in May/June 1292. His absence in Iran was followed by a conspiracy led by

Taghachar Taghachar, also spelled Tajir, Ta'achar (, ; died c. 1296) was a commander in the Mongol Empire's army. He was one of the conspirators involved in the overthrow of three Ilkhanate khans, and placed the short-lived Baydu on the throne in 1295. Ba ...

and his follower Sad al-Din Zanjani. They falsely informed viceroy Anbarchi - via Sad al-Din's brother Qutb al-Din, who was Anbarchi's vizier - of Gaykhatu's defeat by Turkmens in Anatolia and called him to take the throne. While ambitious, Anbarchi regarded this news with suspicion. After contacting Shiktur Noyan who was residing near Karachal, Anbarchi had them imprisoned by Shiktur. Gaykhatu arrived at Aladagh on 29 June 1292, had a second enthronement, possibly receiving a confirmation from Kublai Khagan. Upon returning, Gaykhatu allowed his wife Padishah Khatun's to gain Kirman in October 1292. He pardoned both Taghachar and Sad al-Din Zanjani, even appointing the latter to the post of vizier on 18 November 1292 while confirming his father-in-law Aq Buqa Jalair as commander-in-chief. Shiktur and Taghachar were subordinated to him. Sad al-Din also managed to get his brother Qutb al-Din to be appointed as governor of

Tabriz Tabriz (; ) is a city in the Central District (Tabriz County), Central District of Tabriz County, in the East Azerbaijan province, East Azerbaijan province of northwestern Iran. It serves as capital of the province, the county, and the distric ...

. Amassing huge amount of power and wealth in his hand, Sad al-Din became the real ruler of the

Ilkhanate The Ilkhanate or Il-khanate was a Mongol khanate founded in the southwestern territories of the Mongol Empire. It was ruled by the Il-Khans or Ilkhanids (), and known to the Mongols as ''Hülegü Ulus'' (). The Ilkhanid realm was officially known ...

with personal army of 10.000, while gaining certain enemies as well. Former emirs Hasan and Taiju attempted to accuse him of embezzlement of state funds unsuccessfully. In 1292, Gaykhatu sent a message to the

Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...

ian

Mamluk Mamluk or Mamaluk (; (singular), , ''mamālīk'' (plural); translated as "one who is owned", meaning "slave") were non-Arab, ethnically diverse (mostly Turkic, Caucasian, Eastern and Southeastern European) enslaved mercenaries, slave-so ...

Sultan Sultan (; ', ) is a position with several historical meanings. Originally, it was an Arabic abstract noun meaning "strength", "authority", "rulership", derived from the verbal noun ', meaning "authority" or "power". Later, it came to be use ...

Al-Ashraf Khalil Al-Malik Al-Ashraf Salāh ad-Dīn Khalil ibn Qalawūn (; c. 1260s – 14 December 1293) was the eighth Turkic Bahri dynasty, Bahri Mamluk Sultanate, Mamluk sultan, succeeding his father Qalawun. He served from 12 November 1290 until his assassi ...

, threatening to conquer the whole of the

Levant The Levant ( ) is the subregion that borders the Eastern Mediterranean, Eastern Mediterranean sea to the west, and forms the core of West Asia and the political term, Middle East, ''Middle East''. In its narrowest sense, which is in use toda ...

if he didn't return

Aleppo Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...

. Al-Ashraf replied: "''The khan has the same ideas as me. I too hope to bring back Baghdad to the fold of

Islam Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...

as previously. We will see which of us two will be quicker''". However, there were no major battles between Mongols and Mamluks afterwards. During his reign, the princess Kökötchin arrived from the court of his Khagan

Kublai Kublai Khan (23 September 1215 – 18 February 1294), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Shizu of Yuan and his regnal name Setsen Khan, was the founder and first List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty, emperor of the Mongols, Mongol-l ...

in 1293, escorted by

Marco Polo Marco Polo (; ; ; 8 January 1324) was a Republic of Venice, Venetian merchant, explorer and writer who travelled through Asia along the Silk Road between 1271 and 1295. His travels are recorded in ''The Travels of Marco Polo'' (also known a ...

