Field marshal

Field marshal (or field-marshal, abbreviated as FM) is the most senior military rank, senior to the general officer ranks. Usually, it is the highest rank in an army (in countries without the rank of Generalissimo), and as such, few persons are ever appointed to it. It is considered as a five-star rank (OF-10) in modern-day armed forces in many countries.

Promotion to the rank of field marshal in many countries historically required extraordinary military achievement by a general (a wartime victory). However, the rank has also been used as a divisional command rank and as a brigade command rank. Examples of the different uses of the rank include Afghanistan, Austria-Hungary, India, Pakistan, Prussia/Germany and Sri Lanka for an extraordinary achievement; Spain and Mexico for a divisional command (); and France, Portugal and Brazil for a brigade command (, ).

Origins

The origin of the term dates to the early Middle Ages, originally meaning the keeper of the king's horses (from Old German ''Marh-scalc'', ), from the time of the early Frankish kings; words originally meaning "servant" were sometimes used to mean "subordinate official" or similar. The German Holy Roman Empire and the kingdom of France had officers named '' Feldmarschall'' and ''Maréchal de camp'' respectively as far back as the 1600s. The exact wording of the titles used by field marshals varies: examples include "marshal" and " field marshal general".

The air force equivalent in Commonwealth and many Middle Eastern air forces is marshal of the air force (not to be confused with air marshal). Navies, which usually do not use the nomenclature employed by armies or air forces, use titles such as "fleet admiral," " grand admiral" or " admiral of the fleet" for the equivalent rank. The traditional attribute distinguishing a field marshal is a baton. The baton nowadays is purely ornamental, and as such may be richly decorated. That said, it is not necessary for the insignia to be a baton (Such is the case in Russia post-1991 and the former Soviet Union, which use a jewelled star referred to as a Marshal's star).

Field marshal ranks by country

Afghanistan

''Sardar'' Shah Wali Khan (died 1977), of the Musahiban and uncle of King Zahir and President ''Sardar'' Mohammed Daoud Khan, was a field marshal. Mohammed Fahim became an honorary marshal in 2004.
Abdul Rashid Dostum became an honorary marshal in 2020 (this position is now defunct). Ghulam Nabi Khan, is sometimes identified as a field marshal.

Australia

The first appointment to the rank was Sir William Birdwood, who received the honour in March 1925. Sir Thomas Blamey was the second appointment to the rank, and was the first and so far only Australian-born and Australian Army substantive (not honorary) field marshal. He was promoted to the rank on the insistence of Sir Robert Menzies, the Prime Minister of Australia, in June 1950. His field marshal's baton is on display in the Second World War galleries at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra. The third appointment was Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, who was promoted to the rank on 1 April 1954. The fourth and latest appointment was to King Charles III in October 2024.

Brazil

When Brazil became independent from Portugal in 1822, the Portuguese system of ranks was maintained by the Brazilian Army, including the rank of ''marechal de campo''. In the second half of the 19th century, the rank of ''marechal de campo'' was replaced, both in Portugal and Brazil, by the rank of ''general de brigada'' (brigade general). This last rank still exists today in the Brazilian Army, but corresponds to the present rank of ''major-general'' (major-general) in the Portuguese Army.
Today, the rank of ''Marechal'' is the maximum rank available but only awarded during wartime. The Brazilian Air Force has the similar rank of air marshal.

Chad

On the 11 August 2020, Chadian president Idris Déby was promoted to the rank of Marshal for his efforts against terrorism in West Africa. He would die the following year.

China

During Imperial rule in China, different dynasties gave different titles to generals. A very similar title is "司馬" ( sima) in the Eastern Han dynasty, which literally means "master of horse", and later became a two-character surname too. "司馬" is one of the Three Excellencies in Eastern Han, who is in charge of the country's military affairs. Later, a more common title for a field marshal or a commandant was (元帥 '' Yuan Shuai'') or grand field marshal (大元帥 ''da yuan shuai''). One of the most famous of these generals was Yue Fei from the Song dynasty. Since the People's Republic of China was established in 1949, it has promoted 10 military commanders to the rank of marshal, all in 1955 and abolished in 1965. Since then, the rank has remained defunct. The last Chinese marshal, Nie Rongzhen, died in 1992.

