Anarchism in Greece traces its roots to

ancient Greece Ancient Greece () was a northeastern Mediterranean civilization, existing from the Greek Dark Ages of the 12th–9th centuries BC to the end of classical antiquity (), that comprised a loose collection of culturally and linguistically r ...

but was formed as a political movement during the 19th century. It was in the ancient era that the first libertarian thoughts appeared when

philosophers Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, value, mind, and language. It is a rational and critical inquiry that reflects on ...

based on

rationality Rationality is the quality of being guided by or based on reason. In this regard, a person acts rationally if they have a good reason for what they do, or a belief is rational if it is based on strong evidence. This quality can apply to an ab ...

questioned the fundamentals of tradition. Modern anarchism in Greece emerged in the 19th century, heavily influenced by the contemporary European classical anarchism. Because of the

Bolshevik The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, were a radical Faction (political), faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split with the Mensheviks at the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, ...

success in the

Russian Revolution of 1917 The Russian Revolution was a period of Political revolution (Trotskyism), political and social revolution, social change in Russian Empire, Russia, starting in 1917. This period saw Russia Dissolution of the Russian Empire, abolish its mona ...

and the rise of the Communist Party, anarchism faded after the first decades of the 20th century. The collapse of the military junta put an end to the monopoly of the political power from the Right, whereas the dissolution of the Soviet Union diminished the allure of the

Communist Party of Greece The Communist Party of Greece (, ΚΚΕ; ''Kommounistikó Kómma Elládas'', KKE) is a Marxist–Leninist political party in Greece. It was founded in 1918 as the Socialist Workers' Party of Greece (SEKE) and adopted its current name in Novem ...

allowing anarchist groups to gain pace in

Athens Athens ( ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Greece, largest city of Greece. A significant coastal urban area in the Mediterranean, Athens is also the capital of the Attica (region), Attica region and is the southe ...

and other cities.

Precursors

Beliefs, opinions and sentiments that are close to anarchist core values were expressed in Ancient Greece. With the appearance of presocratic thought, rational inquiry during the classical and Hellenistic period, challenged traditional beliefs, religion and authority itself.

Socrates Socrates (; ; – 399 BC) was a Ancient Greek philosophy, Greek philosopher from Classical Athens, Athens who is credited as the founder of Western philosophy and as among the first moral philosophers of the Ethics, ethical tradition ...

skepticism towards the state and its passionate support of the individual's moral freedom were among the first-ever libertarian critiques. Cynics' contribution to philosophical anarchism was the distinction between the man-made laws and nature's law, fiercely rejecting the former.

Stoics Stoicism is a school of Hellenistic philosophy that flourished in ancient Greece and Rome. The Stoics believed that the universe operated according to reason, ''i.e.'' by a God which is immersed in nature itself. Of all the schools of ancient ...

followed the same worldview and

Zeno of Citium Zeno of Citium (; , ; c. 334 – c. 262 BC) was a Hellenistic philosophy, Hellenistic philosopher from Kition, Citium (, ), Cyprus. He was the founder of the Stoicism, Stoic school of philosophy, which he taught in Athens from about 300 BC. B ...

, the main stoic philosopher, received the admiration of 19th-century anarchist, Piotr Kropotkin, who was impressed by Zeno's Republic- a community based on

egalitarianism Egalitarianism (; also equalitarianism) is a school of thought within political philosophy that builds on the concept of social equality, prioritizing it for all people. Egalitarian doctrines are generally characterized by the idea that all hum ...

and friendly relations. A powerful play resonating with anarchism was

Antigone ANTIGONE (Algorithms for coNTinuous / Integer Global Optimization of Nonlinear Equations), is a deterministic global optimization solver for general Mixed-Integer Nonlinear Programs (MINLP). History ANTIGONE is an evolution of GloMIQO, a global ...

, by

Sophocles Sophocles ( 497/496 – winter 406/405 BC)Sommerstein (2002), p. 41. was an ancient Greek tragedian known as one of three from whom at least two plays have survived in full. His first plays were written later than, or contemporary with, those ...

, where a young woman defies the orders of the Ruler and acts according to her consciousness.

Ottoman era

According to some academics, shortly before and after the end of Ottoman rule in Greece, the socioeconomic relations of the Greek countryside reflected traits of Bakunian collectivism (decentralization and autonomy) creating a future audience for anarchist ideas. Discussing the second half of the 19th century, a source argued that the level of anarchist activity in the Ottoman Empire was comparable to that in Europe. Some of the Greek anarchists were born in the Ottoman Empire, for example Emmanouil Dadaoglou was from

İzmir İzmir is the List of largest cities and towns in Turkey, third most populous city in Turkey, after Istanbul and Ankara. It is on the Aegean Sea, Aegean coast of Anatolia, and is the capital of İzmir Province. In 2024, the city of İzmir had ...

. According to a study of anarchism in the late

Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...

by Axel Corlu, Greek anarchists were significantly less than their

Armenian Armenian may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia * Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent ** Armenian diaspora, Armenian communities around the ...

or Bulgarian counterparts in the Ottoman Empire at the end of the 19th century. Corlu suggests that Greek anarchists were mostly focused in influencing events, struggles and structures in the Greek state rather than the Ottoman Empire.

Early anarchism

Early anarchism in Greece traces to the mid-19th century and lasted through

World War II World War II or the Second World War (1 September 1939 – 2 September 1945) was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War II, Allies and the Axis powers. World War II by country, Nearly all of the wo ...

. Early Greek socialist thought was dominated by anarchism. The most influential anarchist authors in Greek at the time were

Bakunin Mikhail Alexandrovich Bakunin. Sometimes anglicized to Michael Bakunin. ( ; – 1 July 1876) was a Russian revolutionary anarchist. He is among the most influential figures of anarchism and a major figure in the revolutionary socialist, so ...

