Frederika Bremer
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Fredrika Bremer (17 August 1801 â€“ 31 December 1865) was a Finnish-born
Swedish Swedish or ' may refer to: Anything from or related to Sweden, a country in Northern Europe. Or, specifically: * Swedish language, a North Germanic language spoken primarily in Sweden and Finland ** Swedish alphabet, the official alphabet used by ...
writer A writer is a person who uses written words in different writing styles, genres and techniques to communicate ideas, to inspire feelings and emotions, or to entertain. Writers may develop different forms of writing such as novels, short sto ...
and reformer. Her ''Sketches of Everyday Life'' were wildly popular in Britain and the United States during the 1840s and 1850s and she is regarded as the Swedish
Jane Austen Jane Austen ( ; 16 December 1775 â€“ 18 July 1817) was an English novelist known primarily for #List of works, her six novels, which implicitly interpret, critique, and comment on the English landed gentry at the end of the 18th century ...
, bringing the realist novel to prominence in
Swedish literature Swedish literature () is the literature written in the Swedish language or by writers from Sweden. The first literary text from Sweden is the Rök runestone, carved during the Viking Age circa 800 AD. With the conversion of the land to Christi ...
. In her late 30s, she successfully petitioned King Charles XIV for
emancipation Emancipation generally means to free a person from a previous restraint or legal disability. More broadly, it is also used for efforts to procure Economic, social and cultural rights, economic and social rights, civil and political rights, po ...
from her brother's wardship; in her 50s, her novel '' Hertha'' prompted a social movement that granted all unmarried Swedish women
legal majority The age of majority is the threshold of legal adulthood as recognized or declared in law. It is the moment when a person ceases to be considered a minor, and assumes legal control over their person, actions, and decisions, thus terminating the ...
at the age of 25 and established
Högre Lärarinneseminariet The Royal Seminary, fully the Royal Advanced Female Teachers' Seminary (, abbreviated KHLS), was a normal school (teachers' college) in Stockholm, Sweden. It was active from 1861 until 1943. It was the first public institution of higher acade ...
, Sweden's first female
tertiary school Tertiary education (higher education, or post-secondary education) is the educational level following the completion of secondary education. The World Bank defines tertiary education as including universities, colleges, and vocational school ...
. It also inspired
Sophie Adlersparre Carin Sophie Adlersparre (née Leijonhufvud; 6 July 1823 – 27 June 1895), known by her pen-name Esselde, was a Swedish feminist, writer and publisher who was one of the pioneers of the 19th-century women's rights movement in Sweden. She wa ...
to begin publishing the ''
Home Review The ''Home Review'' () was a Swedish women's magazine, published from 1859 to 1885. It was the first women's magazine in the Nordic countries and its inception is sometimes regarded as the foundation of Sweden's women's movement. It was sometimes ...
'', Sweden's first
women's magazine This is a list of women's magazines from around the world. These are magazines that have been published primarily for a readership of woman, women. Currently published *''10 Magazine (UK), 10 Magazine'' (UK – distributed worldwide) *''Al Jam ...
as well as the later magazine '' Hertha''. In 1884, she became the namesake of the
Fredrika Bremer Association The Fredrika Bremer Association (, abbreviated FBF) is the oldest women's rights organisation in Sweden. The association stands for an inclusive, intersectional and progressive liberal feminism, and advocates for women's rights and LGBT rights. I ...
, the first
women's rights Women's rights are the rights and Entitlement (fair division), entitlements claimed for women and girls worldwide. They formed the basis for the women's rights movement in the 19th century and the feminist movements during the 20th and 21st c ...
organization in Sweden.