Ethiopia

On 8 January 2022, General Birhanu Jula, the Chief of General Staff of the Ethiopian National Defence Force, was promoted to the rank of Field Marshal (or Field Marshal General, depending on source). The rank was introduced to the Ethiopian National Defence Force with this promotion. The rank of Field Marshal was last used in Ethiopia during the Ethiopian Empire in the 20th century, when Emperor Haile Selassie was head of the Imperial Ethiopian Army. The formal ceremonial uniform matched that of its British counterpart, with the exception of headgear, which was a Bicorne adorned with a golden lion's mane.

Finland

Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim was promoted to Field Marshal in 1933. In 1942 he was promoted to Marshal of Finland, which is not a distinctive military rank but an honour.

France

In the French army of the ''Ancien Régime'', the normal brigade command rank was field marshal (''maréchal de camp''). In 1793, during the French Revolution, the rank of field marshal was replaced by the rank of brigade general. The rank insignia of field marshal was two stars (one-star being used for a senior colonel rank). The French field marshal rank was below lieutenant-general, which in 1793 became divisional-general. In the title ''maréchal de camp'' and the English "field marshal", there is an etymological confusion in the French ''camp'' between the English words "camp" and "field". The French rank of field marshal should not be confused with the rank of Marshal of France, which has been the highest rank of the French Army since the higher dignity of Marshal General of France was abolished in 1848 (although in theory it is not an actual rank but a "state dignity").

German-speaking lands

''Generalfeldmarschall'' ('general field marshal, field marshal general, or field marshal', abbreviated to ''Feldmarschall'') was the most senior general officer rank in the armies of several German states, including Saxony, Brandenburg-Prussia, Prussia, the German Empire, and lastly, Germany (from 1918). In the Habsburg monarchy, the Austrian Empire and Austria-Hungary, the rank ''Feldmarschall'' was used. The rank was also given to imperial generals in southern German States including Austria (''Reichsgeneralfeldmarschall'') by the Roman-German Emperor during the existence of the Holy Roman Empire up to 1806.

Greece

''Stratarches'' (), meaning ''Ruler of the Army'' in Greek, is a title for senior military commanders dating back to classical antiquity, in the sense of "commander-in-chief". In modern Greek usage, it has been used to translate the rank of field marshal. In this sense, the rank was borne by the kings of Greece since 1939, and has been awarded only once in modern Greek history to a professional officer: Alexandros Papagos in 1949 for his leadership in the Greek victory against Fascist Italy in World War II and against the Communist forces in the Greek Civil War. The rank is not retained by the current (since 1974) Third Hellenic Republic.

India

Field marshal is the highest attainable rank in the Indian Army. It is a ceremonial/war time rank. There have been two Indian field marshals to date. Sam Manekshaw was promoted to the rank in 1973 for his role in leading the Indian Army to aid in the final days of the Indian Army's support for the Bangladesh Liberation War against Pakistan. K. M. Cariappa was promoted in 1986, long after he retired, in recognition of his services for beating back the Pakistani invasion of Kashmir in 1947-48 in his role as Army Commander of India's Western Command, and for later as the first Indian Commander-in-Chief of the Indian Army.

Libya

Khalifa Haftar was the first to "claim" receive this rank in Libya from the House of Representatives in 2016 after the liberation of oil ports in the Operation Swift Lightning.

Malaysia

Field Marshal of Malaysia is equivalent to general of the army of the United States which is the highest rank in the Malaysian army and are reserved for His Majesty the King of Malaysia though there are several non-royals who hold this rank.

New Zealand

Charles, Prince of Wales, as he was at the time, was officially appointed a Field Marshal in the New Zealand Army in November 2015. As King Charles III, he remains the only living person to hold the ranks of Field Marshal in the New Zealand Army, Admiral of the Fleet in the Royal New Zealand Navy (RNZN) and Marshal of the RNZAF. The King's late father, the Duke of Edinburgh (1921–2021), also held these three ranks during his lifetime.

Pakistan

Ayub Khan (1907–1974) was the first and, for many decades, only field marshal in the history of Pakistan. He served as the second President of Pakistan and was the first native Commander-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army. On 20 May 2025, General Asim Munir became the second officer to be promoted to the rank of Field Marshal following his command in the brief conflict with India.

Philippines

US Army General Douglas MacArthur was the first and only field marshal in the history of the Philippine Army, a position he held while also acting as the Military Advisor to the Commonwealth Government of the Philippines with a rank of major general. President Quezon conferred the rank of field marshal on 24 August 1936 and MacArthur's duty included the supervision of the creation of the Philippines nation-state.