Andrea Costa Andrea Costa (29 November 1851 – 19 January 1910) was an Italian socialist politician. Among the founders of the Italian socialist movement, he was the first socialist deputy in Italian history. Biography Andrea Costa was born on 29 November ...

Kropotkin Pyotr Alexeyevich Kropotkin (9 December 1842 – 8 February 1921) was a Russian anarchist and geographer known as a proponent of anarchist communism. Born into an aristocratic land-owning family, Kropotkin attended the Page Corps and later ...

, and

Jean Grave Jean Grave (; October 16, 1854, Le Breuil-sur-Couze – December 8, 1939, Vienne-en-Val) was an important activist in French anarchism and the international anarchist communism movements. He was the editor of three major anarchist periodicals, ...

; for comparison,

Marx Karl Marx (; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, political theorist, economist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. He is best-known for the 1848 pamphlet '' The Communist Manifesto'' (written with Friedrich Engels) ...

and

Engels Friedrich Engels ( ;"Engels"
''

Italy Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe, Western Europe. It consists of Italian Peninsula, a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea, with the Alps on its northern land b ...

and Italian immigrants imported anarchism to the

Greek mainland Greece is a country in Southeastern Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula. It is bordered to the north by Albania, North Macedonia and Bulgaria; to the east by Turkey, and is surrounded to the east by the Aegean Sea, to the south by the Cretan and th ...

with the

Ionian islands The Ionian Islands (Modern Greek: , ; Ancient Greek, Katharevousa: , ) are a archipelago, group of islands in the Ionian Sea, west of mainland Greece. They are traditionally called the Heptanese ("Seven Islands"; , ''Heptanēsa'' or , ''Heptanē ...

as a midpoint. Geographical proximity to Italy and a large Italian political immigrant community dating back to the

1848 revolutions The revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the springtime of the peoples or the springtime of nations, were a series of revolutions throughout Europe over the course of more than one year, from 1848 to 1849. It remains the most widespre ...

explains why the

port town A port is a maritime facility comprising one or more wharves or loading areas, where ships load and discharge cargo and passengers. Although usually situated on a sea coast or estuary, ports can also be found far inland, such as Hamburg, Manche ...

Patras Patras (; ; Katharevousa and ; ) is Greece's List of cities in Greece, third-largest city and the regional capital and largest city of Western Greece, in the northern Peloponnese, west of Athens. The city is built at the foot of Mount Panachaiko ...

saw the first organized anarchist group. Patras had organized meeting places, a viable local press and publishing activity. Various individuals were inspired by the expansion of European classical anarchism. The first anarchist publication in Greece appeared in September 1861, in the daily newspaper ' (Light), issue 334. In the main article of the paper, titled "Anarchy," part A, the writer, Dimos Papathanasiou, employed classical

anti-authoritarian Anti-authoritarianism is opposition to authoritarianism. Anti-authoritarians usually believe in full equality before the law and strong civil liberties. Sometimes the term is used interchangeably with anarchism, an ideology which entails opposing a ...

rhetoric, characterized anarchy as the greatest good and claimed that state authorities live at the expense of the people. The first Greek-organized anarchist group was the Democratic Club of Patras (Δημοκρατικός Σύλλογος Πάτρας). Founded in 1876 and affiliated with the anti-authoritarian

Jura Federation The Jura Federation () represented the anarchist, Bakuninist faction of the First International during the anti-statist split from the organization. The Canton of Jura, a Swiss area, was known for its watchmaker artisans in La Chaux-de-Fonds, w ...

of the

First International The International Workingmen's Association (IWA; 1864–1876), often called the First International, was a political international which aimed at uniting a variety of different left-wing socialist, social democratic, communist, and anarchist ...

, the Democratic Club helped to create a federated network of similar Greek groups. They also published the first anarchist newspaper in Greece, ''Greek Democracy'' (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία). In its declaration of principles, the Democratic Club claimed that "poverty and ignorance are the greatest wounds of the people" and supported the liberation of Greeks in the

. Emmanouil Dadaoglou and the Italian

Amilcare Cipriani Amilcare Cipriani (18 October 1844 in Anzio – 30 April 1918 in Paris)1862 Athens uprising, though details of Dadaoglou's life are unverified. In 1876, the Democratic Club sent a greeting message to the International Anarchist Congress in Bern, and in December it accedes to the decisions of the congress. The same year, an anarchist working club was founded in

Syros Syros ( ), also known as Siros or Syra, is a Greece, Greek island in the Cyclades, in the Aegean Sea. It is south-east of Athens. The area of the island is and at the 2021 census it had 21,124 inhabitants. The largest towns are Ermoupoli, Ano S ...

. In 1877, the Democratic Club took part in the Universal Socialist Congress in

Ghent Ghent ( ; ; historically known as ''Gaunt'' in English) is a City status in Belgium, city and a Municipalities of Belgium, municipality in the Flemish Region of Belgium. It is the capital and largest city of the Provinces of Belgium, province ...

, where it was represented by Italian anarchist

. The first government crackdown on members of the club followed soon afterwards. Its members were jailed for months after being accused of a conspiracy against the king, only being released after an intervention by parliamenent member R. Choidas. It played an instrumental role in the tannery and shipyard strikes of 1879. In the Lavrion mines, the influence of anarchist and socialist politicized foreign workers (mostly from Italy and Spain) played a vital role in a series of

anarcho-syndicalist Anarcho-syndicalism is an anarchist organisational model that centres trade unions as a vehicle for class conflict. Drawing from the theory of libertarian socialism and the practice of syndicalism, anarcho-syndicalism sees trade unions as both ...

leaning strikes in the mines during the late 19th century. The most famous of which took place in 1896 in

Lavrio Lavrio, Lavrion or Laurium (; (later ); from Middle Ages until 1908: Εργαστήρια ''Ergastiria'') is a town in southeastern part of Attica, Greece. It is part of Athens metropolitan area and the seat of the municipality of Lavreotiki ...