Early life

Fredrika Bremer was born into a
Swedish-speaking Finn The Swedish-speaking population of Finland (whose members are called by many names—see below; ; ) is a linguistic minority in Finland. They maintain a strong identity and are seen either as a separate cultural, ethnic or linguistic group or, ...
ish family on 17 August 1801 at Tuorla Manor in
Piikkiö Piikkiö (; ), is a List of former municipalities of Finland, former municipality of Finland. Piikkiö was consolidated with Kaarina on 1 January 2009. It is located in the provinces of Finland, province of Western Finland and is part of the Sout ...
Parish outside of
Turku Turku ( ; ; , ) is a city in Finland and the regional capital of Southwest Finland. It is located on the southwestern coast of the country at the mouth of the Aura River (Finland), River Aura. The population of Turku is approximately , while t ...
in present-day
Finland Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It borders Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of Bothnia to the west and the Gulf of Finland to the south, ...
, which at the time was part of the
Kingdom of Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and north, and Finland to the east. At , Sweden is the largest Nordic country by both area ...
. She was the second daughter of five and the second child of seven of (1770–1830) and Birgitta Charlotta Hollström (1777–1855). Her grandparents
Jacob Jacob, later known as Israel, is a Hebrew patriarch of the Abrahamic religions. He first appears in the Torah, where he is described in the Book of Genesis as a son of Isaac and Rebecca. Accordingly, alongside his older fraternal twin brother E ...
and
Ulrika Fredrika Bremer Ulrika Fredrika Bremer, née Salonius (24 April 1746 Åbo – 1 April 1798), was a ship owner and merchant in Swedish Finland. She was the paternal grandmother of Fredrika Bremer. After the death of her husband Jacob Bremer in 1785, at the age of ...
had built up one of the largest business empires in Finland but, upon his mother's death in 1798, Carl liquidated their holdings. A few years later, the Finnish theater of the
Napoleonic Wars {{Infobox military conflict , conflict = Napoleonic Wars , partof = the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars , image = Napoleonic Wars (revision).jpg , caption = Left to right, top to bottom:Battl ...
would see Finland annexed to
Russia Russia, or the Russian Federation, is a country spanning Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the list of countries and dependencies by area, largest country in the world, and extends across Time in Russia, eleven time zones, sharing Borders ...
and made into the
Grand Duchy of Finland The Grand Duchy of Finland was the predecessor state of modern Finland. It existed from 1809 to 1917 as an Autonomous region, autonomous state within the Russian Empire. Originating in the 16th century as a titular grand duchy held by the Monarc ...
. When Fredrika was three years old, the family moved to
Stockholm Stockholm (; ) is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in Sweden by population, most populous city of Sweden, as well as the List of urban areas in the Nordic countries, largest urban area in the Nordic countries. Approximately ...
. The next year, they purchased
Ã…rsta Castle Ã…rsta Castle ( Swedish: ''Ã…rsta slott'') in Haninge Municipality, Stockholm County, Sweden, is a castle built in the 17th century. The Ã…rsta estate is mentioned in 1308, when it was the base for the Swedish property of the Teutonic Order ...
, about distant from the capital. Fredrika passed the next two decades of her life summering there and at another nearby estate owned by her father, spending winter in the family's Stockholm apartment. Fredrika and her sisters were raised to marry and became socialites and hostesses within the upper class like their own French-trained mother. They were given the education then conventional for girls of their class in Sweden, with private tutors followed by a family trip through
Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...
, Switzerland,
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
, and
the Netherlands , Terminology of the Low Countries, informally Holland, is a country in Northwestern Europe, with Caribbean Netherlands, overseas territories in the Caribbean. It is the largest of the four constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Nether ...
in 1821 and 1822 before their social debuts. She was a talented miniaturist and studied
French French may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France ** French people, a nation and ethnic group ** French cuisine, cooking traditions and practices Arts and media * The French (band), ...
,
English English usually refers to: * English language * English people English may also refer to: Culture, language and peoples * ''English'', an adjective for something of, from, or related to England * ''English'', an Amish ter ...
, and
German German(s) may refer to: * Germany, the country of the Germans and German things **Germania (Roman era) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizenship in Germany, see also Ge ...
. She later recounted that she kept a diary for a few years as a girl—"a kind of moral account-current, in which each day was entered, with a short observation of ''good'', or ''bad'', or ''middling''"—but, as the yearly totals always showed the middling days' totals to be greatest, she tired of it and thereafter only kept them while traveling as notes for others. Bremer found the limited and passive family life of Swedish women of her time suffocating and frustrating and her own education was unusually strict, with rigid timetables governing her days. She described her family as "under the oppression of a male iron hand": While in Stockholm, the girls were forbidden from playing outside and took their exercise by jumping up and down while holding onto the backs of chairs. She wrote
French poetry French poetry () is a category of French literature. It may include Francophone literature, Francophone poetry composed outside France and poetry written in other languages of France. French prosody and poetics The modern French language does not ...
as early as the age of eight, but considered her time in Paris disappointing because of her father's bad temper. She was considered awkward and rebellious throughout her childhood; and one of her sisters later wrote of how she enjoyed cutting off parts of her dresses and curtains and throwing things into the fire to watch them burn.


Early adulthood

Upon her return to Sweden, she debuted into upper-class society in Stockholm and Ã…rsta but found the enforced passivity of women's life intolerable: "How quietly, like muddy water, time stands for a youth, who, during a boring and idle life, drags out her days." She was deeply touched by
Schiller Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller (, short: ; 10 November 17599 May 1805) was a German playwright, poet, philosopher and historian. Schiller is considered by most Germans to be Germany's most important classical playwright. He was born i ...
's
