Roman mythology Roman mythology is the body of myths of ancient Rome as represented in the literature and visual arts of the Romans, and is a form of Roman folklore. "Roman mythology" may also refer to the modern study of these representations, and to th ...

, Discordia is the Roman equivalent of the Greek Eris, goddess of strife and discord. She was the daughter of Nox (Night) and

Erebus In Greek mythology, Erebus (; ), or Erebos, is the personification of darkness. In Hesiod's ''Theogony'', he is the offspring of Chaos, and the father of Aether and Hemera (Day) by Nyx (Night); in other Greek cosmogonies, he is the father of A ...

. Like Eris, Discordia has no mythology other than her involvement in the

Judgement of Paris The Judgement of Paris is a story from Greek mythology, which was one of the events that led up to the Trojan War, and in later versions to the foundation of Rome. Eris, the goddess of discord, was not invited to the wedding of Peleus and Th ...

. Unlike her opposite Concordia, Discordia was not a cult goddess, but simply a literary personification, and like Eris was especially associated with the strife and discord in war. She was, in particular, associated with Roman civil war.

Family

The Greek personification of strife and discord, Eris, according to

Hesiod Hesiod ( or ; ''Hēsíodos''; ) was an ancient Greece, Greek poet generally thought to have been active between 750 and 650 BC, around the same time as Homer.M. L. West, ''Hesiod: Theogony'', Oxford University Press (1966), p. 40.Jasper Gr ...

's ''

Theogony The ''Theogony'' () is a poem by Hesiod (8th–7th century BC) describing the origins and genealogy, genealogies of the Greek gods, composed . It is written in the Homeric Greek, epic dialect of Ancient Greek and contains 1,022 lines. It is one ...

'', is the daughter of

Nyx In Greek mythology, Nyx (; ) is the goddess and personification of the night. In Hesiod's ''Theogony'', she is the offspring of Chaos, and the mother of Aether and Hemera (Day) by Erebus (Darkness). By herself, she produces a brood of children ...

(Night) with no father. Similarly, according to the ''

Fabulae The ''Fabulae'' is a Latin handbook of mythology, attributed to an author named Hyginus, who is generally believed to have been separate from Gaius Julius Hyginus. The work consists of some three hundred very brief and plainly, even crudely, told ...

'', Discordia is the daughter of Nox (Night), although it gives her father as

. The ''Fabulae'' lists many siblings of Discord, similar to but different from the list of siblings of Eris as given by Hesiod. For example both are siblings of "Old Age" (the Greek

Geras In Greek mythology, Geras () is the god of old age. He was typically depicted as a tiny, shriveled old man. Gēras's opposite was Hebe, the goddess of youth. In Latin, he is referred to as Senectus. He is known primarily from vase depictions ...

and Roman Senecus), "Death" (the Greek

Thanatos In Greek mythology, Thanatos (; , ''Thánatos'', pronounced in "Death", from θνῄσκω ''thnēskō'' "(I) die, am dying") was the Personifications of death, personification of death. He was a minor figure in Greek mythology, often referre ...

and Roman

Mors Mors may refer to: *Mors (mythology), the personification of death in Roman mythology *Mors, Latin for death *Mors (automobile), a French car manufacturer from 1895 to 1925 :* American Mors, Mors vehicles produced under licence in America by the S ...

), the

Fates The Fates are a common motif in European polytheism, most frequently represented as a trio of goddesses. The Fates shape the destiny of each human, often expressed in textile metaphors such as spinning fibers into yarn, or weaving threads on a ...

(the Greek

Moirai In ancient Greek religion and Greek mythology, mythology, the Moirai ()often known in English as the Fateswere the personifications of fate, destiny. They were three sisters: Clotho (the spinner), Lachesis (mythology), Lachesis (the allotter ...

and Roman

Parcae In Religion in ancient Rome, ancient Roman religion and Roman mythology, myth, the Parcae (singular, Parca) were the female personifications of destiny who directed the lives (and deaths) of humans and gods. They are often called the Fates in En ...

