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Johann Gottlieb Fichte (; ; 19 May 1762 – 29 January 1814) was a German
philosopher Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, Value (ethics and social sciences), value, mind, and language. It is a rational an ...
who became a founding figure of the
philosophical movement List of philosophies, schools of thought and philosophical movements. A Absurdism – Academic skepticism – Accelerationism - Achintya Bheda Abheda – Action, philosophy of – Actual idealism – Actualism – Advaita Vedanta ...
known as
German idealism German idealism is a philosophical movement that emerged in Germany in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. It developed out of the work of Immanuel Kant in the 1780s and 1790s, and was closely linked both with Romanticism and the revolutionary ...
, which developed from the theoretical and ethical writings of
Immanuel Kant Immanuel Kant (born Emanuel Kant; 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German Philosophy, philosopher and one of the central Age of Enlightenment, Enlightenment thinkers. Born in Königsberg, Kant's comprehensive and systematic works ...
. Recently, philosophers and scholars have begun to appreciate Fichte as an important philosopher in his own right due to his original insights into the nature of
self-consciousness Self-consciousness is a heightened sense of awareness of oneself. It is not to be confused with consciousness in the sense of qualia. Historically, "self-consciousness" was synonymous with " self-awareness", referring to a state of awareness th ...
or
self-awareness In philosophy of self, philosophy, self-awareness is the awareness and reflection of one's own personality or individuality, including traits, feelings, and behaviors. It is not to be confused with consciousness in the sense of qualia. While ...
. Fichte was also the originator of '' thesis–antithesis–synthesis'',"Review of ''
Aenesidemus Aenesidemus ( or Αἰνεσίδημος) was a 1st-century BC Greek Pyrrhonist philosopher from Knossos who revived the doctrines of Pyrrho and introduced ten skeptical "modes" (''tropai'') for the suspension of judgment. He broke with the Acad ...
''"
"Rezension des Aenesidemus"
'' Allgemeine Literatur-Zeitung'', 11–12 February 1794). Trans. Daniel Breazeale. In (See also: ''FTP'', p. 46; Breazeale 1980–81, pp. 545–68; Breazeale and Rockmore 1994, p. 19; Breazeale 2013, pp. 36–37; Waibel, Breazeale, Rockmore 2010, p. 157: "Fichte believes that the I must be grasped as the ''unity'' of synthesis and analysis.")
an idea that is often erroneously attributed to
Hegel Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (27 August 1770 – 14 November 1831) was a 19th-century German idealism, German idealist. His influence extends across a wide range of topics from metaphysical issues in epistemology and ontology, to political phi ...
. Like Descartes and Kant before him, Fichte was motivated by the problem of
subjectivity The distinction between subjectivity and objectivity is a basic idea of philosophy, particularly epistemology and metaphysics. Various understandings of this distinction have evolved through the work of countless philosophers over centuries. One b ...
and
consciousness Consciousness, at its simplest, is awareness of a state or object, either internal to oneself or in one's external environment. However, its nature has led to millennia of analyses, explanations, and debate among philosophers, scientists, an ...
. Fichte also wrote works of
political philosophy Political philosophy studies the theoretical and conceptual foundations of politics. It examines the nature, scope, and Political legitimacy, legitimacy of political institutions, such as State (polity), states. This field investigates different ...
; he has a reputation as one of the fathers of
German nationalism German nationalism () is an ideological notion that promotes the unity of Germans and of the Germanosphere into one unified nation-state. German nationalism also emphasizes and takes pride in the patriotism and national identity of Germans as ...
.


Biography


Origins

Fichte was born in Rammenau,
Upper Lusatia Upper Lusatia (, ; , ; ; or ''Milsko''; ) is a historical region in Germany and Poland. Along with Lower Lusatia to the north, it makes up the region of Lusatia, named after the Polabian Slavs, Slavic ''Lusici'' tribe. Both parts of Lusatia a ...
, and baptized a
Lutheran Lutheranism is a major branch of Protestantism that emerged under the work of Martin Luther, the 16th-century German friar and Protestant Reformers, reformer whose efforts to reform the theology and practices of the Catholic Church launched ...
. The son of a ribbon weaver, Fichte was born into a pious family that had lived in the region for generations. Christian Fichte (1737–1812), Johann Gottlieb's father, married on Maria Dorothea Fichte,
née The birth name is the name of the person given upon their birth. The term may be applied to the surname, the given name or to the entire name. Where births are required to be officially registered, the entire name entered onto a births registe ...
Schurich (1739–1813) somewhat above his class. It has been suggested that a certain impatience which Fichte himself displayed throughout his life was an inheritance from his mother. He received a rudimentary education from his father. He showed remarkable ability from an early age, and it was owing to his reputation among the villagers that he gained the opportunity for a better education than he otherwise would have received. The story runs that the
Freiherr (; male, abbreviated as ), (; his wife, abbreviated as , ) and (, his unmarried daughters and maiden aunts) are designations used as titles of nobility in the German-speaking areas of the Holy Roman Empire, the Austro-Hungarian Empire and in ...
von Miltitz, a country landowner, arrived too late to hear the local pastor preach. He was, however, informed that a lad in the neighborhood would be able to repeat the sermon almost ''verbatim''. As a result, the baron took Fichte into his protection and paid for his tuition.