poems Poetry (from the Greek language, Greek word ''poiesis'', "making") is a form of literature, literary art that uses aesthetics, aesthetic and often rhythmic qualities of language to evoke meaning (linguistics), meanings in addition to, or in ...
and began to long for some career through which she could do good in the world beyond ladies' traditional employments. As she later wrote, "Embroidering an eternal and gray collar, I grew more and more numb... that is, in my living powers, my wish to live. The feeling of torment did not grow numb. It worsened day by day, like frost during a growing winter. The fire of my soul flickered anxiously with but one wish—to forever die out". The "non-life" she saw awaiting her prompted an outbreak of depression. Her resolve to find work at one of Stockholm's hospitals was undermined by a sister, but she found great satisfaction in charity work around the family's estate in Årsta during the winters of 1826–7 and 1827–8. Her social work was the beginning of her literary career, as she began writing and seeking publishers in 1828 with the initial purpose of using her education in art and literature to earn funds for her charity work. (She had written an outraged retort against the male "tyranny" espoused in
Johan Olof Wallin Johan Olof Wallin, (15 October 1779 – 30 June 1839), was a Swedish minister, orator, poet and later Church of Sweden Archbishop of Uppsala, Sweden between 1837 and 1839. He is most remembered today for his hymns. Early life He was born in ...
's
Lutheran Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestantism that emerged under the work of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German friar and Protestant Reformers, reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practices of the Catholic Church launched ...
sermon "On the Quiet Calling of Women" the year before but it was only published posthumously.) Her 4-volume ''Sketches of Everyday Life'' was published as an anonymous serial from 1828 to 1831 and became an immediate success, particularly the comic ''Family '' which appeared in the second and third volumes. She described the process as a revelation, as, once she had begun to write, she felt the words coming "as
champagne Champagne (; ) is a sparkling wine originated and produced in the Champagne wine region of France under the rules of the appellation, which demand specific vineyard practices, sourcing of grapes exclusively from designated places within it, spe ...
bubbles out of a bottle". The
Swedish Academy The Swedish Academy (), founded in 1786 by King Gustav III, is one of the Royal Academies of Sweden. Its 18 members, who are elected for life, comprise the highest Swedish language authority. Outside Scandinavia, it is best known as the body t ...
awarded her their lesser gold medal on 1 January 1831; she continued to write for the remainder of her life. Her success and desire to keep writing drove her to study
literature Literature is any collection of Writing, written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially novels, Play (theatre), plays, and poetry, poems. It includes both print and Electroni ...
and
philosophy Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, Value (ethics and social sciences), value, mind, and language. It is a rational an ...
in greater depth. An English friend
Frances Lewin Frances is an English given name or last name of Latin origin. In Latin the meaning of the name Frances is 'from France' or 'the French.' The male version of the name in English is Francis. The original Franciscus, meaning "Frenchman", comes from ...
introduced her to Bentham's
Utilitarianism In ethical philosophy, utilitarianism is a family of normative ethical theories that prescribe actions that maximize happiness and well-being for the affected individuals. In other words, utilitarian ideas encourage actions that lead to the ...
, which liberalized her political views. Bentham's idea of providing "the greatest happiness to the greatest number" also encouraged her to continue devoting her time to her writing instead of nursing. In the autumn 1831, she began taking private lessons from Per Johan Böklin (1796-1867), a reform educator and the principal of a school in
Kristianstad Kristianstad ( , ) is a Urban areas in Sweden, city and the seat of Kristianstad Municipality, Scania County, Sweden with 41,198 inhabitants in 2023. Since the 1990s, the city has gone from being a garrison town to a developed commercial city, ...
. He challenged her support of
Enlightenment Enlightenment or enlighten may refer to: Age of Enlightenment * Age of Enlightenment, period in Western intellectual history from the late 17th to late 18th century, centered in France but also encompassing (alphabetically by country or culture): ...
and
Classicist Classics, also classical studies or Ancient Greek and Roman studies, is the study of classical antiquity. In the Western world, ''classics'' traditionally refers to the study of Ancient Greek literature, Ancient Greek and Roman literature and ...
figures such as
Herder A herder is a pastoralism, pastoral worker responsible for the care and management of a herd or flock of domestic animals, usually on extensive management, open pasture. It is particularly associated with nomadic pastoralism, nomadic or transhuma ...
and
Schiller Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller (, short: ; 10 November 17599 May 1805) was a German playwright, poet, philosopher and historian. Schiller is considered by most Germans to be Germany's most important classical playwright. He was born i ...
with a conception of
Romanticism Romanticism (also known as the Romantic movement or Romantic era) was an artistic and intellectual movement that originated in Europe towards the end of the 18th century. The purpose of the movement was to advocate for the importance of subjec ...
grounded in
Plato Plato ( ; Greek language, Greek: , ; born  BC, died 348/347 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher of the Classical Greece, Classical period who is considered a foundational thinker in Western philosophy and an innovator of the writte ...
. The lessons continued until the summer of 1833, by which time they were very close. She wrote during the time "I want to kiss a man, breastfeed a baby, manage a household, to be happy, and think of nothing except for them and the praise of
God In monotheistic belief systems, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. In polytheistic belief systems, a god is "a spirit or being believed to have created, or for controlling some part of the un ...
." She hesitated, however, in accepting Böklin's proposal of marriage and, after he hastily married another woman in 1835, she retired from Stockholm's society life and never married. The two remained close correspondents for the rest of their lives. ''The President's Daughters'' (1834) is considered to represent Bremer's increased maturity, using a well-observed portrayal of childhood for its humor while soberly illustrating a reserved young woman's blossoming into a more open and friendly way of life. ''Nina'', its 1835 sequel, attempted to wed her realistic style with more of the speculative philosophy she discussed with Böklin, an artistic failure that was harshly reviewed, not least by Böklin and Bremer themselves.