), and

Nemesis In ancient Greek religion and myth, Nemesis (; ) also called Rhamnousia (or Rhamnusia; ), was the goddess who personified retribution for the sin of hubris: arrogance before the gods. Etymology The name ''Nemesis'' is derived from the Greek ...

("Indignation"). However while the siblings of Eris are all negative personified abstractions, some of Discordia's are positive, such as

Euphrosyne In ancient Greek religion and mythology, Euphrosyne (; ) is a goddess, one of the three Charites. She was sometimes named Euthymia () or Eutychia (). Family According to Hesiod, Euphrosyne and her sisters Thalia and Aglaea are the daughters ...

("Cheerfulness"), and

Amicitia ''Amicitia'' is the Latin word for friendship, either between individuals, between the state and an individual or between states. It was "a technical term of Roman political life" from the 2nd century BC, when, according to Seneca, it was introdu ...

("Friendship"), while others are not personified abstractions at all, such as the

Giant In folklore, giants (from Ancient Greek: ''wiktionary:gigas, gigas'', cognate wiktionary:giga-, giga-) are beings of humanoid appearance, but are at times prodigious in size and strength or bear an otherwise notable appearance. The word ''gia ...

Porphyrion, or

Styx In Greek mythology, Styx (; ; lit. "Shuddering"), also called the River Styx, is a goddess and one of the rivers of the Greek Underworld. Her parents were the Titans Oceanus and Tethys, and she was the wife of the Titan Pallas and the moth ...

, the goddess and river of the Underworld. Also unlike Eris, Discordia has no children.

Judgement of Paris

The Roman story of Discordia's involvement in the

, is essentially the same as that of Eris. As told in the ''Fabulae'', the story is as follows. All the gods, except Discordia, were invited by

Jupiter Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the List of Solar System objects by size, largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a Jupiter mass, mass more than 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined a ...

to the wedding of

Peleus In Greek mythology, Peleus (; Ancient Greek: Πηλεύς ''Pēleus'') was a hero, king of Phthia, husband of Thetis and the father of their son Achilles. This myth was already known to the hearers of Homer in the late 8th century BC. Biogra ...

and

Thetis Thetis ( , or ; ) is a figure from Greek mythology with varying mythological roles. She mainly appears as a sea nymph, a goddess of water, and one of the 50 Nereids, daughters of the ancient sea god Nereus. When described as a Nereid in Cl ...

. She came anyway and was refused admission, so she threw an apple through the doorway, saying that the most beautiful should take it. The three goddesses,

Juno Juno commonly refers to: *Juno (mythology), the Roman goddess of marriage and queen of the gods * ''Juno'' (film), the 2007 film Juno may also refer to: Arts, entertainment and media Fictional characters *Juno, a character in the book ''Juno of ...

Venus Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is often called Earth's "twin" or "sister" planet for having almost the same size and mass, and the closest orbit to Earth's. While both are rocky planets, Venus has an atmosphere much thicker ...

, and

Minerva Minerva (; ; ) is the Roman goddess of wisdom, justice, law, victory, and the sponsor of arts, trade, and strategy. She is also a goddess of warfare, though with a focus on strategic warfare, rather than the violence of gods such as Mars. Be ...

each claimed the apple. This started the quarrel which led to the Judgement of Paris, and ultimately to the outbreak of the

Trojan War The Trojan War was a legendary conflict in Greek mythology that took place around the twelfth or thirteenth century BC. The war was waged by the Achaeans (Homer), Achaeans (Ancient Greece, Greeks) against the city of Troy after Paris (mytho ...

Latin literature

Unlike her opposite, Concordia, Discordia was not a cult goddess, and was little more than a literary personification. As a personification of discord, she is a frequent occurrence in Latin

epic poetry In poetry, an epic is a lengthy narrative poem typically about the extraordinary deeds of extraordinary characters who, in dealings with gods or other superhuman forces, gave shape to the mortal universe for their descendants. With regard t ...