. The new Ilkhan decreed that the princess be married to his nephew

Ghazan Mahmud Ghazan (5 November 1271 – 11 May 1304) (, Ghazan Khan, sometimes westernized as Casanus was the seventh ruler of the Mongol Empire's Ilkhanate division in modern-day Iran from 1295 to 1304. He was the son of Arghun, grandson of Abaqa K ...

, who had fully supported his right to rule. Ghazan on the other hand sent a tiger to Gaykhatu as an answer. Marco Polo and his entourage stayed with Gaykhatu for nine months. The

Golden Horde The Golden Horde, self-designated as ''Ulug Ulus'' ( in Turkic) was originally a Mongols, Mongol and later Turkicized khanate established in the 13th century and originating as the northwestern sector of the Mongol Empire. With the division of ...

khan

Toqta Tokhta (also spelled Toqta, Toktu, Tokhtai, Tochtu or Tokhtogha; died ) was Khan of the Golden Horde from 1291 to 1312. He was a son of Mengu-Timur and a great-grandson of Batu Khan. His name "Tokhtokh" means "hold/holding" in the Mongolian ...

, who ascended the throne at the same time as Gaykhatu, sent Prince Qalintay and Pulad as envoys to the Ilkhanate on 28 March 1294 to make a truce and possibly ask for help against Toqta's rivals. They returned to Golden Horde three days later.

Introduction of paper money

In 1294, Gaykhatu wanted to replenish his treasury emptied by a great cattle plague. In response, his

vizier A vizier (; ; ) is a high-ranking political advisor or Minister (government), minister in the Near East. The Abbasids, Abbasid caliphs gave the title ''wazir'' to a minister formerly called ''katib'' (secretary), who was at first merely a help ...

Sad al-Din Zanjani proposed the introduction of a recent Chinese invention called ''

Jiaochao Jiaochao () is a Chinese word for banknote first used for the currency of the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty and later by the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China. Jin dynasty The Jurchens swept control over northern China, conquering the Liao dynasty ...

'' (

paper money Paper money, often referred to as a note or a bill (North American English), is a type of negotiable promissory note that is payable to the bearer on demand, making it a form of currency. The main types of paper money are government notes, which ...

). Gaykhatu agreed and called for

Bolad Bolad ( Mongolian: , , , d.1313), was an ethnic Mongol minister of the Yuan dynasty of China, and later served in the Ilkhanate as the representative of the Great Khan of the Mongol Empire and cultural adviser to the Ilkhans. He also provided val ...

, the ambassador of

Kublai Kublai Khan (23 September 1215 – 18 February 1294), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Shizu of Yuan and his regnal name Setsen Khan, was the founder and first List of emperors of the Yuan dynasty, emperor of the Mongols, Mongol-l ...

(Emperor Shizu) of

Yuan China The Yuan dynasty ( ; zh, c=元朝, p=Yuáncháo), officially the Great Yuan (; Mongolian: , , literally 'Great Yuan State'), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after its division. It was ...

in

Tabriz Tabriz (; ) is a city in the Central District (Tabriz County), Central District of Tabriz County, in the East Azerbaijan province, East Azerbaijan province of northwestern Iran. It serves as capital of the province, the county, and the distric ...

. After Bolad explained how the system worked, Gaykhatu printed banknotes which imitated the Chinese ones so closely that they even had Chinese words printed on them. The

Muslim Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...

confession of faith was printed on the banknotes to placate local sentiment. Gaykhatu's Buddhist name Rinchindorj was also present on money. Shiktur Noyan objected to introduction, calling this a foul attempt. First circulation started on 12 September 1294 in

Tabriz Tabriz (; ) is a city in the Central District (Tabriz County), Central District of Tabriz County, in the East Azerbaijan province, East Azerbaijan province of northwestern Iran. It serves as capital of the province, the county, and the distric ...