Writing career

For the next five years, Bremer settled as the guest of her friend Countess Stina Sommerheilm at Tomb Manor in Norway. She initially planned to work as a nurse at one of the local hospitals but again demurred, instead devoting her time to literature. During this period, the countess's stories of an elderly relative inspired Bremer's 1837 masterpiece . Her close study of the works of
Goethe Johann Wolfgang (von) Goethe (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German polymath who is widely regarded as the most influential writer in the German language. His work has had a wide-ranging influence on Western literature, literary, Polit ...
and Geijer—whom she met during a visit to Stockholm in 1837–8—informed several aspects of her next novel, ''The Home'' (1839). Her male contemporaries'
Gothicism Gothicism or Gothism ( ; ) was an ethno-cultural ideology and cultural movement in Sweden, which took honor in being a Swede, for being purportedly related to the Goths. This was a result of a resolute decades long effort from Swedish writers, ...
prompted her 1840 play ''The Thrall'', dealing with women's lot during the
Viking Age The Viking Age (about ) was the period during the Middle Ages when Norsemen known as Vikings undertook large-scale raiding, colonising, conquest, and trading throughout Europe and reached North America. The Viking Age applies not only to their ...
. After the countess's death, Bremer returned to Stockholm in 1840. Since her father's death in 1830, Fredrika had grown closer to her mother. However, under the terms of Sweden's 1734 Civil Code, all unmarried women were minors under the guardianship of their closest male relative until they married, at which time they were placed under the guardianship of their husbands. Only widowed and divorced women were automatically of legal majority. Under this law, she and her unmarried sister Agathe were, since the death of their father, both wards of their elder brother who legally had complete control over their finances, an arrangement which displeased them, as their brother had irresponsibly squandered the family fortune over the last decade. The only remedy for the situation was a direct appeal to the King; such petitions, which were common for businesswomen, were customarily given a favorable reply, and their petition was approved and they were formally granted
legal majority The age of majority is the threshold of legal adulthood as recognized or declared in law. It is the moment when a person ceases to be considered a minor, and assumes legal control over their person, actions, and decisions, thus terminating the ...
in 1840. She spent the winter of 1841–42 alone in Årsta Castle, spending her time completing the tract ''Morning Watches'' (1842), in which she stated her personal religious belief as a matter of sense first and of mystic revelation second. This aroused some opposition but she was supported by Geijer, Tegnér, and Böklin. More importantly, the work was the first which she signed by her own full name, instantly making her a literary celebrity. In 1844, the
Swedish Academy The Swedish Academy (), founded in 1786 by King Gustav III, is one of the Royal Academies of Sweden. Its 18 members, who are elected for life, comprise the highest Swedish language authority. Outside Scandinavia, it is best known as the body t ...
awarded her their greater gold medal. In 1842, Bremer ended the self-imposed isolation in which she had lived since Böklin's marriage and returned to Swedish social circles, which she portrayed in her ''Diary'' the next year. The work also served as her contribution to the discussion engendered by Almqvist's controversial ''
Sara Videbeck Carl Jonas Love Ludvig Almqvist (28 November 1793 – 26 September 1866) was a Swedish author, romantic poet, romantic critic of political economy, realist, composer and social critic. Biography Carl Jonas Love Almqvist was born in Stockhol ...
''. Despite being "dreadfully plain", her many friends knew her as humble but loyal, energetic, and strong-willed. She proclaimed that cared little for material possessions: when asked by Carl Gustaf von Brinkman why she could never be an art collector, she replied that "It is certain that nothing worth money would ever be happy with me—even a Swedish Academy medal. Offer me 50 dalers for anything except a warm overcoat and I will let it go." Regarding her unselfishness, Geijer once remarked that, "my dear Fredrika, if you truly could push us all into heaven, you wouldn't mind staying outside yourself." She began traveling first around Sweden and then abroad. Brockhaus inaugurated its 1841 series ''Select Library of Foreign Classics'' () with a translation of ''Neighbors'' and its success led them to publish seven other volumes of Bremer's works by the end of the next year. By then,
Mary Howitt Mary Howitt (12 March 1799 – 30 January 1888) was an English poet, the author of the famous poem '' The Spider and the Fly''. She translated several tales by Hans Christian Andersen. Some of her works were written in conjunction with her husba ...
had begun publishing English translations in London and New York; these proved even more popular in
England England is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is located on the island of Great Britain, of which it covers about 62%, and List of islands of England, more than 100 smaller adjacent islands. It ...
and United States than the original works had been in Sweden, ensuring her warm welcomes while overseas. After each journey, Bremer published successful volumes of descriptions or diary entries of the locations she visited. Her 1846 visit to the
Rhineland The Rhineland ( ; ; ; ) is a loosely defined area of Western Germany along the Rhine, chiefly Middle Rhine, its middle section. It is the main industrial heartland of Germany because of its many factories, and it has historic ties to the Holy ...
prompted her 1848 volumes ''A Few Leaves from the Banks of the Rhine'', ''Midsummer Journey'', and ''Sibling Life'', the last recounting her impressions of the tensions leading up to the overthrow of
King Louis Philippe Louis Philippe I (6 October 1773 – 26 August 1850), nicknamed the Citizen King, was King of the French from 1830 to 1848, the penultimate monarch of France, and the last French monarch to bear the title "King". He abdicated from his throne ...
in
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
.