, and, and in particular, civil discord and civil war, through the first-century AD. In late antiquity Latin Christian literature, Discordia is contrasted with Concordia, with Discordia becoming a symbol of Christian discord and heresy.

Second-century BC–first-century AD

The Roman poet

Ennius Quintus Ennius (; ) was a writer and poet who lived during the Roman Republic. He is often considered the father of Roman poetry. He was born in the small town of Rudiae, located near modern Lecce (ancient ''Calabria'', today Salento), a town ...

seems to have been the first to introduce "loathsome Discord" (''Discordia taetra'') when, in his second-century BC epic ''

Annales Annals are a concise form of historical writing which record events chronologically, year by year. The equivalent word in Latin and French is ''annales'', which is used untranslated in English in various contexts. List of works with titles contai ...

'', he describes Discordia as breaking open the "portals of War".

Virgil Publius Vergilius Maro (; 15 October 70 BC21 September 19 BC), usually called Virgil or Vergil ( ) in English, was an ancient Rome, ancient Roman poet of the Augustan literature (ancient Rome), Augustan period. He composed three of the most fa ...

, in the ''

Aeneid The ''Aeneid'' ( ; or ) is a Latin Epic poetry, epic poem that tells the legendary story of Aeneas, a Troy, Trojan who fled the Trojan War#Sack of Troy, fall of Troy and travelled to Italy, where he became the ancestor of the Ancient Rome ...

'' (first century BC), has "maddening Strife (''Discordia demens''), her snaky locks entwined with bloody ribbons" as one of the many terrible evils who reside at the entrance to his

Underworld The underworld, also known as the netherworld or hell, is the supernatural world of the dead in various religious traditions and myths, located below the world of the living. Chthonic is the technical adjective for things of the underworld. ...

. Discordia was particularly associated with Roman internal conflict and civil war. Like the Homeric Eris in the ''

Iliad The ''Iliad'' (; , ; ) is one of two major Ancient Greek epic poems attributed to Homer. It is one of the oldest extant works of literature still widely read by modern audiences. As with the ''Odyssey'', the poem is divided into 24 books and ...

'', who is one of the divinities active in the

, Virgil makes Discordia one of the divine participants (as depicted on the prophetic

Shield of Aeneas The Shield of Aeneas is the shield that Aeneas receives from the god Vulcan in Book VIII of Virgil's ''Aeneid'' to aid in his war against the Rutuli. Imprinted on the front of the shield is a grand depiction of the destiny of Aeneas' descendants ...

) at the

Battle of Actium The Battle of Actium was a naval battle fought between Octavian's maritime fleet, led by Marcus Agrippa, and the combined fleets of both Mark Antony and Cleopatra. The battle took place on 2 September 31 BC in the Ionian Sea, near the former R ...

, during the Roman civil war between

Octavian Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian (), was the founder of the Roman Empire, who reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in ...

and

Mark Antony Marcus Antonius (14 January 1 August 30 BC), commonly known in English as Mark Antony, was a Roman people, Roman politician and general who played a critical role in the Crisis of the Roman Republic, transformation of the Roman Republic ...

. In a battle of gods, with "rent robe", Discordia "strides exultant": Discordia, under the influence of Virgil, appears in the works of the four later first-century AD Roman epic poets

Lucan Marcus Annaeus Lucanus (3 November AD 39 – 30 April AD 65), better known in English as Lucan (), was a Roman poet, born in Corduba, Hispania Baetica (present-day Córdoba, Spain). He is regarded as one of the outstanding figures of the Imper ...

Silius Italicus Tiberius Catius Asconius Silius Italicus (, c. 26 – c. 101 AD) was a Roman senator, orator and epic poet of the Silver Age of Latin literature. His only surviving work is the 17-book '' Punica'', an epic poem about the Second Punic War and the ...

Statius Publius Papinius Statius (Greek language, Greek: Πόπλιος Παπίνιος Στάτιος; , ; ) was a Latin poetry, Latin poet of the 1st century CE. His surviving poetry includes an epic in twelve books, the ''Thebaid (Latin poem), Theb ...