. It was organized by the anarchist union Kosmos and was accompanied by dynamite attacks, resulting in several casualties both among the workers and the mining company's guards. Despite the periodic success of Greek anarchists in mobilizing the

working class The working class is a subset of employees who are compensated with wage or salary-based contracts, whose exact membership varies from definition to definition. Members of the working class rely primarily upon earnings from wage labour. Most c ...

, the number of core members of anarchist clubs remained small. In 1892, the clubs in Patras, Athens and Pyrgos had 40, ten and 7 members respectively. Pyrgos, a

Peloponnese The Peloponnese ( ), Peloponnesus ( ; , ) or Morea (; ) is a peninsula and geographic region in Southern Greece, and the southernmost region of the Balkans. It is connected to the central part of the country by the Isthmus of Corinth land bridg ...

city close to Patras, was another place where anarchist ideas flourished along with other socialist currents. The fight against

loan sharks A loan shark is a person who offers loans at extremely high or illegal interest rates, has strict terms of collection, and generally operates outside the law, often using the threat of violence or other illegal, aggressive, and extortionate ...

and the heavy taxation by the state fueled anarchist thought among small

raisin A raisin is a Dried fruit, dried grape. Raisins are produced in many regions of the world and may be eaten raw or used in cooking, baking, and brewing. In the United Kingdom, Republic of Ireland, Ireland, New Zealand, Australia and South Afri ...

producers in the Peloponnese which was the home of various anarchist groups in the late 19th century. ''New Light'' (Νέον Φως) was a western Peloponnese weekly newspaper that voiced anarchist ideas (local and international). It was first published in October 1898 by the lawyer

Vasileios Theodoridis Vasileios Theodoridis (Greek: Βασίλειος Θεοδωρίδης) was a Greek journalist and anarchist. Theodoridis was born in Pyrgos and studied law in Athens. He was descended from the famous Theodoridis family and was the son of Aristom ...

. Its aim was to unify the subversive people of the Western Peloponnese to face social problems. The newspaper contained articles by Drakoulis, translations of the works of Pavlos Argyriadis, republications of texts that first appeared in Athenian magazines, and news about the Greek and the international

labor movement The labour movement is the collective organisation of working people to further their shared political and economic interests. It consists of the trade union or labour union movement, as well as political parties of labour. It can be considere ...

. It also contained

adages A saying is any concise expression that is especially memorable because of its meaning or style. A saying often shows a wisdom or cultural standard, having different meanings than just the words themselves. Sayings are categorized as follows: * ...

of the Orthodox Church Fathers and

Charles Fourier François Marie Charles Fourier (; ; 7 April 1772 – 10 October 1837) was a French philosopher, an influential early socialist thinker, and one of the founders of utopian socialism. Some of his views, held to be radical in his lifetime, have be ...

as well as translations of texts by Bakunin, Kropotkin and Girard. The anarchist groups of the Peloponnese were the strongest in Greece until the early 20th century. They conducted lively propaganda work in the cities and their surroundings as opposed to "authoritarian" socialists who were more interested in

parliamentary politics A parliamentary system, or parliamentary democracy, is a form of government where the head of government (chief executive) derives their Election, democratic legitimacy from their ability to command the support ("confidence") of a majority of t ...

. They encouraged

abstention Abstention is a term in election procedure for when a participant in a Voting, vote either does not go to vote (on election day) or, in parliamentary procedure, is present during the vote but does not cast a ballot. Abstention must be contrast ...

in the elections of 1899 and mobilized against loan sharks and taxation in the name of raisin producers. They did not seek the support of the state to confront the current crisis but they denounced instead state mechanisms of oppression. Zestful socialist Stavros Kallergis was arguing in ''The Socialist'' (a newspaper he was editing) that socialism is the path towards Anarchism. ''The Socialist'' funneling the contemporary socialist thought of Europe into Greece, ranging from moderate socialist to anarchist opinions, over the course of the 1890s. Persecution against anarchists intensified in the summer of 1894. The assassination of Sadi Carnot by an anarchist led to a barrage of attacks against the anarchists by the press, and in particular by ''Asty'', the official organ of

Charilaos Trikoupis Charilaos Trikoupis (; 11 July 1832 – 30 March 1896) was a Greek politician who served as a Prime Minister of Greece seven times from 1875 until 1895. He is best remembered for introducing the vote of confidence in the Greek constitution, p ...

' party. Many anarchists and socialists were put on trial and this led others to either flee the country or relocate in isolated parts of Greece. Similarly, many radical publications closed down and mainstream activity was reduced. In 1896 in Patras, Dimitrios Matsalis, a sandal maker, murdered Dionysios Fragkopoulos, a banker and currant merchant, and injured Andreas Kollas. He declared, "I acted alone. By killing I did not aim at people but I stroke the capital. I am an anarchist, and as an anarchist I am in favor of violence." He committed suicide in prison. Fragkopoulos' assassination arguably intensified the erosion of collective identities as the persecutions continued. Persecuted anarchists and anarcho-syndicalists fled from Patras during the last years of the 19th century. The persecution began right after the

International Conference of Rome for the Social Defense Against Anarchists The International Conference of Rome for the Social Defense Against Anarchists was held between 24 November and 21 December 1898 following the assassination of Empress Elisabeth of Austria by Luigi Lucheni on the promenade of Lake Geneva on 10 S ...

, leading many anarcho-syndicalists that moved to

to establish the Anarchist Workers Association (Αναρχικός 'Εργατικός Σύνδεσμος). They took part in the anarchist international congress held in Paris in 1900.