Travel

Inspired by the work of De Tocqueville and
Martineau Martineau is a surname. It is of French origin and may refer to: * Alice Martineau (1972–2003), English pop singer and songwriter * Alfred Albert Martineau (1859–1945), French Governor General * Alfred Martineau (cricketer) (1868–1940), Engl ...
, Bremer visited and traveled extensively through the United States. Leaving
Copenhagen Copenhagen ( ) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark, with a population of 1.4 million in the Urban area of Copenhagen, urban area. The city is situated on the islands of Zealand and Amager, separated from Malmö, Sweden, by the ...
on 11 September 1849, she arrived in
New York New York most commonly refers to: * New York (state), a state in the northeastern United States * New York City, the most populous city in the United States, located in the state of New York New York may also refer to: Places United Kingdom * ...
on 4 October. With the intent of studying the effect of democratic institutions upon society, particularly for women, she visited
Boston Boston is the capital and most populous city in the Commonwealth (U.S. state), Commonwealth of Massachusetts in the United States. The city serves as the cultural and Financial centre, financial center of New England, a region of the Northeas ...
and
New England New England is a region consisting of six states in the Northeastern United States: Connecticut, Maine, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Vermont. It is bordered by the state of New York (state), New York to the west and by the ...
, where she met Emerson,
Longfellow Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (February 27, 1807 – March 24, 1882) was an American poet and educator. His original works include the poems "Paul Revere's Ride", ''The Song of Hiawatha'', and ''Evangeline''. He was the first American to complet ...
, Lowell,
Hawthorne Hawthorne often refers to the American writer Nathaniel Hawthorne. Hawthorne may also refer to: Places Australia *Hawthorne, Queensland, a suburb of Brisbane Canada * Hawthorne Village, Ontario, a suburb of Milton, Ontario United States * Hawt ...
, and Irving; the
Shaker Shaker or Shakers may refer to: Religious groups * Shakers, a historically significant Christian sect * Indian Shakers, a smaller Christian denomination Objects and instruments * Shaker (musical instrument), an indirect struck idiophone * Cock ...
and Quaker communities of the
Mid-Atlantic States The Mid-Atlantic is a region of the United States located in the overlap between the nation's Northeastern and Southeastern states. Traditional definitions include seven U.S. states: New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virg ...
; the
South South is one of the cardinal directions or compass points. The direction is the opposite of north and is perpendicular to both west and east. Etymology The word ''south'' comes from Old English ''sūþ'', from earlier Proto-Germanic ''*sunþa ...
, where she examined the conditions of its
black slaves The Atlantic slave trade or transatlantic slave trade involved the transportation by slave traders of enslaved African people to the Americas. European slave ships regularly used the triangular trade route and its Middle Passage. Europeans est ...
; and the
Midwest The Midwestern United States (also referred to as the Midwest, the Heartland or the American Midwest) is one of the four census regions defined by the United States Census Bureau. It occupies the northern central part of the United States. It ...
, where she toured its Scandinavian communities and
Indians Indian or Indians may refer to: Associated with India * of or related to India ** Indian people ** Indian diaspora ** Languages of India ** Indian English, a dialect of the English language ** Indian cuisine Associated with indigenous peoples o ...
. Like De Tocqueville before her, she visited America's prisons and spoke with prisoners. She then visited
Spanish Cuba The Captaincy General of Cuba () was an administrative district of the Spanish Empire created in 1607 as part of Habsburg Spain's attempt to better defend and administer its Caribbean possessions. The reform also established captaincies general ...
before returning to New York, leaving for Europe on 13 September 1851. Throughout her journey, she wrote extensive letters to her sister Agathe which were later edited into her 2-volume 1853 ''Homes in the New World''. Having previously portrayed the Swedish home as a world unto itself, she now portrayed the American world as a great home through the many families who hosted her as she roamed. She spent six weeks in
Britain Britain most often refers to: * Great Britain, a large island comprising the countries of England, Scotland and Wales * The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, a sovereign state in Europe comprising Great Britain and the north-eas ...
, visiting
Liverpool Liverpool is a port City status in the United Kingdom, city and metropolitan borough in Merseyside, England. It is situated on the eastern side of the River Mersey, Mersey Estuary, near the Irish Sea, north-west of London. With a population ...
,
Manchester Manchester () is a city and the metropolitan borough of Greater Manchester, England. It had an estimated population of in . Greater Manchester is the third-most populous metropolitan area in the United Kingdom, with a population of 2.92&nbs ...
,
Birmingham Birmingham ( ) is a City status in the United Kingdom, city and metropolitan borough in the metropolitan county of West Midlands (county), West Midlands, within the wider West Midlands (region), West Midlands region, in England. It is the Lis ...
, and
London London is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of both England and the United Kingdom, with a population of in . London metropolitan area, Its wider metropolitan area is the largest in Wester ...
and meeting
Elizabeth Gaskell Elizabeth Cleghorn Gaskell (''née'' Stevenson; 29 September 1810 – 12 November 1865), often referred to as Mrs Gaskell, was an English novelist, biographer, and short story writer. Her novels offer detailed studies of Victorian era, Victoria ...
,
Charles Kingsley Charles Kingsley (12 June 1819 – 23 January 1875) was a broad church priest of the Church of England, a university professor, social reformer, historian, novelist and poet. He is particularly associated with Christian socialism, the workin ...
, and
George Eliot Mary Ann Evans (22 November 1819 – 22 December 1880; alternatively Mary Anne or Marian), known by her pen name George Eliot, was an English novelist, poet, journalist, translator, and one of the leading writers of the Victorian era. She wrot ...
. Her series of articles about England for the ''
Aftonbladet (, lit. "The evening paper") is a Swedish language, Swedish daily tabloid newspaper published in Stockholm, Sweden. It is one of the largest daily newspapers in the Nordic countries. History and profile The newspaper was founded by Lar ...
'' largely concerned her favorable impression of the
Great Exhibition The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations, also known as the Great Exhibition or the Crystal Palace Exhibition (in reference to the temporary structure in which it was held), was an international exhibition that took ...
, which she visited four times. They were later gathered for English publication as ''England in 1851''.