, and Valerius Flaccus. The word ''discordia'' (whether personified or not) appears seven times in Lucan's ''

Pharsalia ''De Bello Civili'' (; ''On the Civil War''), more commonly referred to as the ''Pharsalia'' (, neuter plural), is a Latin literature, Roman Epic poetry, epic poem written by the poet Lucan, detailing the Caesar's civil war, civil war between Ju ...

'', his epic poem about the decisive battle in

Caesar's civil war Caesar's civil war (49–45 BC) was a civil war during the late Roman Republic between two factions led by Julius Caesar and Pompey. The main cause of the war was political tensions relating to Caesar's place in the Republic on his expected ret ...

. Silius, in his epic ''

Punica ''Punica'' is a small genus of fruit-bearing deciduous shrubs or small trees in the flowering plant family Lythraceae. The better known species is the pomegranate (''Punica granatum''). The other species, the Socotra pomegranate ('' Punica prot ...

'' about the

Second Punic War The Second Punic War (218 to 201 BC) was the second of Punic Wars, three wars fought between Ancient Carthage, Carthage and Roman Republic, Rome, the two main powers of the western Mediterranean Basin, Mediterranean in the 3rd century BC. For ...

, begins his

Battle of Cannae The Battle of Cannae (; ) was a key engagement of the Second Punic War between the Roman Republic and Ancient Carthage, Carthage, fought on 2 August 216 BC near the ancient village of Cannae in Apulia, southeast Italy. The Carthaginians and ...

with Virgil's "maddening strife" (''Discordia demens'') invading heaven and forcing "the gods to fight". Statius involves Discordia (in the company of other personifications) in his ''

Thebaid The Thebaid or Thebais (, ''Thēbaïs'') was a region in ancient Egypt, comprising the 13 southernmost nome (Egypt), nomes of Upper Egypt, from Abydos, Egypt, Abydos to Aswan. Pharaonic history The Thebaid acquired its name from its proximit ...

'' concerning the fraternal war, for the kingship of Thebes, between the two sons of

Oedipus Oedipus (, ; "swollen foot") was a mythical Greek king of Thebes. A tragic hero in Greek mythology, Oedipus fulfilled a prophecy that he would end up killing his father and marrying his mother, thereby bringing disaster to his city and family. ...

Eteocles In Greek mythology, Eteocles (; ) was a king of Ancient Thebes (Boeotia), Thebes, the son of Oedipus and either Jocasta or Euryganeia. Oedipus killed his father Laius and married his mother without knowing his relationship to either. When the ...

and

Polynices In Greek mythology, Polynices (also Polyneices) (; ) was the son of Oedipus and either Jocasta or Euryganeia and the older brother of Eteocles. When Oedipus was discovered to have killed his father and married his mother, Oedipus was expelled ...

. The ''Argonautica'', Valerius' epic poem about

Jason Jason ( ; ) was an ancient Greek mythological hero and leader of the Argonauts, whose quest for the Golden Fleece is featured in Greek literature. He was the son of Aeson, the rightful king of Iolcos. He was married to the sorceress Med ...

's search for the Golden Fleece, where the theme of civil discord is pervasive, also mentions the goddess. In Book 2, Discordia, among other personifications, hurries to assist

("the Martian consort") to incite the women of

Lemnos Lemnos ( ) or Limnos ( ) is a Greek island in the northern Aegean Sea. Administratively the island forms a separate municipality within the Lemnos (regional unit), Lemnos regional unit, which is part of the North Aegean modern regions of Greece ...

to make (civil) war on their husbands: Later in Book 6, Valerius, describing the crashing chariots of the warring

Colchian In classical antiquity and Greco-Roman geography, Colchis (; ) was an exonym for the Georgian polity of Egrisi ( ka, ეგრისი) located on the eastern coast of the Black Sea, centered in present-day western Georgia. Its population, the ...