Early schooling

Fichte was placed in the family of Pastor Krebel at
Niederau Niederau is a municipality in the Meißen (district), district of Meißen, in Saxony, Germany. Niederau station is located on the Leipzig–Dresden railway, which also used to have Oberau Tunnel until 1933, which was located within today's munici ...
near
Meissen Meissen ( ), is a town of approximately 30,000 about northwest of Dresden and 75 km (46 mi) west of Bautzen on both banks of the Elbe river in the Free State of Saxony, in eastern Germany. Meissen is the home of Meissen porcelain, th ...
, and there received a thorough grounding in the
classics Classics, also classical studies or Ancient Greek and Roman studies, is the study of classical antiquity. In the Western world, ''classics'' traditionally refers to the study of Ancient Greek literature, Ancient Greek and Roman literature and ...
. From this time onward, Fichte saw little of his parents. In October 1774, he attended the celebrated foundation-school at
Pforta Schulpforta, otherwise known as Pforta, is a school located in Pforta monastery, a former Cistercian monastery (1137–1540). The school is located near Naumburg on the Saale River in the German state of Saxony-Anhalt. The site has been a sch ...
near
Naumburg Naumburg () is a town in (and the administrative capital of) the district Burgenlandkreis, in the state of Saxony-Anhalt, Central Germany (cultural area), Central Germany. It has a population of around 33,000. The Naumburg Cathedral became a UNES ...
. Freiherr von Miltitz continued to support him, but died in 1774. The Pforta school is associated with the names of
Novalis Georg Philipp Friedrich Freiherr von Hardenberg (2 May 1772 – 25 March 1801), pen name Novalis (; ), was a German nobility, German aristocrat and polymath, who was a poet, novelist, philosopher and Mysticism, mystic. He is regarded as an inf ...
, August Wilhelm Schlegel,
Friedrich Schlegel Karl Wilhelm Friedrich (after 1814: von) Schlegel ( ; ; 10 March 1772 – 12 January 1829) was a German literary critic, philosopher, and Indologist. With his older brother, August Wilhelm Schlegel, he was one of the main figures of Jena Roma ...
, and
Nietzsche Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (15 October 1844 – 25 August 1900) was a German philosopher. He began his career as a classical philologist, turning to philosophy early in his academic career. In 1869, aged 24, Nietzsche became the youngest pro ...
. The spirit of the institution was semi-monastic and, while the education was excellent, it is doubtful whether there was enough social life and contact with the world for Fichte.


Theological studies and private tutoring

In 1780, Fichte began study at the
University of Jena The University of Jena, officially the Friedrich Schiller University Jena (, abbreviated FSU, shortened form ''Uni Jena''), is a public research university located in Jena, Thuringia, Germany. The university was established in 1558 and is cou ...
's Lutheran theology seminary. He was transferred a year later to study at the
Leipzig University Leipzig University (), in Leipzig in Saxony, Germany, is one of the world's oldest universities and the second-oldest university (by consecutive years of existence) in Germany. The university was founded on 2 December 1409 by Frederick I, Electo ...
. Fichte seems to have supported himself during this period of poverty and struggle. Without the financial support by von Miltitz, Fichte had to end his studies without completing his degree. From 1784 to 1788, Fichte precariously supported himself as tutor for various Saxon families. In early 1788, he returned to
Leipzig Leipzig (, ; ; Upper Saxon: ; ) is the most populous city in the States of Germany, German state of Saxony. The city has a population of 628,718 inhabitants as of 2023. It is the List of cities in Germany by population, eighth-largest city in Ge ...
in the hope of finding a better employment, but eventually he had to settle for a less promising position with the family of an innkeeper in
Zürich Zurich (; ) is the list of cities in Switzerland, largest city in Switzerland and the capital of the canton of Zurich. It is in north-central Switzerland, at the northwestern tip of Lake Zurich. , the municipality had 448,664 inhabitants. The ...
. He lived in Zürich for the next two years (1788–1790), where he met his future wife, Johanna Rahn, and
Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (; ; ; 12 January 1746 – 17 February 1827) was a Swiss pedagogue and educational reformer who exemplified Romanticism in his approach. He founded several educational institutions both in German- and French-speaking ...
. He also became, in 1793, a member of the
Freemasonry Freemasonry (sometimes spelled Free-Masonry) consists of fraternal groups that trace their origins to the medieval guilds of stonemasons. Freemasonry is the oldest secular fraternity in the world and among the oldest still-existing organizati ...
lodge "Modestia cum Libertate", with which
Johann Wolfgang Goethe Johann Wolfgang (von) Goethe (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German polymath who is widely regarded as the most influential writer in the German language. His work has had a wide-ranging influence on literary, political, and philosoph ...
was also connected. In the spring of 1790, he became engaged to Johanna.Anthony J. La Vopa, ''Fichte: The Self and the Calling of Philosophy, 1762-1799'', Cambridge University Press, 2001, p. 151. Fichte began to study the works of
Kant Immanuel Kant (born Emanuel Kant; 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher and one of the central Enlightenment thinkers. Born in Königsberg, Kant's comprehensive and systematic works in epistemology, metaphysics, et ...
in the summer of 1790. This occurred initially because one of Fichte's students wanted to know about Kant's writings. They had a lasting effect on his life and thought. However, while Fichte was studying Kantian philosophy, the Rahn family suffered financial reverses. His impending marriage had to be postponed.


Kant

From Zürich, Fichte returned to Leipzig in May 1790. In early 1791, he obtained a tutorship in
Warsaw Warsaw, officially the Capital City of Warsaw, is the capital and List of cities and towns in Poland, largest city of Poland. The metropolis stands on the Vistula, River Vistula in east-central Poland. Its population is officially estimated at ...
in the house of a Polish nobleman. The situation, however, quickly proved disagreeable and he was released. He then got a chance to see Kant in
Königsberg Königsberg (; ; ; ; ; ; , ) is the historic Germany, German and Prussian name of the city now called Kaliningrad, Russia. The city was founded in 1255 on the site of the small Old Prussians, Old Prussian settlement ''Twangste'' by the Teuton ...
. After a disappointing interview on 4 July of the same year, he shut himself in his lodgings and threw all his energies into the composition of an essay which would attract Kant's attention and interest. This essay, completed in five weeks, was the ''Versuch einer Critik '' 'sic''' aller Offenbarung'' ('' Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation'', 1792). In this book, according to Dieter Henrich, Fichte investigated the connections between divine revelation and Kant's
critical philosophy Critical philosophy () is a movement inaugurated by Immanuel Kant (1724–1804). It is dedicated to the self-examination of reason with the aim of exposing its inherent limitations, that is, to defining the possibilities of knowledge as a prere ...
. The first edition was published without Kant's or Fichte's knowledge and without Fichte's name or signed preface. It was thus believed by the public to be a new work by Kant. When Kant cleared the confusion and openly praised the work and author, Fichte's reputation skyrocketed. In a letter to Karl Reinhold, Jens Baggeson wrote that it was "...the most shocking and astonishing news... incenobody but Kant could have written this book. This amazing news of a third sun in the philosophical heavens has set me into such confusion." Kant waited seven years to make a public statement about the incident; after considerable external pressure he dissociated himself from Fichte. In his statement, he inscribed, "May God protect us from our friends. From our enemies, we can try to protect ourselves."