Activism

Following her return to Sweden in November, Bremer attempted to engage its middle- and upper-class ladies in social work similar to what she had found in America and England. She co-founded the Stockholm Women's Society for Children's Care (' or ') to assist the orphans left by the 1853 Stockholm cholera outbreak and the Women's Society for the Improvement of Prisoners (') to provide moral guidance and rehabilitation of female inmates in 1854. On 28 August 1854, amid the
Crimean War The Crimean War was fought between the Russian Empire and an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, the Second French Empire, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, and the Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861), Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont fro ...
, the London ''Times'' published her "Invitation to a Peace Alliance" alongside an editorial rebuke of its contents: a
pacifist Pacifism is the opposition to war or violence. The word ''pacifism'' was coined by the French peace campaigner Émile Arnaud and adopted by other peace activists at the tenth Universal Peace Congress in Glasgow in 1901. A related term is ''a ...
appeal to
Christian A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...
women. In 1856, she published her novel '' Hertha'' as ''A Sketch from Real Life'' and concluded its fictionalized assault on the 2nd-class status of adult unmarried women under the 1734 Civil Code with an appendix recounting recent Swedish court cases on the topic. The work prompted the ''Hertha'' Discussion (') throughout Swedish society, reaching
Parliament In modern politics and history, a parliament is a legislative body of government. Generally, a modern parliament has three functions: Representation (politics), representing the Election#Suffrage, electorate, making laws, and overseeing ...
in 1858. There, the old system was reformed to allow (unmarried) women to petition their nearest courthouse (rather than the royal court) at the age of 25. Five years later, the legislation was revisited and all (unmarried) women were considered to automatically reach
legal majority The age of majority is the threshold of legal adulthood as recognized or declared in law. It is the moment when a person ceases to be considered a minor, and assumes legal control over their person, actions, and decisions, thus terminating the ...
at 25. This did not affect the status of married women, who were still under the guardianship of their husbands, or divorced women or widows, who were already of legal majority. The novel also successfully raised the question of a "women's university".
Högre Lärarinneseminariet The Royal Seminary, fully the Royal Advanced Female Teachers' Seminary (, abbreviated KHLS), was a normal school (teachers' college) in Stockholm, Sweden. It was active from 1861 until 1943. It was the first public institution of higher acade ...
, a state school for the education of female teachers, was opened in 1861. Bremer was not present during the ''Hertha'' Discussion, since from 1856 to 1861 she participated in another great journey through Europe and the
Levant The Levant ( ) is the subregion that borders the Eastern Mediterranean, Eastern Mediterranean sea to the west, and forms the core of West Asia and the political term, Middle East, ''Middle East''. In its narrowest sense, which is in use toda ...
. Leaving on 27 May 1856, she first visited Switzerland,
Brussels Brussels, officially the Brussels-Capital Region, (All text and all but one graphic show the English name as Brussels-Capital Region.) is a Communities, regions and language areas of Belgium#Regions, region of Belgium comprising #Municipalit ...
, and Paris over the course of a year. She was particularly interested in Switzerland's still-nascent "
free church A free church is any Christian denomination that is intrinsically separate from government (as opposed to a state church). A free church neither defines government policy, nor accept church theology or policy definitions from the government. A f ...
". From September 1857, she traveled through the still-disunified Italian peninsula, contrasting the
Catholic The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
practices of the
Papal States The Papal States ( ; ; ), officially the State of the Church, were a conglomeration of territories on the Italian peninsula under the direct sovereign rule of the pope from 756 to 1870. They were among the major states of Italy from the 8th c ...
with the
Lutheran Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestantism that emerged under the work of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German friar and Protestant Reformers, reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practices of the Catholic Church launched ...
Swedish Church. Finally, she left
Messina Messina ( , ; ; ; ) is a harbour city and the capital city, capital of the Italian Metropolitan City of Messina. It is the third largest city on the island of Sicily, and the 13th largest city in Italy, with a population of 216,918 inhabitants ...
for
Malta Malta, officially the Republic of Malta, is an island country in Southern Europe located in the Mediterranean Sea, between Sicily and North Africa. It consists of an archipelago south of Italy, east of Tunisia, and north of Libya. The two ...
and thence traveled to
Palestine Palestine, officially the State of Palestine, is a country in West Asia. Recognized by International recognition of Palestine, 147 of the UN's 193 member states, it encompasses the Israeli-occupied West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and th ...
, arriving on 30 January 1859 and, though nearly 60 years old, tracing the life of
Jesus Christ Jesus (AD 30 or 33), also referred to as Jesus Christ, Jesus of Nazareth, and many Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament, other names and titles, was a 1st-century Jewish preacher and religious leader. He is the Jesus in Chris ...
by ship, train, wagon, and horseback. She stayed in
Constantinople Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...
before touring
Greece Greece, officially the Hellenic Republic, is a country in Southeast Europe. Located on the southern tip of the Balkan peninsula, it shares land borders with Albania to the northwest, North Macedonia and Bulgaria to the north, and Turkey to th ...
from August 1859 to May 1861. She reached Stockholm on 4 July 1861. Her accounts of the trip were published as ''Life in the Old World'' in six volumes from 1860 to 1862. Upon her return to Sweden, she expressed her satisfaction with the reforms ''Hertha'' had prompted and took an interest in
Högre Lärarinneseminariet The Royal Seminary, fully the Royal Advanced Female Teachers' Seminary (, abbreviated KHLS), was a normal school (teachers' college) in Stockholm, Sweden. It was active from 1861 until 1943. It was the first public institution of higher acade ...
and its students. She resumed her charitable projects and assisted with the ''
Home Journal ''Town & Country'', formerly the ''Home Journal'' and ''The National Press'', is a monthly American lifestyle magazine. It is the oldest continually published general interest magazine in the United States. History Early history The magazine ...
'', the first women's magazine in Scandinavia, which
Sophie Adlersparre Carin Sophie Adlersparre (née Leijonhufvud; 6 July 1823 – 27 June 1895), known by her pen-name Esselde, was a Swedish feminist, writer and publisher who was one of the pioneers of the 19th-century women's rights movement in Sweden. She wa ...
had founded during her absence. After a final trip to
Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...
from July to October in 1862, she remained in Sweden the rest of her life. She was reportedly pleased with the abolition of the
Diet Diet may refer to: Food * Diet (nutrition), the sum of the food consumed by an organism or group * Dieting, the deliberate selection of food to control body weight or nutrient intake ** Diet food, foods that aid in creating a diet for weight loss ...
in Sweden and of
slavery Slavery is the ownership of a person as property, especially in regards to their labour. Slavery typically involves compulsory work, with the slave's location of work and residence dictated by the party that holds them in bondage. Enslavemen ...
in the United States. She died at
Ã…rsta Castle Ã…rsta Castle ( Swedish: ''Ã…rsta slott'') in Haninge Municipality, Stockholm County, Sweden, is a castle built in the 17th century. The Ã…rsta estate is mentioned in 1308, when it was the base for the Swedish property of the Teutonic Order ...
outside of
Stockholm Stockholm (; ) is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in Sweden by population, most populous city of Sweden, as well as the List of urban areas in the Nordic countries, largest urban area in the Nordic countries. Approximately ...
on 31 December 1865.


Legacy

Fredrika Bremer is the namesake of Frederika, a town in the American
state State most commonly refers to: * State (polity), a centralized political organization that regulates law and society within a territory **Sovereign state, a sovereign polity in international law, commonly referred to as a country **Nation state, a ...
of
Iowa Iowa ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the upper Midwestern United States, Midwestern region of the United States. It borders the Mississippi River to the east and the Missouri River and Big Sioux River to the west; Wisconsin to the northeast, Ill ...
, and its surrounding Bremer County. She is also the namesake of
Fredrika Bremer Intermediate School The Fredrika Bremer Intermediate School or Bremer School is a historic former school building in the Camden region of Minneapolis, Minnesota, United States. It is considered Minneapolis's oldest intact school building, whose original section w ...
in
Minneapolis Minneapolis is a city in Hennepin County, Minnesota, United States, and its county seat. With a population of 429,954 as of the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, it is the state's List of cities in Minnesota, most populous city. Locat ...
,
Minnesota Minnesota ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Upper Midwestern region of the United States. It is bordered by the Canadian provinces of Manitoba and Ontario to the north and east and by the U.S. states of Wisconsin to the east, Iowa to the so ...
. The
American Swedish Historical Museum The American Swedish Historical Museum is the oldest Swedish-American museum in the United States. It is located in Franklin Delano Roosevelt Park in South Philadelphia, on part of a historic 17th-century land grant originally provided by Q ...
in
Philadelphia Philadelphia ( ), colloquially referred to as Philly, is the List of municipalities in Pennsylvania, most populous city in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania and the List of United States cities by population, sixth-most populous city in the Unit ...
,
Pennsylvania Pennsylvania, officially the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, is a U.S. state, state spanning the Mid-Atlantic (United States), Mid-Atlantic, Northeastern United States, Northeastern, Appalachian, and Great Lakes region, Great Lakes regions o ...
, includes a Fredrika Bremer Room dedicated to her accomplishments.