brothers Aeetes and Perses, has: "the curved blades doth discord 'discordia''entangle and lacerate the panic-stricken cars", then goes on to liken the battle between the two brothers to Roman civil war. While preparing Jason for his encounter with the Colchis Bulls,

Medea In Greek mythology, Medea (; ; ) is the daughter of Aeëtes, King Aeëtes of Colchis. Medea is known in most stories as a sorceress, an accomplished "wiktionary:φαρμακεία, pharmakeía" (medicinal magic), and is often depicted as a high- ...

handing him his helm says: "take again this crested helm which Discord 'Discordia''held but now in her death-bringing hand". Discordia is also mentioned in non-epic poetry, also often associated with Roman civil war. She makes an appearance in a civil war parody in

Petronius Gaius Petronius Arbiter"Gaius Petronius Arbiter"
Britannica.com. (; ; ; s ...

's ''

Satyricon The ''Satyricon'', ''Satyricon'' ''liber'' (''The Book of Satyrlike Adventures''), or ''Satyrica'', is a Latin work of fiction believed to have been written by Gaius Petronius in the late 1st century AD, though the manuscript tradition identifi ...

'' (late first century AD), where she is described as follows: Urging all to war—in particular several notable figures in Caesar's civil war:

Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (12 or 13 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in Caesar's civil wa ...

Pompey the Great Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (; 29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), known in English as Pompey ( ) or Pompey the Great, was a Roman general and statesman who was prominent in the last decades of the Roman Republic. ...

, Marcellus,

Curio Curio may refer to: Objects *Bric-à-brac, lesser objets d'art for display *Cabinet of curiosities, a room-sized collection or exhibit of curios or curiosities *Collectables *Curio cabinet, a cabinet constructed for the display of curios People * ...

Lentulus Lentulus may refer to: * Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Clodianus, Roman senator and commander against Spartacus * Publius Cornelius Lentulus Sura, Roman senator and Catilinarian conspirator * Publius Cornelius Lentulus Spinther, Roman senator * Lu ...

—Discordia:

Early Fifth-century

Discordia's opposite, Concordia ("Concord"), the Roman equivalent of the Greek

Harmonia In Greek mythology, Harmonia (; /Ancient Greek phonology, harmoˈnia/, "harmony", "agreement") is the goddess of harmony and concord. Her Greek opposite is Eris (mythology), Eris and her Roman mythology, Roman counterpart is Concordia (mythol ...

("Harmony"), was a Roman goddess who had a temple (the

Temple of Concord The Temple of Concord () in the ancient city of Rome refers to a series of shrines or temples dedicated to the Roman goddess Concordia, and erected at the western end of the Roman Forum. The earliest temple is believed to have been vowed by ...

) dedicated to her in the

Roman Forum A forum (Latin: ''forum'', "public place outdoors", : ''fora''; English : either ''fora'' or ''forums'') was a public square in a municipium, or any civitas, of Ancient Rome reserved primarily for the vending of goods; i.e., a marketplace, alon ...

. The opposition between ''concordia'' (concord) and ''discordia'' (discord), and their personifications Concordia and Discordia—a dichotomy made use of by Virgil in the ''Aeneid''—becomes, for late antiquity Latin poets, "something of an obsession".

Augustine Augustine of Hippo ( , ; ; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430) was a theologian and philosopher of Berber origin and the bishop of Hippo Regius in Numidia, Roman North Africa. His writings deeply influenced the development of Western philosop ...

, in his '' City of God'' (426 AD)—responding to the accusation that the 410 AD Sack of Rome was the result of Christianity and the failure to appease the pagan gods—argues that Rome's pre-Christian history, which was rife with civil discord and civil war, might just as well be said to have been the result of Rome's failure to appease Discordia. He notes that, following the dedication of the Temple of Concord in Rome, there was even worse civil discord, and remarks sarcastically that it would have been more appropriate for Rome to have built instead a "temple to Discord". He goes on to ask "why Concord should be a goddess, but Discord not", and—in what he describes as having "our fun with such inanities"— concludes that: The opposition of Concordia and Discordia is particularly explicit in the Christian poet

Prudentius Aurelius Prudentius Clemens () was a Roman Christian poet, born in the Roman province of Tarraconensis (now Northern Spain) in 348.H. J. Rose, ''A Handbook of Classical Literature'' (1967) p. 508 He probably died in the Iberian Peninsula some ...

