The desert castles or ''qasrs'' are often called Umayyad desert castles, since the vast majority of these fortified palaces or

castle A castle is a type of fortification, fortified structure built during the Middle Ages predominantly by the nobility or royalty and by Military order (monastic society), military orders. Scholars usually consider a ''castle'' to be the private ...

s were built by the Umayyad dynasty in their province of Bilad ash-Sham, with a few

Abbasid The Abbasid Caliphate or Abbasid Empire (; ) was the third caliphate to succeed the prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle, Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib (566–653 C ...

exceptions. The desert castles of

Jordan Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, is a country in the Southern Levant region of West Asia. Jordan is bordered by Syria to the north, Iraq to the east, Saudi Arabia to the south, and Israel and the occupied Palestinian ter ...

represent a prominent part of this group of buildings, with most Umayyad "desert castles" being scattered over the semi-arid regions of north-eastern Jordan, with several more in

Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...

Israel Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in West Asia. It Borders of Israel, shares borders with Lebanon to the north, Syria to the north-east, Jordan to the east, Egypt to the south-west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. Isr ...

and the

West Bank The West Bank is located on the western bank of the Jordan River and is the larger of the two Palestinian territories (the other being the Gaza Strip) that make up the State of Palestine. A landlocked territory near the coast of the Mediter ...

(

Palestine Palestine, officially the State of Palestine, is a country in West Asia. Recognized by International recognition of Palestine, 147 of the UN's 193 member states, it encompasses the Israeli-occupied West Bank, including East Jerusalem, and th ...

), and just one Abbasid exception in

Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...

Name

What is known in English as a "desert castle" is known in

Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...

as ''qaṣr'' (singular), ''quṣur'' being the plural.Khouri, R.G., ''The Desert Castles: A Brief Guide to the Antiquities''. Al Kutba, 1988. pp 4-5 However, ''qasr'' is a widely-used Arabic word for palace, castle or fortress, so only a few of the buildings called ''quṣur'' are "desert castles".

Historical background

The Umayyads erected several characteristic palaces, some in the cities but mostly in the semi-arid regions, and some along important trading routes. The castles were built roughly between 660 and 750 under the

Umayyad Caliphate The Umayyad Caliphate or Umayyad Empire (, ; ) was the second caliphate established after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty. Uthman ibn Affan, the third of the Rashidun caliphs, was also a member o ...

, which had made

Damascus Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...

, now in Syria, their capital in 661. After the Abbasid revolution of 750, the capital moved to the newly-built

Baghdad Baghdad ( or ; , ) is the capital and List of largest cities of Iraq, largest city of Iraq, located along the Tigris in the central part of the country. With a population exceeding 7 million, it ranks among the List of largest cities in the A ...

, and some of the buildings were never completed. After the

Limes Arabicus The ''Limes Arabicus'' was a desert frontier of the Roman Empire, running north from its start in the province of Arabia Petraea. It ran northeast from the Gulf of Aqaba for about at its greatest extent, reaching northern Syria and forming part ...

was abandoned by the

Roman Empire The Roman Empire ruled the Mediterranean and much of Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. The Roman people, Romans conquered most of this during the Roman Republic, Republic, and it was ruled by emperors following Octavian's assumption of ...

, many of the

castra ''Castra'' () is a Latin language, Latin term used during the Roman Republic and Roman Empire for a military 'camp', and ''castrum'' () for a 'Fortification, fort'. Either could refer to a building or plot of land, used as a fortified milita ...

continued to be in use.Michaela Konrad: ''Roman military fortifications along the Eastern desert frontier. Settlement continuities and change in North Syria fourth–eighth centuries A.D.'' In: Bart and Motz 2009, pp. 433–453 This continuity was subject to archaeological investigations in the fort of Qasr al-Hallabat, which at different times served as a Roman castrum, Christian cenobitic monastery, and finally as an Umayyad qasr. Most of the desert palaces were abandoned after the Umayyads fell from power in 750, leaving many projects uncompleted, and others were left to decay.