Jena

In October 1793, Fichte was married in
Zürich Zurich (; ) is the list of cities in Switzerland, largest city in Switzerland and the capital of the canton of Zurich. It is in north-central Switzerland, at the northwestern tip of Lake Zurich. , the municipality had 448,664 inhabitants. The ...
, where he remained the rest of the year. Stirred by the events and principles of the French Revolution, he wrote and anonymously published two pamphlets which led to him to be seen as a devoted defender of liberty of thought and action and an advocate of political changes. In December of the same year, he received an invitation to fill the position of extraordinary professor of philosophy at the University of Jena. He accepted and began his lectures in May 1794. With extraordinary zeal, he expounded his system of "
transcendental idealism Transcendental idealism is a philosophical system founded by German philosopher Immanuel Kant in the 18th century. Kant's epistemological program is found throughout his '' Critique of Pure Reason'' (1781). By ''transcendental'' (a term that des ...
". His success was immediate. He excelled as a lecturer due to the earnestness and force of his personality. These lectures were later published under the title ''The Vocation of the Scholar'' (''Einige Vorlesungen über die Bestimmung des Gelehrten''). He gave himself up to intense production, and a succession of works soon appeared.


Atheism dispute

Fichte was dismissed from the University of Jena in 1799 for
atheism Atheism, in the broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the Existence of God, existence of Deity, deities. Less broadly, atheism is a rejection of the belief that any deities exist. In an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the ...
. He had been accused of this in 1798 after publishing the essay "Ueber den Grund unsers Glaubens an eine göttliche Weltregierung" ("On the Ground of Our Belief in a Divine World-Governance"), written in response to Friedrich Karl Forberg's essay "Development of the Concept of Religion", in his ''Philosophical Journal''. For Fichte, God should be conceived primarily in moral terms: "The living and efficaciously acting moral order is itself God. We require no other God, nor can we grasp any other" ("On the Ground of Our Belief in a Divine World-Governance"). Fichte's intemperate "Appeal to the Public" ("Appellation an das Publikum", 1799) provoked F. H. Jacobi to publish an
open letter An open letter is a Letter (message), letter that is intended to be read by a wide audience, or a letter intended for an individual, but that is nonetheless widely distributed intentionally. Open letters usually take the form of a letter (mess ...
in which he equated philosophy in general and Fichte's transcendental philosophy in particular with
nihilism Nihilism () encompasses various views that reject certain aspects of existence. There have been different nihilist positions, including the views that Existential nihilism, life is meaningless, that Moral nihilism, moral values are baseless, and ...
.


Berlin

Since all the German states except Prussia had joined in the cry against Fichte, he was forced to go to Berlin. There he associated himself with Friedrich and August Wilhelm Schlegel, Schleiermacher, Schelling, and Tieck. In April 1800, through the introduction of Hungarian writer Ignaz Aurelius Fessler, he was initiated into
Freemasonry Freemasonry (sometimes spelled Free-Masonry) consists of fraternal groups that trace their origins to the medieval guilds of stonemasons. Freemasonry is the oldest secular fraternity in the world and among the oldest still-existing organizati ...
in the Lodge Pythagoras of the Blazing Star, where he was elected minor warden. At first Fichte was a warm admirer of Fessler, and was disposed to aid him in his proposed Masonic reform. But later he became Fessler's bitter opponent. Their controversy attracted much attention among Freemasons. Fichte presented two lectures on the philosophy of Masonry during the same period as part of his work on the development of various higher degrees for the lodge in Berlin.Glenn Alexander Magee, ''Hegel and the Hermetic Tradition'', Cornell University Press, 2008, p. 55. Johann Karl Christian Fischer, a high official of the Grand Orient, published those lectures in 1802/03 in two volumes under the title ''Philosophy of Freemasonry: Letters to Konstant'' (''Philosophie der Maurerei. Briefe an Konstant''), where "Konstant" referred to a fictitious non-Mason. In November 1800, Fichte published ''The Closed Commercial State: A Philosophical Sketch as an Appendix to the Doctrine of Right and an Example of a Future Politics'' (''Der geschlossene Handelsstaat. Ein philosophischer Entwurf als Anhang zur Rechtslehre und Probe einer künftig zu liefernden Politik''), a philosophical statement of his property theory, a historical analysis of European economic relations, and a political proposal for reforming them. In 1805, he was appointed to a professorship at the
University of Erlangen A university () is an institution of tertiary education and research which awards academic degrees in several academic disciplines. ''University'' is derived from the Latin phrase , which roughly means "community of teachers and scholars". Univ ...
. The Battle of Jena-Auerstedt in 1806, in which
Napoleon Napoleon Bonaparte (born Napoleone di Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French general and statesman who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led Military career ...
defeated the Prussian army, drove him to Königsberg for a time, but he returned to Berlin in 1807 and continued his literary activity. Fichte wrote ''On Machiavelli, as an Author, and Passages from His Writings'' in June 1807. ("''Über Machiavell, als Schriftsteller, und Stellen aus seinen Schriften''" ). Karl Clausewitz wrote a Letter to Fichte (1809) about his book on Machiavelli. After the collapse of the
Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire, also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe, usually headed by the Holy Roman Emperor. It developed in the Early Middle Ages, and lasted for a millennium ...
, when German southern principalities resigned as member states and became part of a French protectorship, Fichte delivered the famous '' Addresses to the German Nation'' (''Reden an die deutsche Nation'', 1807-1808), which attempted to define the German Nation and guided the uprising against Napoleon. He became a professor at the new
University of Berlin The Humboldt University of Berlin (, abbreviated HU Berlin) is a public research university in the central borough of Mitte in Berlin, Germany. The university was established by Frederick William III on the initiative of Wilhelm von Humbol ...
, founded in 1810. By the votes of his colleagues Fichte was unanimously elected its rector in the succeeding year. But, once more, his temperament led to friction, and he resigned in 1812. The campaign against Napoleon began, and the hospitals at Berlin were soon full of patients. Fichte's wife devoted herself to nursing and caught a virulent fever. Just as she was recovering, he became sick with
typhus Typhus, also known as typhus fever, is a group of infectious diseases that include epidemic typhus, scrub typhus, and murine typhus. Common symptoms include fever, headache, and a rash. Typically these begin one to two weeks after exposu ...
and died in 1814 at the age of 51. His son, Immanuel Hermann Fichte (18 July 1796 – 8 August 1879), also made contributions to
philosophy Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, Value (ethics and social sciences), value, mind, and language. It is a rational an ...
.