's early fifth-century allegory ''

Psychomachia The ''Psychomachia'' (''Battle of Spirits'' or ''Soul War'') is a Latin poem by Prudentius (348 CE - after 405 CE). Its precise date of composition is unknown. In roughly a thousand lines, the poet describes the conflict of vices and virtues as ...

'' ("Battle of the Soul"), in which armies of personified Virtues and Vices do battle. Here the Vice Discordia becomes explicitly identified with religious heresy. After the army of Vices had been defeated, Discordia, in disguise, entered the camp of the celebrating Virtues, seeking to attack surreptitiously the "greatest" of the Virtues Concordia: But Discordia is discovered, and with the army of Virtues, swords drawn, surrounding her and demanding to know "her race and name, her country and her faith, what God she worships, of what nation he that sent her", she answers: At which point Faith, the Virtues' queen, unwilling to hear any more of their "outrageous prisoner’s blasphemies", stopped Discordia's speech by driving a javelin through her tongue, and:

Martianus Capella Martianus Minneus Felix Capella () was a jurist, polymath and Latin literature, Latin prose writer of late antiquity, one of the earliest developers of the system of the seven liberal arts that structured early medieval education. He was a native ...

(fl. c. 410–420), has Discordia, along with Seditio (Sedition) as being a deity of the third celestial region.

Modern culture

Discordia/Eris is an important figure within the

new religious movement A new religious movement (NRM), also known as a new religion, is a religious or Spirituality, spiritual group that has modern origins and is peripheral to its society's dominant religious culture. NRMs can be novel in origin, or they can be part ...

Discordianism Discordianism is a belief system based around Eris, the Greek goddess of strife and discord, and variously defined as a religion, new religious movement, virtual religion, or act of social commentary; though prior to 2005, some sources categoriz ...

.Cusack, pp. 27–30.

Notes

References

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Online version at Harvard University Press
* Bernstein, Neil W., "Introduction" and "Commentary", in * Bloch, Ren
s.v. Discordia
i
''Brill's New Pauly Online''
Antiquity volumes edited by: Hubert Cancik and, Helmuth Schneider, English Edition by: Christine F. Salazar, Classical Tradition volumes edited by: Manfred Landfester, English Edition by: Francis G. Gentry, published online: 2006. * Cusack, Carole M., ''Invented Religions: Imagination, Fiction and Faith'', Ashgate, 2010. . *

, ''Fragmentary Republican Latin, Volume I: Ennius, Testimonia. Epic Fragments.'' Edited and translated by Sander M. Goldberg, Gesine Manuwald.

Loeb Classical Library The Loeb Classical Library (LCL; named after James Loeb; , ) is a monographic series of books originally published by Heinemann and since 1934 by Harvard University Press. It has bilingual editions of ancient Greek and Latin literature, ...

No. 294. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2018.
Online version at Harvard University Press
* Fantham, Elaine, "12 Discordia Fratrum: Aspects of Lucan's Conception of Civil War", in ''Citizens of Discord: Rome and Its Civil Wars''. Editors: Brian Breed, Cynthia Damon, and Andreola Rossi. Oxford University Press. 2010. . pp. 207–220
Online version at Oxford Academic
* Gantz, Timothy, ''Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources'', Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996. Two volumes: (Vol. 1), (Vol. 2). * Gildenhad, Ingo, ''Virgil, ''Aeneid'', 4.1–299: Latin Text, Study Questions, Commentary and Interpretive Essays'', OpenBook Publishers, 2012.
Online version at OpenBook Publishers
* Hard, Robin, ''The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's "Handbook of Greek Mythology"'', Psychology Press, 2004,
Google Books
* Hardie, Philip, ''Classicism and Christianity in Late Antique Latin Poetry'', University of California Press, 2019.
Online version at De Gruyter
*

Horace Quintus Horatius Flaccus (; 8 December 65 BC – 27 November 8 BC), Suetonius, Life of Horace commonly known in the English-speaking world as Horace (), was the leading Roman lyric poet during the time of Augustus (also known as Octavian). Th ...