Literary

Fredrika Bremer's novels were usually romantic stories of the time, typically concerning an independent woman narrating her observations of others negotiating the marriage market. She argued for a new family life less focused on its male members and providing a larger place for women's talents and personalities. Reflecting her own childhood, many of her works include a sharp urban/rural dichotomy; without exception, these present nature as a place of renewal, revelation, and self-discovery. By the time Bremer revealed her name to the public, her works were an acknowledged part of the cultural life in Sweden. Translations made her still more popular abroad, where she was regarded as the "Swedish
Miss Austen ''Miss Austen'' is a four-part historical television series. It stars Keeley Hawes and Jessica Hynes. It is an adaptation by Andrea Gibb of the novel ''Miss Austen'' by Gill Hornby. Aisling Walsh directed the series, while Stella Merz produced ...
". Upon her arrival in New York, the ''
New York Herald The ''New York Herald'' was a large-distribution newspaper based in New York City that existed between 1835 and 1924. At that point it was acquired by its smaller rival the '' New-York Tribune'' to form the '' New York Herald Tribune''. Hi ...
'' claimed she "probably... has more readers than any other female writer on the globe" and proclaimed her the author "of a new style of literature". A literary celebrity, Bremer was never without a place to stay during her two years in America despite having known no one before her arrival. She was praised by
Ralph Waldo Emerson Ralph Waldo Emerson (May 25, 1803April 27, 1882), who went by his middle name Waldo, was an American essayist, lecturer, philosopher, minister, abolitionism, abolitionist, and poet who led the Transcendentalism, Transcendentalist movement of th ...
and
Walt Whitman Walter Whitman Jr. (; May 31, 1819 â€“ March 26, 1892) was an American poet, essayist, and journalist; he also wrote two novels. He is considered one of the most influential poets in American literature and world literature. Whitman incor ...
and
Louisa May Alcott Louisa May Alcott (; November 29, 1832March 6, 1888) was an American novelist, short story writer, and poet best known for writing the novel ''Little Women'' (1868) and its sequels ''Good Wives'' (1869), ''Little Men'' (1871), and ''Jo's Boys'' ...
's ''
Little Women ''Little Women'' is a coming-of-age novel written by American novelist Louisa May Alcott, originally published in two volumes, in 1868 and 1869. The story follows the lives of the four March sisters— Meg, Jo, Beth, and Amy—and details th ...
'' includes a scene of Mrs March reading from Bremer's works to her four daughters. Her popularity abroad crested, however, in the 1840s and 1850s and faded by the turn of the century, although the late nineteenth century English novelist
George Gissing George Robert Gissing ( ; 22 November 1857 – 28 December 1903) was an English novelist, who published 23 novels between 1880 and 1903. In the 1890s he was considered one of the three greatest novelists in England, and by the 1940s he had been ...
read ''Hertha'' in 1889. Within Sweden, she continued to be highly respected, though little read. The publication of her letters in the 1910s revived scholarly interest, but only in her personal life and travels. By 1948, the Swedish critic Algot Werin was writing that Bremer "really only lives as a name and a symbol... It does not matter if her novels are forgotten." Bremer's novels were rediscovered by
Swedish feminists Swedish or ' may refer to: Anything from or related to Sweden, a country in Northern Europe. Or, specifically: * Swedish language, a North Germanic language spoken primarily in Sweden and Finland ** Swedish alphabet, the official alphabet used by ...
in the latter half of the 20th century and are undergoing critical reëvaluation.