Philosophical work

Fichte's critics argued that his mimicry of Kant's difficult style produced works that were barely intelligible. On the other hand, Fichte acknowledged the difficulty, but argued that his works were clear and transparent to those who made the effort to think without preconceptions and prejudices. Fichte did not endorse Kant's argument for the existence of "things in themselves", the supra-sensible reality beyond direct human perception. Fichte saw the rigorous and
system A system is a group of interacting or interrelated elements that act according to a set of rules to form a unified whole. A system, surrounded and influenced by its open system (systems theory), environment, is described by its boundaries, str ...
atic separation of " things in themselves" and things "as they appear to us" (
phenomena A phenomenon ( phenomena), sometimes spelled phaenomenon, is an observable Event (philosophy), event. The term came into its modern Philosophy, philosophical usage through Immanuel Kant, who contrasted it with the noumenon, which ''cannot'' be ...
) as an invitation to
skepticism Skepticism ( US) or scepticism ( UK) is a questioning attitude or doubt toward knowledge claims that are seen as mere belief or dogma. For example, if a person is skeptical about claims made by their government about an ongoing war then the p ...
. Rather than invite skepticism, Fichte made the radical suggestion that we should throw out the notion of a world-in-itself and accept that
consciousness Consciousness, at its simplest, is awareness of a state or object, either internal to oneself or in one's external environment. However, its nature has led to millennia of analyses, explanations, and debate among philosophers, scientists, an ...
does not have a grounding. In fact, Fichte achieved fame for originating the argument that consciousness is not grounded in outside of itself. The phenomenal world as such, arises from consciousness, the activity of the I, and moral awareness.