Epi ta Proso image:epitaproso.jpg, Frontpage of ''Epi ta Proso''. ''Epi ta Proso'' (Greek: ''Going Forward'') was a newspaper published in Patras, Greece in 1882 by A. Eymorfopoulos. In 1896, the paper changed ownership to the hands of the Free Socialists, a g ...

(Επί τα πρόσω) was another group of anarchist intellectuals publicly advocating for anarchism in the Peloponnese that finally ended up in Athens before being dissolved. As in the rest of Europe by that time, the so-called

propaganda of the deed Propaganda of the deed, or propaganda by the deed, is a type of direct action intended to influence public opinion. The action itself is meant to serve as an example for others to follow, acting as a catalyst for social revolution. It is primari ...

was employed by the Boatmen of Thessaloniki, a group of

Bulgarian anarchists Bulgarian may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to the country of Bulgaria * Bulgarians, a South Slavic ethnic group * Bulgarian language, a Slavic language * Bulgarian alphabet * A citizen of Bulgaria, see Demographics of Bulgaria * Bul ...

based in

Salonica Thessaloniki (; ), also known as Thessalonica (), Saloniki, Salonika, or Salonica (), is the second-largest city in Greece (with slightly over one million inhabitants in its Thessaloniki metropolitan area, metropolitan area) and the capital cit ...

(then part of the

), and Alexandros Schinas, who assassinated King George I in 1913 for reasons of either anarchist conviction or mental illness. In 1916, the anarcho-syndicalist Konstantinos Speras was a key organizer of a miners strike in the island of

Serifos Serifos () is a Greek island in the Aegean Sea, located in the western Cyclades, south of Kythnos and northwest of Sifnos. It is part of the Milos regional unit. The area is and the population was 1,241 at the 2021 census. It is located about ...

. The strike was violently opposed by the police, leading to the death of four workers and wounding others. The workers, supported by their wives, responded by throwing stones, killing three of the police and routing the others away. Although the strike was organized by an anarchist and the workers took control of municipal buildings (telegraph tower, police headquarters, town hall), the strikers raised a French flag and asked for protection from the French fleet, which at the time had ships stationed in the neighboring island of

Milos Milos or Melos (; , ; ) is a volcanic Greek island in the Aegean Sea, just north of the Sea of Crete. It is the southwestern-most island of the Cyclades group. The ''Venus de Milo'' (now in the Louvre), the ''Poseidon of Melos'' (now in the ...

. The strike and the aftermath resulted in the improvement of working conditions in the mines and the first application of the

8-hour working day The eight-hour day movement (also known as the 40-hour week movement or the short-time movement) was a social movement to regulate the length of a working day, preventing excesses and abuses of working time. The modern movement originated in ...

in modern Greece. The Greek anarchist movement's momentum subsided in the 1920s as, among many factors, the Greek working class turned to

Marxist ideology Marxism is a political philosophy and method of socioeconomic analysis. It uses a dialectical and materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to analyse class relations, social conflict, and ...

and the

, known for its hostility towards anarchists, was founded. Reflecting popular Greek desire for a strong state, an organized anarchist movement was dismantled in the 1930s and 1940s, between the effects of the

Metaxas Regime Metaxās or Metaxa may refer to: Places * Metaxas Line, fortifications in northeastern Greece in 1935–1940 * Metaxas, Greece, a village in the Greek region of Macedonia * Metaxas Regime or 4th of August Regime, a short-lived authoritarian reg ...

, the

Axis occupation of Greece The occupation of Greece by the Axis Powers () began in April 1941 after Nazi Germany Battle of Greece, invaded the Kingdom of Greece in order to assist its ally, Fascist Italy (1922–1943), Italy, in their Greco-Italian War, ongoing war that w ...

, and the

Greek Civil War The Greek Civil War () took place from 1946 to 1949. The conflict, which erupted shortly after the end of World War II, consisted of a Communism, Communist-led uprising against the established government of the Kingdom of Greece. The rebels decl ...

. In times of changing government, Greeks relied on local government for resistance and security. An important figure of Greek anarchism is

Plotino Rhodakanaty Plotino Constantino Rhodakanaty (; 14 October 1828 – 2 February 1890) was a Greek and Mexican socialist and anarchist, as well as a prominent early member of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church) in Mexico. He is known a ...

, born in 1828. His birthplace is disputed, some authors cite Athens, others cite other European capitals. Nevertheless, he is considered one of the most important figures in Mexican socialist thought.

The Polytechnic uprising and the subcultural movement

The new phase of the Greek anarchist movement began as part of the resistance to the

Greek military junta of 1967–1974 The Greek junta or Regime of the Colonels was a right-wing military junta that ruled Greece from 1967 to 1974. On 21 April 1967, a group of colonels with CIA backing overthrew the caretaker government a month before scheduled elections wh ...

. In this period, Greek anarchism broke away from its anarcho-syndicalist origins and became organized around small direct action groups. Students played a significant role in this new phase. Students returning from

Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...

, where they had taken part in the

events of May 1968 May 68 () was a period of widespread protests, strikes, and civil unrest in France that began in May 1968 and became one of the most significant social uprisings in modern European history. Initially sparked by student demonstrations agains ...

and been introduced to leftist and anarchist ideas, started spreading these ideas among the radical youth. In 1972,

Guy Debord Guy-Ernest Debord (; ; 28 December 1931 – 30 November 1994) was a French Marxist theorist, philosopher, filmmaker, critic of work, member of the Letterist International, founder of a Letterist faction, and founding member of the Situat ...

's ''

The Society of the Spectacle ''The Society of the Spectacle'' () is a 1967 work of philosophy and Marxist critical theory by Guy Debord where he develops and presents the concept of the Spectacle (critical theory), Spectacle. The book is considered a seminal text for the Si ...