. Gaykhatu ordered anyone who is going to refuse to use money to be executed on the spot. Poets, including

Wassaf Abdallah ibn Faḍlallah Sharaf al-Din Shīrāzī (; 1265–1328), called Wassaf or Vassaf, was a Persian historian of the Ilkhanate. ''Waṣṣāf'', sometimes lengthened to ''Waṣṣāf al-Ḥaḍrat'' or ''Vassaf-e Hazrat'' (), is a title me ...

started to praise chao in order to appease Gaykhatu. Paper moneys circulated were worth from half

dirham The dirham, dirhem or drahm is a unit of currency and of mass. It is the name of the currencies of Moroccan dirham, Morocco, the United Arab Emirates dirham, United Arab Emirates and Armenian dram, Armenia, and is the name of a currency subdivisi ...

to 10 dananeer ( plural of dinar ). The plan was to get his subjects to use only paper money, and allow Gaykhatu to control the treasury. The experiment was a complete failure, as the people and merchants refused to accept the banknotes. Soon,

bazaar A bazaar or souk is a marketplace consisting of multiple small Market stall, stalls or shops, especially in the Middle East, the Balkans, Central Asia, North Africa and South Asia. They are traditionally located in vaulted or covered streets th ...

riots broke out, economic activities came to a standstill, and the Persian historian Rashid ud-din speaks even of "'the ruin of

Basra Basra () is a port city in Iraq, southern Iraq. It is the capital of the eponymous Basra Governorate, as well as the List of largest cities of Iraq, third largest city in Iraq overall, behind Baghdad and Mosul. Located near the Iran–Iraq bor ...

' which ensued upon the emission of the new money". Gaykhatu had no choice but to withdraw the use of paper money. Assassinat de Geikhatu

Revolt of Baydu

Gaykhatu insulted

Baydu Baydu (Mongolian script:; ) (died 1295) was the sixth ruler of the Mongol empire's Ilkhanate division in Iran. He was the son of Taraqai, who was in turn the fifth son of Hulagu Khan.Stevens, John. ''The history of Persia. Containing, the lives and ...

telling one of his servants to hit Baydu while being drunk. This grew a resentment in Baydu towards him. Baydu left hastily towards to his appanage near

Baghdad Baghdad ( or ; , ) is the capital and List of largest cities of Iraq, largest city of Iraq, located along the Tigris in the central part of the country. With a population exceeding 7 million, it ranks among the List of largest cities in the A ...

leaving his son Qipchak as a hostage in Gaykhatu's court. He was supported by Oirat emir Chichak (son of Sulaimish b. Tengiz Güregen), Lagzi Küregen (son of

Arghun Aqa Arghun Agha, also Arghun Aqa or Arghun the Elder (; ; - 1275) was a Mongol noble of the Oirat clan in the 13th century. He was a governor in the Mongol-controlled area of Persia from 1243 to 1255, before the Ilkhanate was created by Hulagu. Ar ...

), El-Temur (son of Hinduqur Noyan) and Todachu Yarquchi, who followed him to Baghdad. He was also aided by his vizier Jamal ud-Din Dastgerdani. According to Hamdullah Qazwini, Baydu's main motivation on moving against Gaykhatu was his sexual advances against Qipchak. When son-in-law Ghurbatai Güregen brought him news of treachery, Gaykhatu ordered arrest of several amirs including his personal ''

keshig Kheshig ( Mongolian: ; also Khishig, Keshik, Khishigten; "mugay", "blessed") were the imperial guard and shock troops for Mongol royalty in the Mongol Empire, particularly for rulers like Genghis Khan and his wife Börte. Their primary purpose w ...

'' Tuladai, Qoncuqbal, Tukal, Bughdai, including Kipchak and put into jail in

Tabriz Tabriz (; ) is a city in the Central District (Tabriz County), Central District of Tabriz County, in the East Azerbaijan province, East Azerbaijan province of northwestern Iran. It serves as capital of the province, the county, and the distric ...