Portugal

In the Portuguese Army, the rank of ''marechal de campo'' was created in 1762, as the most junior general officer rank. Hierarchically, it was ranked between ''tenente-general'' (lieutenant-general) and ''brigadeiro'' (brigadier), this last one not being considered a general rank, but a kind of senior colonel.

In Portugal, the ranks of ''marechal-general'' (marshal-general) and ''marechal do Exército'' (marechal of the Army) or simply ''marechal'' also existed. Distinctively from the rank of ''marechal de campo'', the ranks of ''marechal-general'' and ''marechal'' were the highest in the Portuguese Army, usually being reserved for the commanders-in-chief of the Army. Latter, the rank of ''marechal-general'' became reserved for the monarch, as a mere honorary dignity.

Romania

''Mareșal'' is the highest rank in the Romanian Armed Forces. The rank of ''mareșal'' can only be bestowed to a general or admiral (), in time of war for exceptional military merits, by the President of Romania and confirmed by the Supreme Council of National Defense.

Russia and the Soviet Union

Imperial Russia had for a long time maintained the rank of Field Marshal. It was active all the way until the Russian Revolutions of 1917. When the Bolsheviks took over, they briefly abandoned military ranks until 1935. When it was restored, an equivalent rank Marshal of the Soviet Union was introduced in place of the Imperial Russian Army Field Marshal. Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the rank was replaced by the Marshal of the Russian Federation. However, as of , there has only been one Marshal of the Russian Federation.

Serbia and Yugoslavia

In Serbian, field marshal can be literally translated as . The closest equivalent of a five-star general in Serbia was Vojvoda (Serbia and Yugoslavia), a military rank that has many similarities compared to Generalfeldmarschall, Marshal of France and Field marshal (United Kingdom) but also differs in way of promotion, duration and style. However, the name of this military is etymologically closer to the nobility title of duke. It was the highest rank in the army of the Kingdom of Serbia and Kingdom of Yugoslavia until the Second World War. It was first created with the passing of the law on the ''Organization of the Army'' of the Kingdom of Serbia in 1901. The law was passed on the suggestion of Lieutenant Colonel (later Divisional General) Miloš Vasić, who was minister of defense at the time. The rank was awarded only during the war for particular military contributions of top generals. Only four Serbian generals have reached the rank of Vojvoda, most notably Radomir Putnik.

Later Yugoslav People's Army had the rank of Marshal of Yugoslavia used only by Josip Broz Tito as the supreme commander. This would actually be one rank above the rank of Field marshal and the equivalent of a six-star general, but it was essentially an honorific title with political connotations that became Tito's best-known nickname.

South Africa

South African statesman and prime minister Jan Smuts was appointed a field marshal of the British Army on 24 May 1941.

South Korea

During the 2010s, the South Korean government tried to promote Paik Sun-yup to the rank of field marshal. However, the attempt failed because of his past service in the Manchukuo Imperial Army.

Sri Lanka

Field Marshal is the highest rank in the Sri Lanka Army. It is a ceremonial rank. Sarath Fonseka is the first and only Sri Lankan officer to hold the rank. He was promoted to the position on 22 March 2015.

Sweden

In Sweden, a total of 75 field marshals have been appointed, from 1609 to 1824. Since 1972, the rank has not been used in Sweden, and it had long been decided to only be used in wartime.

The title denoted the commander of the mounted part of the army. During the Thirty Years' War, the field marshal was subordinate to the country's lieutenant general. In the Swedish army, the field marshal had unlimited military and considerable political authority. However, the field marshal was subordinate to the Lord High Constable of Sweden (Riksmarsken) and his closest man was the .

Initially, the field marshal was the commander of the cavalry and first became the foremost military rank in Sweden during the early 17th century, especially after count Jakob Pontusson de la Gardie received the rank.

Syria

Field Marshal () is the highest rank within the Syrian Army which is a ceremonial and honorary military rank, the only holder to-date is former President Bashar al-Assad who was promoted from Colonel. Its insignia is unique amongst Arab states, as the majority of Arab militaries that has a Field Marshal rank, the insignias has the national coat of arms or a crown above two crossed batons or swords surrounded by yellow leaves below, Syria's Marshal rank adds an extra star to its General insignia ergo three stars above crossed swords below the coat of arms.

Thailand

In the Royal Thai Army the rank of ''Chom Phon'' () was created in 1888, together with all other military ranks along western lines, by King Chulalongkorn. Today it is ceremonially held by members of the Thai royal family.