'' was published in Athens, along with other

Situationist The Situationist International (SI) was an international organization of social revolutionaries made up of avant-garde artists, intellectuals, and political theorists. It was prominent in Europe from its formation in 1957 to its dissolution ...

texts.

Mikhail Bakunin Mikhail Alexandrovich Bakunin. Sometimes anglicized to Michael Bakunin. ( ; – 1 July 1876) was a Russian revolutionary anarchist. He is among the most influential figures of anarchism and a major figure in the revolutionary socialist, s ...

's ''

God and the State ''God and the State'' (called by its author ''The Historical Sophisms of the Doctrinaire School of Communism'') is an unfinished manuscript by the Russian anarchist philosopher Mikhail Bakunin, published posthumously in 1882. The work criticise ...

'' and

Peter Kropotkin Pyotr Alexeyevich Kropotkin (9 December 1842 – 8 February 1921) was a Russian anarchist and geographer known as a proponent of anarchist communism. Born into an aristocratic land-owning family, Kropotkin attended the Page Corps and later s ...

's ''Law and Authority'' followed. In 1971, Diethnis Vivliothiki (International Library), a publishing and political team was founded.

Christos Konstantinidis Christos Konstantididis (; born February 23, 1963) is a former Greek professional basketball player. Konstantinidis spent his entire career in the Greek leagues. Professional career Born in Thessaloniki, Greece, Konstantinidis started his career ...

was one of the founding figures, and translators such as Agis Stinas contributed. The Black Rose bookshop carried publications of Diethnis Vivliothiki. Interest in anarchism swelled with the anti-junta movement, and the 1973

Athens Polytechnic uprising The Athens Polytechnic uprising occurred in November 1973 as a massive student demonstration of popular rejection of the Greek military junta of 1967–1974. It began on 14 November 1973, escalated to an open anti-junta revolt, and ended in bloo ...

was a flash-point for the junta's opposition. The group that initiated the Polytechnic uprising included a minority of anarchists and leftists. The moderator of the anarchist group was

. Anarchists were branded as '' provocateurs'' by the

Communist Youth of Greece The Communist Youth of Greece (; , KNE) is the youth organization of the Communist Party of Greece (KKE). It is a Marxist-Leninist organization which mainly seeks to familiarize the Greek youth with the policies of the KKE. It publishes the month ...

as they expressed slogans not directly related to the student's demands (i.e. they were calling for

sexual freedom A sexual norm can refer to a personal or a social norm. Most cultures have social norms regarding sexuality, and define '' normal sexuality'' to consist only of certain sex acts between individuals who meet specific age criteria, nonconsangui ...

social revolution Social revolutions are sudden changes in the structure and nature of society. These revolutions are usually recognized as having transformed society, economy, culture, philosophy, and technology along with but more than just the political system ...

and the abolition of the State). The resonance with the French 1968 movement was clear. Some demonstrators also used slogans with anarchist overtones, such as "Down with Authority" and "People Revolt." The uprising is commemorated annually with a multi-day march; anarchists often use the occasion to denounce the political regime of the day. The annual protests promote a subculture that sees resistance to authority as one's duty. On 4 May 1976, the first

autonomous In developmental psychology and moral, political, and bioethical philosophy, autonomy is the capacity to make an informed, uncoerced decision. Autonomous organizations or institutions are independent or self-governing. Autonomy can also be defi ...

anarchist rally took place at

Propylaea In ancient Greek architecture, a propylaion, propylaeon or, in its Latinized form, ''propylaeum''—often used in the plural forms propylaia or propylaea (; Greek: προπύλαια)—is a monumental gateway. It serves as a partition, separat ...

. The aim was to express political and

pacifist Pacifism is the opposition to war or violence. The word ''pacifism'' was coined by the French peace campaigner Émile Arnaud and adopted by other peace activists at the tenth Universal Peace Congress in Glasgow in 1901. A related term is ''a ...

messages, while the country was facing severe issues with its neighbor country, Turkey. Some major slogans of the demonstration were " Turkish workers are our brothers" and "The

Aegean Sea The Aegean Sea is an elongated embayment of the Mediterranean Sea between Europe and Asia. It is located between the Balkans and Anatolia, and covers an area of some . In the north, the Aegean is connected to the Marmara Sea, which in turn con ...

belongs to its fish." Greek anarchism remained a small

subculture A subculture is a group of people within a culture, cultural society that differentiates itself from the values of the conservative, standard or dominant culture to which it belongs, often maintaining some of its founding principles. Subcultures ...

after the fall of the junta but grew into a movement following riots in 1981. In December 1979, protests took place as the

Konstantinos Karamanlis Konstantinos G. Karamanlis (, ; 8 March 1907 – 23 April 1998) was a Greek statesman who was the four-time Prime Minister of Greece and two-term president of the Third Hellenic Republic. A towering figure of Greek politics, his political caree ...

government voted in the statutory act no. 815, which aimed to reduce the university exam periods and set a time limit on the allowed length of period. The university occupation movement of 1979–1981 was largely instigated by anarchist and leftist groups. Near the Polytechnic, the neighborhood of

Exarcheia Exarcheia ( ) is a neighbourhood in central Athens, Greece close to the historical building of the National Technical University of Athens. Exarcheia took its name from a 19th-century businessman named Exarchos () who opened a large general store t ...

became a "free zone," where leftists, anarchists,

hippie A hippie, also spelled hippy, especially in British English, is someone associated with the counterculture of the 1960s, counterculture of the mid-1960s to early 1970s, originally a youth movement that began in the United States and spread to dif ...

s, and others were in charge. Throughout the late 20th century, Greek radical leftists referred to their cause by various names (autonomous, anti-authority, alternative) while police and the public generally labeled all revolutionary leftists as "anarchists." On 17 November 1980, a large student demonstration took place to commemorate the abolishment of Greek junta. Severe

street fights Street fighting or street combat is hand-to-hand combat in public places between individuals or groups of people. The venue is usually a public place (e.g., a street), and the fight sometimes results in serious injury or even death. Some street ...

occurred, and two protesters were killed. In 1981, when

PASOK The Panhellenic Socialist Movement (, ), known mostly by its acronym PASOK (; , ), is a social democracy, social-democratic List of political parties in Greece, political party in Greece. Until 2012 it was Two-party system, one of the two major ...