Social causes

Fredrika Bremer was interested in contemporary political life and social reform regarding gender equality and social work, and she was active both as an influential participator in the debate of women's rights as well as a philanthropist. Politically, she was a liberal, who felt sympathy for social issues and for the working class movement. In 1853, she co-founded the Stockholms fruntimmersförening för barnavård (Stockholm women's fund for child care) with
Fredrika Limnell Catharina Fredrika Limnell née Forssberg (14 July 1816 – 12 September 1897), was a Swedish philanthropist, mecenate, feminist and salonist. Private life Fredrika Forssberg was born on July 14, 1816 in Härnösand Municipality in Västernor ...
. In 1854, she co-founded the Women's Society for the Improvement of Prisoners (''
Fruntimmersällskapet för fångars förbättring Fruntimmersällskapet för fångars förbättring ('Women's Society for the Reform of Prisoners') was a charitable society founded in Stockholm in Sweden in 1854. The purpose of the society was to visit female prisoners and work for their rehabilita ...
'') together with
Mathilda Foy Mathilda (or ''Mathilde'') Foy (or ''Foj''), also known as ''Tante Esther'', (10 November 1813 – 1 November 1869), was a Swedish philanthropist and writer, known for her charitable work. She is known as a pioneer of the Sunday school, and as ...
,
Maria Cederschiöld Hedvig ''Maria'' Reddita Cederschiöld (29 June 1856, Stockholm – 19 October 1935, Stockholm) was a Swedish journalist and women's rights activist. She was the chief editor of the foreign office at ''Aftonbladet'' in 1909–1921, and the first ...
,
Betty Ehrenborg Betty Ehrenborg, married name Posse af Säby (22 July 1818 – 22 July 1880), was a Swedish writer, psalm writer and pedagogue. She is regarded as the founder of the Swedish Sunday school. Life Katarina Elisabeth Ehrenborg was the daughter of th ...
and Emilia Elmblad. The purpose was to visit female prisoners to provide moral support and improve their character by studies of religion. Her novel '' Hertha'' (1856) remains her most influential work. It is a dark novel about the lack of freedom for women, and it raised a debate in the parliament called "The Hertha debate", which contributed to the new law of
legal majority The age of majority is the threshold of legal adulthood as recognized or declared in law. It is the moment when a person ceases to be considered a minor, and assumes legal control over their person, actions, and decisions, thus terminating the ...
for adult unmarried women in Sweden in 1858, and was somewhat of a starting point for the real feminist movement in Sweden. ''Hertha'' also raised the debate of higher formal education for women, and in 1861, the University for Women Teachers, ''
Högre lärarinneseminariet The Royal Seminary, fully the Royal Advanced Female Teachers' Seminary (, abbreviated KHLS), was a normal school (teachers' college) in Stockholm, Sweden. It was active from 1861 until 1943. It was the first public institution of higher acade ...
'', was founded by the state after the suggested women's university in ''Hertha''. In 1859,
Sophie Adlersparre Carin Sophie Adlersparre (née Leijonhufvud; 6 July 1823 – 27 June 1895), known by her pen-name Esselde, was a Swedish feminist, writer and publisher who was one of the pioneers of the 19th-century women's rights movement in Sweden. She wa ...
, founded the paper ''
Tidskrift för hemmet The ''Home Review'' () was a Swedish women's magazine, published from 1859 to 1885. It was the first women's magazine in the Nordic countries and its inception is sometimes regarded as the foundation of Sweden's women's movement. It was sometimes ...
'' inspired by the novel. This was the starting point for Adlersparre's work as the organizer of the Swedish feminist movement. The women's magazine '' Hertha'', named after the novel, was founded in 1914. In 1860, she helped Johanna Berglind to fund ''
Tysta Skolan ('The Silent School') was a private school for deaf-mute children founded in 1860 by educator Jeanette Berglind, Johanna (Jeanette) Berglind in Stockholm, Stockholm, Sweden. The name refers to the initial teaching method, which was described as ...
'', a school for the deaf and mute in Stockholm. At the electoral reforms regarding the right to vote of 1862, she supported the idea to give women the right to vote, which was talked about as the "horrific sight" of seeing "
crinoline A crinoline is a stiff or structured petticoat designed to hold out a skirt, popular at various times since the mid-19th century. Originally, crinoline described a stiff fabric made of horsehair ("crin") and cotton or linen which was used to ...
s at the election boxes", but Bremer gave the idea her support, and the same year, women of legal majority were granted suffrage in municipal elections in Sweden. The first real Women's rights movement in Sweden, the Fredrika Bremer Association ('' Fredrika Bremer Förbundet''), founded by
Sophie Adlersparre Carin Sophie Adlersparre (née Leijonhufvud; 6 July 1823 – 27 June 1895), known by her pen-name Esselde, was a Swedish feminist, writer and publisher who was one of the pioneers of the 19th-century women's rights movement in Sweden. She wa ...
in 1884, was named after her. Bremer was happy to mention and to recommend the work of other female professionals. She mentioned both the doctor
Lovisa Ã…rberg Lovisa is a Swedified form of Louise, which originates in Louis and has been used in Sweden since the 17th century. It was placed in the Swedish calendar in the 1750s after king Adolf Fredericks marriage to Lovisa Ulrika of Prussia in 1744. Lo ...
and the engraver Sofia Ahlbom in her work.


Works

* ''Sketches of Everyday Life'' (; 3 vols. 1828–31) * ''New Sketches of Everyday Life'' ('; 10 vols. 1834–58) * ''Thrall'' ('; 1840) * ''Morning Watches'' ('; 1842) Translated from the Swedish. Boston: Redding and Company. 1843. Fragile blue wrappers. * ''Life in Sweden. The President's Daughters'' Translated by Mary Howitt. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1843. Fragile tan wrappers. ''No. 22 – Library of Select Novels'' * ''The Home or Family Cares and Family Joys'' Translated by Mary Howitt. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1844. Fragile tan wrappers. ''No. 38 – Library of Select Novels'' * ''The H___ Family: Tralinnan; Axel and Anna;; and Other Tales'' Translated by Mary Howitt. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1844. Fragile tan wrappers. ''No. 20 – Library of Select Novels'' * ''Life in Dalecarlia: The Parsonage of Mora'' Translated by Mary Howitt. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1845. Fragile tan wrappers. ''No. 58 – Library of Select Novels'' * ''A Few Leaves from the Banks of the Rhine'' ('; 1848) * ''Brothers and Sisters: A Tale of Domestic Life'' Translated from the original unpublished manuscript by Mary Howitt. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1848. Fragile tan wrappers. ''No. 115 – Library of Select Novels'' * ''The Neighbors'' Translated by Mary Howitt. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1848. Fragile tan wrappers. ''No. 20 – Library of Select Novels'' * ''Midsummer Journey: A Pilgrimage'' ('; 1848) * ''Life in the North'' ('; 1849) * ''An Easter Offering'' Translated from the original unpublished manuscript by Mary Howitt. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1850 Fragile tan wrappers. * ''Homes in the New World'' ('; 2 vols. 1853–1854) * ''The Midnight Sun: A Pilgrimage'' Translated from the original unpublished manuscript by Mary Howitt. New York: Harper & Brothers, 1855. Fragile tan wrappers. ''No. 124 – Library of Select Novels'' * "On the Novel as the Epic of Our Time" ("") * ''Life in the Old World'' ('; 6 vols. 1860–1862) * ''A Little Pilgrimage in the Holy Land'' ('; 1865) * ''England in the Fall of 1851'' ('; 1922)


See also

*
American Swedish Historical Museum The American Swedish Historical Museum is the oldest Swedish-American museum in the United States. It is located in Franklin Delano Roosevelt Park in South Philadelphia, on part of a historic 17th-century land grant originally provided by Q ...


Notes


References

* . * * * . * . * * * * * *


Further reading

* Arping, Åsa * Stendahl, Brita K. ''The Education of a Self-Made Woman, Fredrika Bremer, 1801–1865'' (Edwin Mellen Press. 1994) * Wieselgren, Greta ''Fredrika Bremer och verkligheten: Romanen Herthas tillblivelse'' (Kvinnohistoriskt arkiv. Norstedt. 1978)


External links


Fredrika-Bremer-Förbundet
* * *

* {{DEFAULTSORT:Bremer, Fredrika 1801 births 1865 deaths Swedish feminist writers Swedish feminists Swedish suffragists Writers from Turku 19th-century Swedish women writers 19th-century Swedish writers Swedish people of German descent 19th-century Swedish philanthropists Swedish people of Finnish descent Swedish-speaking Finns