Central theory

In '' Foundations of Natural Right'' (1797), Fichte argued that
self-consciousness Self-consciousness is a heightened sense of awareness of oneself. It is not to be confused with consciousness in the sense of qualia. Historically, "self-consciousness" was synonymous with " self-awareness", referring to a state of awareness th ...
is a social phenomenon. For Fichte, a necessary condition of every subject's self-awareness is the existence of other rational subjects. These others call or summon (''fordern auf'') the subject or self out of its unconsciousness and into an awareness of itself as a free individual. Fichte proceeds from the general principle that the I (''das Ich'') must posit itself as an individual in order to posit (''setzen'') itself at all, and that in order to posit itself as an individual, it must recognize itself to a calling or summons (''Aufforderung'') by other free individual(s) — called to limit its own freedom out of respect for the freedom of the others. The same condition applies to the others in development. Mutual recognition (''gegenseitig anerkennen'') of rational individuals is a condition necessary for the individual I. The argument for
intersubjectivity Intersubjectivity describes the shared understanding that emerges from interpersonal interactions. The term first appeared in social science in the 1970s and later incorporated into psychoanalytic theory by George E. Atwood and Robert Stolorow, ...
is central to the conception of selfhood developed in the '' Foundations of the Science of Knowledge'' (''Grundlage der gesamten Wissenschaftslehre'', 1794/1795). According to Fichte, consciousness of the self depends upon resistance or a check by something that is not self, yet is not immediately ascribable to a particular sensory perception. In his later 1796–99 lectures (his ''Nova methodo''), Fichte incorporated this into his revised presentation of the foundations of his system, where the summons takes its place alongside original feeling, which takes the place of the earlier ''Anstoss'' (see below) as a limit on the absolute freedom and a condition for the positing of the I. The I posits this situation for itself. To posit does not mean to 'create' the objects of consciousness. The principle in question simply states that the essence of an I lies in the assertion of self-identity; that is, consciousness presupposes self-consciousness. Such immediate self-identity cannot be understood as a psychological fact, or an act or accident of some previously existing substance or being. It is an action of the I, but one that is identical with the very existence of this same I. In Fichte's technical terminology, the original unity of self-consciousness is an action and the product of the same I, as a "fact and/or act" (''Thathandlung'';
Modern German New High German (NHG; ) is the term used for the most recent period in the history of the German language, starting in the 17th century. It is a loan translation of the German (). The most important characteristic of the period is the developme ...
: ''Tathandlung''), a unity that is presupposed by and contained within every fact and every act of empirical consciousness, although it never appears as such. The I can posit itself only as limited. It cannot even posit its own limitations, in the sense of producing or creating these limits. The finite I cannot be the ground of its own passivity. Instead, for Fichte, if the I is to posit itself, it must simply discover itself to be limited, a discovery that Fichte characterizes as an "impulse," "repulse," or "resistance" (''Anstoss''; Modern German: '' Anstoß'') to the free practical activity of the I. Such an original limitation of the I is, however, a limit for the I only insofar as the I posits it as a limit. The I does this, according to Fichte's analysis, by positing its own limitation, first, as only a feeling, then as a sensation, next as an intuition of a thing, and finally as a summons of another person. The ''Anstoss'' thus provides the essential impetus that first posits in motion the entire complex train of activities that finally result in our conscious experience both of ourselves and others as empirical individuals and of the world around us. Although ''Anstoss'' plays a similar role as the
thing in itself In Kantian philosophy, the thing-in-itself () is the status of objects as they are, independent of representation and observation. The concept of the thing-in-itself was introduced by the German philosopher Immanuel Kant, and over the followin ...
does in
Kantian Kantianism () is the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher born in Königsberg, Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia). The term ''Kantianism'' or ''Kantian'' is sometimes also used to describe contemporary positions in philosophy of mi ...
philosophy, unlike Kant, Fichte's ''Anstoss'' is not something foreign to the I. Instead, it denotes the original encounter of the I with its own finitude. Rather than claim that the not-I (''das Nicht-Ich'') is the cause or ground of the ''Anstoss'', Fichte argues that not-I is posited by the I in order to explain to itself the ''Anstoss'' in order to become conscious of ''Anstoss''. The ''Wissenschaftslehre'' demonstrates that ''Anstoss'' must occur if self-consciousness is to come about but is unable to explain the actual occurrence of ''Anstoss''. There are limits to what can be expected from an a priori deduction of experience, and this, for Fichte, equally applies to Kant's transcendental philosophy. According to Fichte, transcendental philosophy can explain that the world must have space, time, and causality, but it can never explain why objects have the particular sensible properties they happen to have or why I am this determinate individual rather than another. This is something that the I simply has to discover at the same time that it discovers its own freedom, and indeed, is a condition for the latter. Dieter Henrich (1966) proposed that Fichte was able to move beyond a "reflective theory of consciousness". According to Fichte, the self must already have some prior acquaintance with itself, independent of the act of reflection ("no object comes to consciousness except under the condition that I am aware of myself, the conscious subject"). This idea is what Henrich called Fichte's original insight. Dieter Henrich, "Fichte's Original Insight", ''Contemporary German Philosophy'' 1 (1982 966, ed. by Darrel E. Christensen ''et al.'', pp. 15–52 (translation of Henrich, Dieter (1966), "Fichtes ursprüngliche Einsicht", in: ''Subjektivität und Metaphysik. Festschrift für Wolfgang Cramer'' edited by D. Henrich und H. Wagner, Frankfurt/M., pp. 188–232). Henrich's article is an analysis of the following three presentations of the '' Wissenschaftslehre'': '' Grundlage der gesamten 'sic''Wissenschaftslehre'' (''Foundations of the Science of Knowledge'', 1794/1795), ''Versuch einer neuen Darstellung der Wissenschaftslehre'' (''An Attempt a New Presentation of the Wissenschaftslehre'', 1797/1798), and ''Darstellung der Wissenschaftslehre'' (''Presentation of the Wissenschaftslehre'', 1801).


Nationalism

Between December 1807 and March 1808, Fichte gave a series of lectures concerning the "German nation" and its culture and language, projecting the kind of national education he hoped would raise it from the humiliation of its defeat at the hands of the French. Having been a supporter of Revolutionary France, Fichte became disenchanted by 1804 as Napoleon's armies advanced through Europe, occupying German territories, stripping them of their raw materials and subjugating them to foreign rule. He came to believe Germany would be responsible for carrying the virtues of the French Revolution into the future. Disappointed in the French, he turned to the German nation as the instrument of fulfilling it. These lectures, entitled the ''Addresses to the German Nation'', coincided with a period of reform in the Prussian government under the chancellorship of Baron vom Stein. The ''Addresses'' display Fichte's interest during that period in language and culture as vehicles of human spiritual development. Fichte built upon earlier ideas of
Johann Gottfried Herder Johann Gottfried von Herder ( ; ; 25 August 174418 December 1803) was a Prussian philosopher, theologian, pastor, poet, and literary critic. Herder is associated with the Age of Enlightenment, ''Sturm und Drang'', and Weimar Classicism. He wa ...
and attempted to unite them with his approach. The aim of the German nation, according to Fichte, was to "found an empire of spirit and reason, and to annihilate completely the crude physical force that rules of the world." Like Herder's German nationalism, Fichte's was cultural, and grounded in aesthetic, literary, and moral principles. The nationalism propounded by Fichte in the ''Addresses'' would be used over a century later by the
Nazi Party The Nazi Party, officially the National Socialist German Workers' Party ( or NSDAP), was a far-right politics, far-right political party in Germany active between 1920 and 1945 that created and supported the ideology of Nazism. Its precursor ...
in Germany, which saw in Fichte a forerunner to its own nationalist ideology. As with
Nietzsche Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (15 October 1844 – 25 August 1900) was a German philosopher. He began his career as a classical philologist, turning to philosophy early in his academic career. In 1869, aged 24, Nietzsche became the youngest pro ...
, the association of Fichte with the Nazi regime came to color readings of Fichte in the post-war period. This reading of Fichte was often bolstered through reference to an unpublished letter from 1793, ''Contributions to the Correction of the Public's Judgment concerning the French Revolution'', in which Fichte expressed anti-Semitic sentiments, such as arguing against extending civil rights to Jews and calling them a "state within a state" that could "undermine" the German nation.''Gesamtausgabe'', I/1, pp. 292–293 However, attached to the letter is a footnote in which Fichte provides an impassioned plea for permitting Jews to practice their religion without hindrance. Furthermore, the final act of Fichte's academic career was to resign as rector of the University of Berlin in protest when his colleagues refused to punish the harassment of Jewish students. While recent scholarship has sought to dissociate Fichte's writings on nationalism with their adoption by the Nazi Party, the association continues to blight his legacy, although Fichte, as if to exclude all ground of doubt, clearly and distinctly prohibits, in his reworked version of ''The Science of Ethics as Based on the Science of Knowledge'' (see § Final period in Berlin) genocide and other crimes against humanity: : If you say that it is your conscience's command to exterminate peoples for their sins, ..we can confidently tell you that you are wrong; for such things can never be commanded against the free and moral force.