(The PanHellenic Socialist Movement) came to power, there was a decline of the extra parliamentary left. A big moment that helped attest to the self-confidence of the anarchist movement were protests to a far-right conference hosted at the hotel Caravel (among the participants was

Jean-Marie Le Pen Jean Louis Marie Le Pen (20 June 1928 – 7 January 2025), commonly known as Jean-Marie Le Pen (), was a French politician, lawyer and activist. He founded the far-right National Front (now National Rally) party and served as the party's presi ...

Action Française ''Action Française'' (, AF; ) is a French far-right monarchist and nationalist political movement. The name was also given to a journal associated with the movement, '' L'Action Française'', sold by its own youth organization, the Camelot ...

). The meeting was disrupted and confrontational tactics and street fighting became a trademark of a new major Greek social movement. Demonstrations and clashes between anarchists and police took place almost daily in Athens between 1985 and 1986. The confrontation between the police and anarchists escalated during the 1985 Polytechnic uprising anniversary demonstration when a group of anarchists set a

riot police Riot police are police who are organized, deployed, trained or equipped to confront crowds, protests or riots. Riot police may be regular police officers who act in the role of riot police in particular situations, or they may be separate unit ...

car on fire. One of the riot policemen (MAT, Units for the Reinstatement of Order), Athanassios Melistas, shot a 15-year-old anarchist, Michalis Kaltezas, in the back of the head, killing him instantly and sparking large riots in Athens and Thessaloniki and the occupation of the University of Athens's Chemistry Department. Police forces entered the university the next morning after receiving permission from the Commission of University Asylum, whose president was Dean Michalis Stathopoulos. There was a heavy use of

tear gas Tear gas, also known as a lachrymatory agent or lachrymator (), sometimes colloquially known as "mace" after the Mace (spray), early commercial self-defense spray, is a chemical weapon that stimulates the nerves of the lacrimal gland in the ey ...

and a brutal arrest of 37 people. The anarchist movement staged demonstrations with thousands of participants in Athens. In retaliation against Melistas, the Marxist-Leninist

Revolutionary Organization 17 November Revolutionary Organization 17 November (, ''Epanastatiki Organosi dekaefta Noemvri''), also known as 17N or the 17 November Group, was a Greek Marxist–Leninist urban guerrilla organization. Formed in 1975 and led by Alexandros Giotopoulos, 1 ...

killed Nikolaos Georgakopoulos and injured fourteen other MAT officers in a 1985

police bus A police bus, also known as a police van is a minibus, full-sized bus or coach used by police forces for a variety of reasons. Depending on the use, police buses might have markings or a livery indicating its ownership by the police, and als ...

bombing. The anarchists proposals were in contrast to the legalistic approach of the

Greek Communist Party The Communist Party of Greece (, ΚΚΕ; ''Kommounistikó Kómma Elládas'', KKE) is a Marxist–Leninist political party in Greece. It was founded in 1918 as the Socialist Workers' Party of Greece (SEKE) and adopted its current name in Novem ...

, which at the time was enjoying parliamentary participation. Exarcheia became increasingly perceived as a no-go zone for police, as clashes occurred merely with the sight of officers.

Alternative media Alternative media are media sources that differ from established forms of media, such as mainstream media or mass media, in terms of their content, production, or distribution.Downing, John (2001). ''Radical Media''. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publica ...

and punk subcultures proliferated anarchist thought among Greek youth in the 1980s and 1990s, spreading messages against

neoliberalism Neoliberalism is a political and economic ideology that advocates for free-market capitalism, which became dominant in policy-making from the late 20th century onward. The term has multiple, competing definitions, and is most often used pe ...

, reactionary populism,

liberal democracy Liberal democracy, also called Western-style democracy, or substantive democracy, is a form of government that combines the organization of a democracy with ideas of liberalism, liberal political philosophy. Common elements within a liberal dem ...

, and

the state A state is a political entity that regulates society and the population within a definite territory. Government is considered to form the fundamental apparatus of contemporary states. A country often has a single state, with various administrat ...

. By the late 1980s, anarchism had turned towards a broader spectrum of issues: gender inequalitiy, patriarchy, racism towards immigrants, and ethnic minority repression (Slavic and Turkish). Anarchist

squats Squat, squatter or squatting may refer to: Body position * Squatting position, a sitting position where one's knees are folded with heels touching one's buttocks or back of the thighs * Squat (exercise), a lower-body exercise in strength and co ...

emerged in this era, among which Villa Amalia and Villa Lela Karagianni were the most prominent.