. ''Satires. Epistles. The Art of Poetry.'' Translated by H. Rushton Fairclough.

194. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1926.
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* Hyginus, ''

'' in ''Apollodorus' ''Library'' and Hyginus' ''Fabulae'': Two Handbooks of Greek Mythology, Translated, with Introductions by R. Scott Smith and Stephen M. Trzaskoma'', Hackett Publishing Company, 2007. . *

. ''The Civil War (Pharsalia)''. Translated by J. D. Duff.

220. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1928.
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* Krasne, Darcy, "When the Argo Met the Argo: Poetic Destruction in Valerius' ''Argonautica'', in ''Flavian Poetry and its Greek Past'', edited by Antony Augoustakis, Brill, Lieden, Boston, 2014. . pp. 33–48. * Most, G.W., ''Hesiod, Theogony, Works and Days, Testimonia,'' Edited and translated by Glenn W. Most,

No. 57, Cambridge, Massachusetts,

Harvard University Press Harvard University Press (HUP) is an academic publishing house established on January 13, 1913, as a division of Harvard University. It is a member of the Association of University Presses. Its director since 2017 is George Andreou. The pres ...

, 2018.
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* Petrovicova, Katarina, "Martianus Capella's interpretation of Juno", in ''Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae'', vol. 57 -3, no. 2, June 2017, pp. 279+
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*

Petronius Gaius Petronius Arbiter"Gaius Petronius Arbiter"
Britannica.com. (; ; ; s ...

Seneca Seneca may refer to: People, fictional characters and language * Seneca (name), a list of people and fictional characters with the given name or surname : :* Seneca the Elder (c. 54 BC – c. AD 39), a Roman rhetorician, writer and father ...

. ''Satyricon. Apocolocyntosis''. Edited and translated by Gareth Schmeling.

NO. 15. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2020.
Online version at Harvard University Press
*

Plutarch Plutarch (; , ''Ploútarchos'', ; – 120s) was a Greek Middle Platonist philosopher, historian, biographer, essayist, and priest at the Temple of Apollo (Delphi), Temple of Apollo in Delphi. He is known primarily for his ''Parallel Lives'', ...

, ''Lives, Volume X: Agis and Cleomenes, Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, Philopoemen and Flamininus'', translated by Bernadotte Perrin,

No. 102, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1921.
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, ''Preface. Daily Round. Divinity of Christ. Origin of Sin. Fight for Mansoul. Against Symmachus 1''. Translated by H. J. Thomson.

No. 387. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1949.
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* Sanderson, Elaine, C., "Kin Conflicts and Stasis: Civil War on Peace in Valerius Flaccus' ''Argonautica''", in ''The Classical Quarterly'' 2002. 72.1 pp. 303–315
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*

, ''Statius with an English Translation by J. H. Mozley'', Volume II, ''Thebaid'', Books V–XII, ''Achilleid'',

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Internet Archive
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No. 286. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1928
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*

, ''

'' ooks 1–6 in ''Eclogues, Georgics, Aeneid: Books 1-6'', translated by H. Rushton Fairclough, revised by G. P. Goold,

No. 63, Cambridge, Massachusetts,

, 1999.
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*

, ''

'' ooks 7–12 in ''Aeneid: Books 7-12. Appendix Vergiliana'', translated by H. Rushton Fairclough, revised by G. P. Goold,

No. 64, Cambridge, Massachusetts,

, 2000. {{ISBN, 978-0-674-99586-4
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Personifications in Roman mythology Roman goddesses Chaos goddesses