Economics

Fichte's 1800 economic treatise ''The Closed Commercial State'' had a profound influence on the economic theories of
German Romanticism German Romanticism () was the dominant intellectual movement of German-speaking countries in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, influencing philosophy, aesthetics, literature, and criticism. Compared to English Romanticism, the German vari ...
. In it, Fichte argues the need for the strictest, purely guild-like regulation of industry. The "exemplary rational state" (''Vernunftstaat''), Fichte argues, should not allow any of its "subjects" to engage in this or that production, failing to pass the preliminary test, not certifying government agents in their professional skills and agility. According to Vladimir Mikhailovich Shulyatikov, "this kind of demand was typical of ''Mittelstund'', the German petty
middle class The middle class refers to a class of people in the middle of a social hierarchy, often defined by occupation, income, education, or social status. The term has historically been associated with modernity, capitalism and political debate. C ...
, the class of
artisan An artisan (from , ) is a skilled craft worker who makes or creates material objects partly or entirely by hand. These objects may be functional or strictly decorative, for example furniture, decorative art, sculpture, clothing, food ite ...
s, hoping by creating artificial barriers to stop the victorious march of big capital and thus save themselves from inevitable death. The same demand was imposed on the state, as is evident from Fichte's treatise, by the German "factory" (''Fabrike''), more precisely, the manufacture of the early 19th century". Fichte opposed
free trade Free trade is a trade policy that does not restrict imports or exports. In government, free trade is predominantly advocated by political parties that hold Economic liberalism, economically liberal positions, while economic nationalist politica ...
and unrestrained capitalist industrial growth, stating: "There is an endless war of all against all ... And this war is becoming more fierce, unjust, more dangerous in its consequences, the more the world's population grows, the more acquisitions the trading state makes, the more production and art (industry) develops and, together with thus, the number of circulating goods increases, and with them the needs become more and more diversified." The only means that could save the modern world, which would destroy evil at the root, is, according to Fichte, to split the "world state" (the global market) into separate self-sufficient bodies. Each such body, each "closed trading state" will be able to regulate its internal economic relations. It will be able to both extract and process everything that is needed to meet the needs of its citizens. It will carry out the ideal organization of production. Fichte argued for government regulation of industrial growth, writing "Only by limitation does a certain industry become the property of the class that deals with it".


Women

Fichte believed that "active citizenship, civic freedom and even property rights should be withheld from women, whose calling was to subject themselves utterly to the authority of their fathers and husbands."


Final period in Berlin

Fichte gave a wide range of public and private lectures in Berlin in the last decade of his life. These form some of his best-known work, and are the basis of a revived German-speaking scholarly interest in his work.Breazeale, Dan
"Johann Gottlieb Fichte"
''The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (Spring 2012 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed).
The lectures include two works from 1806. In ''The Characteristics of the Present Age'' (''Die Grundzüge des gegenwärtigen Zeitalters''), Fichte outlines his theory of different historical and cultural epochs. His mystic work ''The Way Towards the Blessed Life'' (''Die Anweisung zum seligen Leben oder auch die Religionslehre'') gave his fullest thoughts on religion. In 1807-1808 he gave a series of speeches in French-occupied Berlin, ''Addresses to the German Nation''. In 1810, the new
University of Berlin The Humboldt University of Berlin (, abbreviated HU Berlin) is a public research university in the central borough of Mitte in Berlin, Germany. The university was established by Frederick William III on the initiative of Wilhelm von Humbol ...
was established, designed along ideas put forward by
Wilhelm von Humboldt Friedrich Wilhelm Christian Karl Ferdinand von Humboldt (22 June 1767 – 8 April 1835) was a German philosopher, linguist, government functionary, diplomat, and founder of the Humboldt University of Berlin. In 1949, the university was named aft ...
. Fichte was made its rector and also the first Chair of Philosophy. This was in part because of educational themes in the ''Addresses'', and in part because of his earlier work at Jena University. Fichte lectured on further versions of his ''Wissenschaftslehre''. Of these, he only published a brief work from 1810, ''The Science of Knowledge in its General Outline'' (''Die Wissenschaftslehre, in ihrem allgemeinen Umrisse dargestellt''; also translated as ''Outline of the Doctrine of Knowledge''). His son published some of these thirty years after his death. Most only became public in the last decades of the twentieth century, in his collected works. This included reworked versions of the ''Doctrine of Science'' (''Wissenschaftslehre'', 1810–1813), ''The Science of Rights'' (''Das System der Rechtslehre'', 1812), and ''The Science of Ethics as Based on the Science of Knowledge'' (''Das System der Sittenlehre nach den Principien der Wissenschaftslehre'', 1812; 1st ed. 1798).