. While his followers Hasan and Taiju demanded their executions,

Taghachar Taghachar, also spelled Tajir, Ta'achar (, ; died c. 1296) was a commander in the Mongol Empire's army. He was one of the conspirators involved in the overthrow of three Ilkhanate khans, and placed the short-lived Baydu on the throne in 1295. Ba ...

advised against it. Baydu on his side, moved to kill Muhammad Sugurchi, governor of Baghdad and arrested governor Baybuqa of

Diyar Bakr Diyar Bakr () is the medieval Arabic name of the northernmost of the three provinces of the Jazira (Upper Mesopotamia), the other two being Diyar Mudar and Diyar Rabi'a. According to the medieval geographer al-Baladhuri, all three provinces were ...

. Gaykhatu sent his father-in-law Aq Buqa and Taghachar against Baydu on 17 March 1295, himself arriving at Tabriz 4 days later. Little he knew that Taghachar already shifted allegiance to Baydu who left for his encampment at night. While he wanted to flee to Anatolia, his councillors advised to fight against Baydu. Nevertheless, Gaykhatu fled to Mughan. Arriving in Tabriz, Taghachar set Qoncuqbal and Tuladai free, while Gaykhatu desperately begged for mercy. Despite his appeal, he was strangled by a bowstring so as to avoid bloodshed on 21 March 1295. However, some sources put this event on 5 March or 25 April. An alternative story of Gaykhatu's death claims

Baydu Baydu (Mongolian script:; ) (died 1295) was the sixth ruler of the Mongol empire's Ilkhanate division in Iran. He was the son of Taraqai, who was in turn the fifth son of Hulagu Khan.Stevens, John. ''The history of Persia. Containing, the lives and ...

made war on him because of his introduction of paper money and subsequently killed him in battle.

Personality

Gaykhatu was a noted dissolute who was addicted to wine, women, and sodomy, not necessarily in that order, according to Mirkhond. But he was also known for his secularism and communal harmony. Like other Buddhist kings, he used to liberally give patronage to all religions. Among his beneficiaries were the Nestorian Christians, who praise him abundantly for his gifts to the Church, as apparent in the history of Mar Yahballaha III. He was described a just and charitable ruler in

Tārikh-i Āl-i Saldjūq The ''Tārīkh-i Āl-i Saldjūq'' ("History of the Seljuk dynasty"), is an anonymous court account of the architectural endeavors of the Seljuk Sultans of Rum. Written in Persian and from a perspective of a courtier, it covers the Sultanate of Rum ...

.

Family

Gaykhatu had eight consorts from different clans: *Aisha Khatun, daughter of Toghu of Jalairs, son of Elgai Noyan **Ula Qutlugh Khatun - married to Ghurbatai Güregen of Hushin tribe **El Qutlugh Khatun - married on 7 August 1301 to Qutlughshah Noyan of

Manghud The Manghud, or Manghit (, ''Mangud;'' ) were a Mongol tribe of the Urud-Manghud federation, and a sub-clan of Borjigin, Manghuds (Mangkits or Mangits) who moved to the Desht-i Qipchaq steppe were Turkified. They established the Nogai Horde ...

s **Ara Qutlugh Khatun *Dondi Khatun (d. 9 February 1298), daughter of Aq Buqa Jalayir, son of Elgai Noyan **Alafrang (d. 30 May 1304) - married to Nani Aghachi after death of Gaykhatu ***

Jahan Temür Jahan Temür was a Jalayirid puppet for the throne of the Ilkhanate in the late 1330s. Life He was son of Alafrang and the grandson of Gaykhatu and Jalayirid Dondi Khatun. His family had fallen out favor after Ghazan's ascension to the throne. Hi ...

***A daughter — married to Eljidai Quschi (d. 4 October 1295) **Iranshah **Qutlugh Malik Khatun (d. 1338) - married firstly to Qurumshi, son of

Alinaq Alinaq Noyan (died 1289) was a commander of the Il-Khanate and a Commander of Georgia. He was the son-in-law of the Il-Khanid ruler Tekuder. He may have been a son of Tügür Bitigchi, a commander of Hulegu. Alinaq led a military campaign on h ...