Contemporary

The

collapse of the USSR The Soviet Union was formally dissolved as a sovereign state and subject of international law on 26 December 1991 by Declaration No. 142-N of the Soviet of the Republics of the Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union. Declaration No. 142-Н of ...

had a profound impact not only on anarchism but on the international circumstances of Greece as well. Greek anarchism reached a peak of activity between 1989 and 1995, reinforced by a disappointment with Greek mainstream politics. The 1990–93 Mitsotakis government agenda included an attempt to enforce

neoliberal Neoliberalism is a political and economic ideology that advocates for free-market capitalism, which became dominant in policy-making from the late 20th century onward. The term has multiple, competing definitions, and is most often used pej ...

policies. The 1990s was the era that the anti-authoritarian movement became more prominent and had active participation among

student riots Student riots, college riots, or campus riots are riots precipitated by students, generally from a college, university, or other school. Student riots are often an aspect of student protests. Reasons As with riot A riot or mob violence is ...

against government plans for the

privatization Privatization (rendered privatisation in British English) can mean several different things, most commonly referring to moving something from the public sector into the private sector. It is also sometimes used as a synonym for deregulation w ...

of the education sector. The most circulated publications of the era were ''The Void Network'' and ''The Children of the Gallery''. In the new millennium, with capitalism and neoliberalism viewed as advancing throughout the world, Greek anarchists participated in the

anti-globalization movement The anti-globalization movement, or counter-globalization movement, is a social movement critical of economic globalization. The movement is also commonly referred to as the global justice movement, alter-globalization movement, anti-globalist m ...

. New collectives, such as the Antieksousiastiki Kinisi in Exarcheia and its associated newspaper, ''Babylonia'', became popular among rebellious youth. Athens Indymedia and Antieksousiastiki Kinisi were founded in 2001 and 2003 respectively. On 6 December 2008, the lethal shooting of 15-year-old

Alexandros Grigoropoulos The 2008 Greek riots started on 6 December 2008, when Alexandros Grigoropoulos (), a 15-year-old Greek student, was killed by a special officer in Exarcheia district of central Athens. The killing of the young student by police resulted in larg ...

by a policeman in the Exarcheia district in Athens, generated immediate

social unrest Civil disorder, also known as civil disturbance, civil unrest, civil strife, or turmoil, are situations when law enforcement and security forces struggle to Public order policing, maintain public order or tranquility. Causes Any number of thin ...

that quickly escalated into large-scale riots. The significant repercussions that followed were the most intense to occur in Greece since the

fall Autumn, also known as fall (especially in US & Canada), is one of the four temperate seasons on Earth. Outside the tropics, autumn marks the transition from summer to winter, in September (Northern Hemisphere) or March ( Southern Hemispher ...

of the

military dictatorship A military dictatorship, or a military regime, is a type of dictatorship in which Power (social and political), power is held by one or more military officers. Military dictatorships are led by either a single military dictator, known as a Polit ...

. Within a short period of time, anarchists, leftists, and sympathizers rioted and attacked banks, police vehicles and government offices in the area with unusual coordination. The fact that the murder of Alexandros occurred in Exarcheia was of major symbolic significance, as police presence in the area was considered to be an intrusion to a "ground occupied by the antagonistic movement" and was felt by some as an attack against the anarchist movement. The Greek Government of the time (Prime Minister Konstantinos A. Karamanlis) chose to have a 'defensive' approach on the events that were taking place. The aim was to avoid further

civil disorder Civil disorder, also known as civil disturbance, civil unrest, civil strife, or turmoil, are situations when law enforcement and security forces struggle to Public order policing, maintain public order or tranquility. Causes Any number of thin ...

and instances of potential violence. Other political parties tried to take advantage of the situation and organized nine demonstrations in three days. The parliament building was besieged for weeks by angry crowds. For a month, large protests were taking place in many major Greek cities, with a lot of them resulting in conflict with the police and arson attacks on government buildings, shops and banks. On multiple occasions during the attacks, the violence against the police resulted in officers getting shot and/or severely wounded. An anarchist form of

illegalism Illegalism is a tendency of anarchism that developed primarily in France, Italy, Belgium and Switzerland during the late 1890s and early 1900s as an outgrowth of individualist anarchism. Illegalists embrace criminality either openly or secret ...

re-emerged during the insurrection when anarchist stole food from stores to distribute to people in need. Athens Indymedia, an open publishing, anti-authoritarian site which attracted significant audience during the 2008 revolt, paralleled the expansion of the anarchist ''choros'' within the Greek society. (''Chóros'', meaning "scene" or "milieu" in Greek, is the body of loosely associated anarchist groups and

collectives A collective is a group of entities that share or are motivated by at least one common issue or interest or work together to achieve a common objective. Collectives can differ from cooperatives in that they are not necessarily focused upon an e ...

in Greece.) The rebellion that took place in 2008 was fueled, in part, by the prevailing economic insecurity. Anarchist groups organized and participated in protests against the

austerity measures In economic policy, austerity is a set of political-economic policies that aim to reduce government budget deficits through spending cuts, tax increases, or a combination of both. There are three primary types of austerity measures: high ...

implemented by the government to resolve the

economic crisis A financial crisis is any of a broad variety of situations in which some financial assets suddenly lose a large part of their nominal value. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, many financial crises were associated with banking panics, and ma ...

that was precipitated by the

sovereign debt crisis A sovereign default is the failure or refusal of the government of a sovereign state to pay back its debt in full when due. Cessation of due payments (or receivables) may either be accompanied by that government's formal declaration that it wil ...