Turkey

In the Turkish Armed Forces, the corresponding rank is ''mareşal''. Its origins can be traced to the Ottoman Empire and to the military of Persia, where it was called "müşir" and bestowed upon senior commanders upon order of the ruling sultan. The rank of ''mareşal'' can only be bestowed by the National Assembly, to generals or admirals who have displayed distinguished merit in wartime. Only two persons have been bestowed the rank in history of the Republic: Kemal Atatürk, the founder of modern Turkey, and his Chief of Staff Fevzi Çakmak, both for their successes in the Turkish War of Independence.

Uganda

Field Marshal Idi Amin was the military dictator and third president of Uganda from 1971 to 1979. Amin joined the British colonial regiment, the King's African Rifles in 1946, serving in Somalia and Kenya. Eventually, Amin held the rank of major general in the post-colonial Ugandan Army and became its commander before seizing power in the military coup of January 1971, deposing Milton Obote. He later promoted himself to field marshal while he was the head of state.

United Kingdom

Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington, was promoted to the rank of a field marshal (of multiple armies) in 1813. Nine of his field marshal batons are on display in Apsley House (see Batons of Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington).

United States

No branch of the United States Armed Forces has ever used the rank of field marshal. On 14 December 1944, Congress created the rank of "general of the army", a five-star rank equivalent to that of field marshal in other countries. Two days later, George Marshall was promoted to this rank, becoming the first five-star general in American history. It has been suggested that the denomination of "Marshal" for a five-star officer was not adopted because, otherwise, George Marshall would be addressed as "Marshal Marshall", which was considered undignified.Leonard Mosley, ''Marshall, hero for our times'' (1982), 270, available at Internet ArchiveSydney Louis Mayer, ''The biography of General of the Army, Douglas MacArthur'' (1984), 70, available at Internet ArchiveStuart H. Loory, ''Defeated; inside America's military machine'' (1973), 78, available at Internet Archive Thus, Douglas MacArthur is the only US officer ever to have received the rank of Marshal, which was given to him by the government of the Philippines.

Yemen

* Abdrabbuh Mansur Hadi, former President of Yemen and Field Marshal of the Republic of Yemen Armed Forces
*Mahdi al-Mashat, Chairman of the Supreme Political Council of Yemen, and Field Marshal

Zaire

On the 17 June 1983, Mobutu Sese Seko promoted himself to the rank of field marshal. The order was signed by General Likulia Bolongo.

Insignia

File:Australian Army OF-10.svg, (Australian Army)
File:20.RBrLF-FM.svg,
( Royal Brunei Land Force)
File:Ethiopia-Army-OF-10 (2022).svg,
( Ethiopian Army)
File:17-Ghana Army-CIC.svg, (Ghana Army)
File:Field Marshal of the Indian Army.svg,
( Indian Army)
File:Malaysia-army-OF-10.svg,
( Malaysian Army)
File:New Zealand-Army-OF-10.svg, (New Zealand Army)
File:Nigeria-Army-OF-10.svg, ( Nigerian Army)
File:OF-10 Pakistan Army.svg,
(Pakistan Army)
File:Sri Lanka-army-OF-10.svg, ( Sri Lanka Army)
File:Turkey-army-OF-10.svg, Mareşal (Turkey) ( Military ranks of Turkey)
File:British Army OF-10.svg, (British Army)
File:RTA OF-10 (Field Marshal).svg, Chom Phon ( Royal Thai Army)

Variants

* Feldmarschall ( Austro-Hungarian monarchy)
* Stožerni general (Croatia)
*Marshal of the Empire (First French Empire)
* Stratarches (Greece)
* Marshal of Italy
* Wonsu (North & South Korea)
* Mushir (Ottoman Empire, Middle East & North Africa)
*Marshal of Peru
* Marshal of Poland
* General field marshal (Imperial Russia)
* Marshal of the Russian Federation
*Marshal of the Soviet Union
* Fältmarskalk (Sweden)
* Chom phon (Thailand)
* Gensui (Imperial Japanese Army)

See also

* '' Admiralissimo''
* '' Generalissimo''
* Marshal
* Grand Marshal
* Grand Admiral
* Admiral of the Fleet
* List of Field Marshals
* List of German Field Marshals
* General of the Army
* Admiral of the Navy
* General of the Air Force

References

External links

*

{{Star officer ranks

Military ranks