, married secondly to Muhammad, son of Chichak and Tödegech Khatun *Eltuzmish Khatun, daughter of Qutlugh Timur Güregen of

Khongirad The Khongirad (; ; ; ) was one of the major divisions of the Mongol tribes. Their homeland was located in the vicinity of Hulun Lake, Lake Hulun in Inner Mongolia and Khalkha River in Mongolia,M. Sanjdorj, History of the Mongolian People's Repub ...

, widow of

Abaqa Abaqa Khan (27 February 1234 – 4 April 1282, , "paternal uncle", also transliterated Abaġa), was the second Mongol ruler ('' Ilkhan'') of the Ilkhanate. The son of Hulagu Khan and Lady Yesünčin and the grandson of Tolui, he reigned from 1265 ...

*

Padishah Khatun Safwat al-Din Khatun (1256–1295 ,), otherwise known as Padishah Khatun (), was the ruler of Kirman from 1292 until 1295 as a member of the Qutlugh-Khanid dynasty in Persia and a poet in Persian language. Life She was born in 125 ...

(executed 1295), daughter of Qutb-ud-din, ruler of Kerman and

Kutlugh Turkan Kutlugh Turkan (c.1208/1213 – 1283), was a sovereign ruler of Kirman from 1257 until 1282. Early life Different accounts exist regarding her early life. According to "History of Qara-Khitai Shahs" (''Tāriḵ-e šāhi-e Qarāḵtāʾiān'' ...

, widow of Abaqa *Uruk Khatun, daughter of Saricha of

Keraites The Keraites (also ''Kerait, Kereit, Khereid'', Kazakh: керейт; Kyrgyz: керей; Mongolian: Хэрэйд; Nogai: Кереит; Uzbek: ''Kerait''; Chinese: 克烈) were one of the five dominant Turco-Mongol tribal confederations ...

, widow of

Arghun Arghun Khan ( Mongolian Cyrillic: Аргун; Traditional Mongolian: ; c. 1258 – 10 March 1291) was the fourth ruler of the Mongol empire's Ilkhanate division, from 1284 to 1291. He was the son of Abaqa Khan, and like his father, was a de ...

Khan *Bulughan Khatun (m. 1292, died 5 January 1310), daughter of Otman, nephew of Abatai Noyan of

Khongirad The Khongirad (; ; ; ) was one of the major divisions of the Mongol tribes. Their homeland was located in the vicinity of Hulun Lake, Lake Hulun in Inner Mongolia and Khalkha River in Mongolia,M. Sanjdorj, History of the Mongolian People's Repub ...

, and widow of Arghun *Nani Agachi **Chin Pulad *Esan Khatun, daughter of Beglamish, brother of Ujan of Arulat

In popular culture

In the

Turkish TV series Turkish drama () is a type of television series in the Turkish language made in Turkey. These dramas reflect Turkish culture and considered by some to be the country's most well-known economic and cultural exports. It has seen significant growth ...

'' Kuruluş: Osman,'' he is portrayed as an antagonist by the Uzbek actor, Maruf Otajonov. Although Gaykhatu historically died in his thirties, in the series he is portrayed as an old person.

References

Sources

*Atwood, Christopher P. (2004). ''The Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire''. Facts on File, Inc. . *

René Grousset René Grousset (; 5 September 1885 – 12 September 1952) was a French historian who was curator of both the Cernuschi Museum and the Guimet Museum in Paris and a member of the prestigious Académie française. He wrote several major works on ...

, ''Empire of the Steppes: A History of Central Asia'', 1939 * Luisetto, Frédéric, "Arméniens et autres Chrétiens d'Orient sous la domination Mongole", Geuthner, 2007,

External links

Women in power (1250-1300)
{{Mongol Empire 1295 deaths Il-Khan emperors 13th-century monarchs in Asia Year of birth unknown Mongolian Buddhist monarchs Murdered Persian monarchs

Early life

Rule in Anatolia

Reign

Rebellion of Afrasiyab

Campaign in Anatolia

Return to Iran

Introduction of paper money

Revolt of Baydu

Personality

Family

In popular culture

References

Sources

External links