Bibliography


Selected works in German


''Wissenschaftslehre''

* ''Ueber den Begriff der Wissenschaftslehre oder der sogenannten Philosophie'' (1794) * '' Grundlage der gesamten 'sic''Wissenschaftslehre'' (1794/1795) * ''Wissenschaftslehre nova methodo'' (1796–1799: "Halle Nachschrift," 1796/1797 and "Krause Nachschrift," 1798/1799) * ''Versuch einer neuen Darstellung der Wissenschaftslehre'' (1797/1798) * ''Darstellung der Wissenschaftslehre'' (1801) * ''Die Wissenschaftslehre'' (1804, 1812, 1813) * ''Die Wissenschaftslehre, in ihrem allgemeinen Umrisse dargestellt'' (1810)


Other works in German

* '' Versuch einer Critik icaller Offenbarung'' (1792) * ''Beitrag zur Berichtigung der Urteile des Publikums über die französische Revolution'' (1793) * ''Einige Vorlesungen über die Bestimmung des Gelehrten'' (1794) * ''Grundlage des Naturrechts'' (1796) * ''Das System der Sittenlehre nach den Principien der Wissenschaftslehre'' (1798) * "Ueber den Grund unsers Glaubens an eine göttliche Weltregierung" (1798) * "Appellation an das Publikum über die durch Churf. Sächs. Confiscationsrescript ihm beigemessenen atheistischen Aeußerungen. Eine Schrift, die man zu lesen bittet, ehe man sie confsicirt" (1799) * ''Der geschlossene Handelsstaat. Ein philosophischer Entwurf als Anhang zur Rechtslehre und Probe einer künftig zu liefernden Politik'' (1800) * ''Die Bestimmung des Menschen'' (1800) * '' Friedrich Nicolais Leben und sonderbare Meinungen''English translation: ''Friedrich Nicolai's Life and Strange Opinions''. (1801) * ''Philosophie der Maurerei. Briefe an Konstant'' (1802/03) * ''Die Grundzüge des gegenwärtigen Zeitalters'' (1806) * ''Die Anweisung zum seligen Leben oder auch die Religionslehre'' (1806) * ''Reden an die deutsche Nation'' (1807/1808) * ''Das System der Rechtslehre'' (1812)


Correspondence

* ''Jacobi an Fichte'', German Text (1799/1816), with Introduction and Critical Apparatus by Marco Ivaldo and Ariberto Acerbi (Introduction, German Text, Italian Translation, 3 Appendices with ''Jacobi's and Fichte's complementary Texts'', Philological Notes, Commentary, Bibliography, Index): Istituto Italiano per gli Studi Filosofici Press, Naples 2011, .


Collected works in German

The new standard edition of Fichte's works in German, which supersedes all previous editions, is the ''Gesamtausgabe'' ("Collected Works" or "Complete Edition", commonly abbreviated as ''GA''), prepared by the Bavarian Academy of Sciences: ''Gesamtausgabe der Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften'', 42 volumes, edited by , Hans Gliwitzky, Erich Fuchs and Peter Schneider, Stuttgart-Bad Cannstatt: Frommann-Holzboog, 1962–2012. It is organized into four parts: *Part I: Published Works *Part II: Unpublished Writings *Part III: Correspondence *Part IV: Lecture Transcripts Fichte's works are quoted and cited from ''GA'', followed by a combination of Roman and Arabic numbers, indicating the series and volume, respectively, and the page number(s). Another edition is ''Johann Gottlieb Fichtes sämmtliche Werke'' (abbrev. ''SW''), ed. I. H. Fichte. Berlin: de Gruyter, 1971.


Selected works in English

* ''Concerning the Conception of the Science of Knowledge Generally'' (''Ueber den Begriff der Wissenschaftslehre oder der sogenannten Philosophie'', 1794), translated by Adolph Ernst Kroeger. In ''The Science of Knowledge'', pp. 331–336. Philadelphia: J.B. Lippincott & Co., 1868. Rpt., London: Trübner & Co., 1889. * '' Attempt at a Critique of All Revelation''. Trans. Garrett Green. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1978. (Translation of ''Versuch einer Critik aller Offenbarung'', 1st ed. 1792, 2nd ed. 1793.) * ''Early Philosophical Writings''. Trans. and ed. Daniel Breazeale. Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1988. (Contains Selections from Fichte's Writings and Correspondence from the Jena period, 1794–1799). * '' Foundations of the Entire Science of Knowledge''. Translation of: ''Grundlage der gesammten Wissenschaftslehre'' (1794/95, 2nd ed. 1802), Fichte's first major exposition of the ''Wissenschaftlehre''. In: * '' Foundations of Natural Right''. Trans. Michael Baur. Ed. Frederick Neuhouser. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. (Translation of ''Grundlage des Naturrechts'', 1796/97.) * ''Foundations of Transcendental Philosophy (Wissenschaftslehre) Nova Methodo'' 'FTP''!--abbreviation-->. Trans. and ed. Daniel Breazeale. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1992. (Translation of ''Wissenschaftslehre nova methodo'', 1796–1799.) * ''The System of Ethics according to the Principles of the Wissenschaftslehre'' (translation of Das System der Sittenlehre nach den Principien der Wissenschaftslehre, 1798). Ed. and trans. Daniel Breazeale and Günter Zöller. Cambridge University Press, 2005. * ''Introductions to the Wissenschaftslehre and Other Writings''. Trans. and ed. Daniel Breazeale. Indianapolis, and Cambridge: Hackett, 1994. (Contains mostly writings from the late Jena period, 1797–1799.) * '' The Vocation of Man'', 1848. Trans. Peter Preuss. Indianapolis. (Translation of ''Die Bestimmung des Menschen'', 1800.)
''The Vocation of the Scholar''
1847. (Translation of ''Einige Vorlesungen über die Bestimmung des Gelehrten'', 1794.) * * ''A Crystal Clear Report to the General Public Concerning the Actual Essence of the Newest Philosophy: An Attempt to Force the Reader to Understand''. Trans. John Botterman and William Rash. In: ''Philosophy of German Idealism'', pp. 39–115. (Translation of ''Sonnenklarer Bericht an das grössere Publikum über das Wesen der neuesten Philosophie'', 1801.) * * ''Outline of the Doctrine of Knowledge'', 1810 (Translation of ''Die Wissenschaftslehre, in ihrem allgemeinen Umrisse dargestellt'' published in ''From The Popular Works of Johann Gottlieb Fichte'', Trubner and Co., 1889; trans. William Smith.)
''On the Nature of the Scholar''
1845 (Translation of ''Ueber das Wesen des Gelehrten'', 1806.) * ''Characteristics of the Present Age'' (''Die Grundzüge des gegenwärtigen Zeitalters'', 1806). In: ''The Popular Works of Johann Gottlieb Fichte'', 2 vols., trans. and ed. William Smith. London: Chapman, 1848/49. Reprint, London: Thoemmes Press, 1999. * '' Addresses to the German Nation'' (''Reden an die deutsche Nation'', 1808), ed. and trans. Gregory Moore. Cambridge University Press, 2008. * ''The Philosophical Rupture Between Fichte and Schelling: Selected Texts and Correspondence (1800–1802)''. Trans. and eds. Michael G. Vater and David W. Wood. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2012. Includes the following texts by Johann Gottlieb Fichte: Correspondence with F.W.J. Schelling (1800–1802); "Announcement" (1800); extract from "New Version of the Wissenschaftslehre" (1800); "Commentaries on Schelling's System of Transcendental Idealism and Presentation of My System of Philosophy" (1800–1801).