. Certain anarchist groups and networks, in conjunction with activists affiliated to anarchist and libertarian ideas, during the beginning of the crisis, differentiated themselves from violence, becoming engaged in self-organization activities Spontaneous networks of students and other radicals were formed that followed an anarchistic approach on how they function. The influence of traditional

Marxism Marxism is a political philosophy and method of socioeconomic analysis. It uses a dialectical and materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to analyse class relations, social conflict, ...

was minimal. In May 2010, a significant wave of protest occurred when the Greek parliament voted on its first austerity memorandum. During the protest, a

petrol bomb A Molotov cocktail (among several other names – ''see '') is a hand-thrown incendiary weapon consisting of a frangible container filled with flammable substances and equipped with a fuse (typically a glass bottle filled with flammable liqui ...

was fired at the Marfin Bank in

Stadiou Street Stadiou Street ( Greek: Οδός Σταδíου, ''Odós Stadíou'', "Stadium Street") is Athens' major street linking the Omonoia and Syntagma Squares. It runs diagonally and is one-way from northwest to southeast. The street is named after th ...

and caused the deaths of three bank employees. After this tragic event, there was a notable drop in the attendance and frequency of protests, and more importantly the "ideological legitimacy", and anarchist momentum eased. However, no evidence about the perpetrator being an anarchist was provided, and the accused anarchist was declared innocent in the court. Several anarchist groups had been vocal about condemning the use of violence as a practice at Marfin and other such instances. In 2013, there were several protests when anarchist Nikos Romanos was arrested for

bank robbery Bank robbery is the criminal act of stealing from a bank, specifically while bank employees and customers are subjected to force, violence, or a threat of violence. This refers to robbery of a bank Branch (banking), branch or Bank teller, tel ...

and the police digitally altered his

mug shot A mug shot or mugshot (an informal term for police photograph or booking photograph) is a Portrait photography, photographic portrait of a person from the shoulders up, typically taken after a person is placed under arrest. The primary purpose ...

in order to cover several bruises that were inflicted during his arrest.

Amnesty International Amnesty International (also referred to as Amnesty or AI) is an international non-governmental organization focused on human rights, with its headquarters in the United Kingdom. The organization says that it has more than ten million members a ...

described this as a "culture of abuse and impunity in the Greek police". As of 2013, anarchist groups that have claimed responsibility for violent attacks include the Lovers of Lawlessness, Wild Freedom and Instigators of Social Explosion, Gangs of Consciousness, Lonely Wolf, the Untouchable Cell of Revenge and Untamed Desires. In 2017,

Interpol The International Criminal Police Organization – INTERPOL (abbreviated as ICPO–INTERPOL), commonly known as Interpol ( , ; stylized in allcaps), is an international organization that facilitates worldwide police cooperation and crime cont ...

claimed Greece was one of the only three

European Union The European Union (EU) is a supranational union, supranational political union, political and economic union of Member state of the European Union, member states that are Geography of the European Union, located primarily in Europe. The u ...

countries (along with

and

Spain Spain, or the Kingdom of Spain, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe with territories in North Africa. Featuring the Punta de Tarifa, southernmost point of continental Europe, it is the largest country in Southern Eur ...

) that appear to be dealing with

anarchist terrorism Propaganda of the deed, or propaganda by the deed, is a type of direct action intended to influence public opinion. The action itself is meant to serve as an example for others to follow, acting as a catalyst for social revolution. It is primari ...

List of active groups and places

;Groups *Anarchist Federation, a platformist federation
Anarchist Political Organisation
(''Anarchikí Politikí Orgánosi''), a synthesis federation affiliated with the

International of Anarchist Federations Contemporary anarchism within the history of anarchism is the period of the anarchist movement continuing from the end of World War II and into the present. Since the last third of the 20th century, anarchists have been involved in anti-globali ...

*Anarcho-syndicalist Initiative Rocinante (''Anarchosyndikalistikís Protovoulías – Rosinánte''), an

federation *Anti-authoritarian Current (AK) (''Antiexousiastikí Kínisi''), an

group in Athens *

Conspiracy of Fire Nuclei The Conspiracy of Fire Nuclei (, abbrev. SPF), also translated as Conspiracy of Fire Cells or Conspiracy of Cells of Fire, is an anarchist urban guerrilla organization based in Greece. The SPF first surfaced in January 2008, with a wave of 11 f ...

(''Synomosía ton Pyrínon tis Fotiás''), an

individualist anarchist Individualist anarchism or anarcho-individualism is a collection of anarchist currents that generally emphasize the individual and their will over external determinants such as groups, society, traditions, and ideological systems. Individuali ...

militant organization *

Industrial Workers of the World The Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), whose members are nicknamed "Wobblies", is an international labor union founded in Chicago, United States in 1905. The nickname's origin is uncertain. Its ideology combines general unionism with indu ...

, a grassroots

trade union A trade union (British English) or labor union (American English), often simply referred to as a union, is an organization of workers whose purpose is to maintain or improve the conditions of their employment, such as attaining better wages ...

affiliated with the International Confederation of Labor * Libertarian Syndicalist Union (''Eleftheriakí Syndikalistikí Énosi''), an

group affiliated with the

International Confederation of Labour International is an adjective (also used as a noun) meaning "between nations". International may also refer to: Music Albums * ''International'' (Kevin Michael album), 2011 * ''International'' (New Order album), 2002 * ''International'' (The T ...

Rouvikonas Rouvikonas (; ) is a Greek anarchist activist group based in Athens. It first emerged from the Greek anti-austerity movement and began taking action after a period of mass mobilisation ended. Its actions have largely consisted of symbolic act ...

, an anarchist collective in Athens, part of the Anarchist Federation * Anarchist Cell for the Diffusion of Hostilities ;Squats and other places *Villa Lela Karagianni, a squat in Athens named after

Lela Karagianni Eleni "Lela" Karagianni ( ; 1898 – 8 September 1944), also written Karayanni, was a Greek resistance leader during World War II who worked to coordinate Greek resistance cells and their activities against the occupying Axis forces. Captured a ...

*K*Vox, an anarchist squat near Exarcheia square *YFANET Factory *Community of Squatted Prosfygika ;Publications *''Diadromi Eleftherias'' *''Babylonia'', newspaper affiliated to Anti-authoritarian Current *''Rocinante'', anarcho-syndicalist publication *''Apatris'', anarchist newspaper *''Alerta'', anarchist news website, associated with the Anarchist Federation ;Radio Stations *Radiozones Anatreptikis Ekfrasis *Elefthero Koinoniko Radiofono 1431AM

References

Sources

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