Works online in English

* J.G. Fichte
"The Wissenschaftslehre is Mathematics" ("Announcement", 1800/1801)

''Addresses to the German Nation''
(1922). (Trs. R. F. Jones and G. H. Turnbull.)
''The Destination of Man''
(1846). Alternative translation of ''The Vocation of Man'']. (Tr. Mrs. Percy Sinnett.)
''Doctrine de la science''
(Paris, 1843). French translation of ''Foundations of the Entire Science of Knowledge''.
''Johann Gottlieb Fichte's Popular Works''
(1873). (Tr. William Smith.)
''New Exposition of the Science of Knowledge''
(1869). Translation of ''Versuch einer neuen Darstellung der Wissenschaftslehre''. (Tr. A. E. Kroeger.)
''On the Nature of the Scholar''
(1845). Alternative translation of ''The Vocation of the Scholar''. (Tr. William Smith.) * ''The Popular Works of Johann Gottlieb Fichte'' (1848–49). (Tr. William Smith.) ** Volume 1, 1848
Google (Oxford)IA (UToronto)
4th ed., 1889
IA (UIllinois)IA (UToronto)
** Volume 2, 1849
IA (UToronto)
4th ed., 1889
Google (Stanford)IA (UIllinois)IA (UToronto)
* ''The Science of Ethics as Based on the Science of Knowledge'' (1897). (Tr. A. E. Kroeger.
Google (UMich)IA (UToronto)
* ''The Science of Knowledge'' (1889). Alternative translation of ''Foundations of the Entire Science of Knowledge''. (Tr. A. E. Kroeger.
IA (UToronto)
* ''The Science of Rights'' (1889). (Tr. A. E. Kroeger.
IA (UCal)
* (German) ''Versuch einer Critik aller Offenbarung'' (Königsberg, 1792; 2nd ed. 1793)
GallicaGoogle (Oxford)Google (Oxford)
* ''The Vocation of Man'' (1848). (Tr. William Smith.
Google (Oxford)
1910
Google (UCal)
* ''The Vocation of the Scholar'' (1847). (Tr. William Smith.
IA (UCal)
* ''The Way Towards the Blessed Life'' (1849). (Tr. William Smith.
Google (Oxford)

"On the Foundation of Our Belief in a Divine Government of the Universe"
alternative translation of "On the Ground of Our Belief in a Divine World-Governance" (trans. anon.; n.d.).


Notes


References

* Daniel Breazeale. "Fichte's ''Aenesidemus'' Review and the Transformation of German Idealism" ''The Review of Metaphysics'', 34 (1980–81): 545–68. * Daniel Breazeale and
Tom Rockmore Tom Rockmore (born 1942) is an American philosopher. Although he denies the usual distinction between philosophy and the history of philosophy, he has strong interests throughout the history of philosophy and defends a constructivist view of epi ...
(eds.). ''Fichte: Historical Contexts/Contemporary Controversies''. Atlantic Highlands: Humanities Press, 1994. * Daniel Breazeale and
Tom Rockmore Tom Rockmore (born 1942) is an American philosopher. Although he denies the usual distinction between philosophy and the history of philosophy, he has strong interests throughout the history of philosophy and defends a constructivist view of epi ...
(eds.), ''Fichte, German Idealism, and Early Romanticism'', Rodopi, 2010. * Daniel Breazeale. ''Thinking Through the Wissenschaftslehre: Themes from Fichte's Early Philosophy''. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013. * Ezequiel L. Posesorski. ''Between Reinhold and Fichte: August Ludwig Hülsen's Contribution to the Emergence of German Idealism''. Karlsruhe: Karlsruher Institut Für Technologie, 2012. * Sally Sedgwick. ''The Reception of Kant's Critical Philosophy: Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. * Violetta L. Waibel, Daniel Breazeale,
Tom Rockmore Tom Rockmore (born 1942) is an American philosopher. Although he denies the usual distinction between philosophy and the history of philosophy, he has strong interests throughout the history of philosophy and defends a constructivist view of epi ...
(eds.), ''Fichte and the Phenomenological Tradition'', Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2010. * Günter Zöller. ''Fichte's Transcendental Philosophy: The Original Duplicity of Intelligence and Will''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.


External links

* * *
Outlines of the Doctrine of Knowledge
*
The North American Fichte Society

Works by Fichte, original German texts

Internationale Johann-Gottlieb-Fichte-Gesellschaft
*

{{DEFAULTSORT:Fichte, Johann Gottlieb 1762 births 1814 deaths People from Bautzen (district) People from the Electorate of Saxony German Lutherans German nationalists 18th-century German writers 18th-century German philosophers 19th-century German writers 19th-century German philosophers Christian philosophers German idealists German Freemasons German male writers Writers from Saxony Translators of Dante Alighieri Deaths from typhus in Germany Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin Academic staff of the University of Erlangen-Nuremberg Academic staff of the University of Jena