Description

The typical desert castle is a compound of various buildings including a substantial main residence along with other buildings such as a

hammam A hammam (), also often called a Turkish bath by Westerners, is a type of steam bath or a place of public bathing associated with the Islamic world. It is a prominent feature in the culture of the Muslim world and was inherited from the model ...

(bath-house), storage areas and other agrarian structures (walled areas for animals, dedicated buildings for processing produce such as olive oil), and possibly a mosque, all within a large enclosure. Desert castles are typically situated near a wadi or seasonal water course. The inner part of the main residence typically consists of two-storeys, arranged around a central courtyard. The main residence is often richly ornamented with mosaics, frescoes and stucco reliefs. With a few exceptions, the desert castles conform to a common template consisting of a square structure similar to Roman castra''Nomad Politics and the Residences of Abulmalik and Walid I'', in Fred M. Donner (ed), ''The Articulation of Early Islamic State Structures'', Oxon, Routledge, 2017 as their main building, typically boasting an elaborate entrance.Ettinghausen, R., Grabar, O. and Jenkins, M.,
Islamic Art and Architecture
' p 650 The interior rooms of the main structure were ornately decorated with floor-mosaics and wall paintings featuring designs that exhibit both eastern and western influences.Petersen, A.,
Dictionary of Islamic Architecture
', Routledge, 2002, p. 296 Some of the desert castles, for example Qasr Hallabat or Qasr Burqu', are rebuilt from remains of earlier Roman or

Ghassanid The Ghassanids, also known as the Jafnids, were an Arab tribe. Originally from South Arabia, they migrated to the Levant in the 3rd century and established what would eventually become a Christian kingdom under the aegis of the Byzantine Empi ...

structures; others are new constructions.

Purpose

The function and use of the buildings are today not entirely clear, and scholarship has suggested that they might have served a variety of defensive, agricultural, residential, recreational and commercial purposes. The earliest researchers, such as Musil and Lammens, suggest that desert castles were primarily used for recreational purposes: to escape bad air associated with city living to escape epidemic outbreaks; to indulge hedonic pleasures or for use as hunting lodges. Yet other scholars, investigating the geographic distribution of desert castles, note that they are principally situated along the

Silk Road The Silk Road was a network of Asian trade routes active from the second century BCE until the mid-15th century. Spanning over , it played a central role in facilitating economic, cultural, political, and religious interactions between the ...

or pilgrimage routes and may have operated as a type of

caravanserai A caravanserai (or caravansary; ) was an inn that provided lodging for travelers, merchants, and Caravan (travellers), caravans. They were present throughout much of the Islamic world. Depending on the region and period, they were called by a ...

. Archaeologists have investigated the role of these desert castles, with the traditional view that they served as country estates or hunting lodges for the use of aristocratic families during the winter season. However, recent scholarship has suggested a much greater diversity of roles, including as agricultural estates or military forts. The complex at Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi in Syria, for example, sits within a vast agricultural estate and the buildings include structures associated with the production of olive oil. According to a hypothesis developed by Jean Sauvaget, the Umayyad ''quṣūr'' played a role in the systematic agricultural colonisation of the uninhabited frontier areas, and, as such, continue the colonisation strategy of earlier Christian monks and the Ghassanids. The Umayyads, however, increasingly oriented their political strategy towards a model of

client politics Client(s) or The Client may refer to: * Client (business) * Client (computing), hardware or software that accesses a remote service on another computer * Customer or client, a recipient of goods or services in return for monetary or other valuable ...

, of mutual interdependence and support. After the Umayyad conquest, the ''quṣūr'' lost their original function and were either abandoned or continued to serve as local market places and meeting points until the 10th century. Given the variety observed in the archaeological record, it is unlikely that one single theory can explain the range of purposes of all the buildings. These functions include fortresses, meeting places for

Bedouin The Bedouin, Beduin, or Bedu ( ; , singular ) are pastorally nomadic Arab tribes who have historically inhabited the desert regions in the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, the Levant, and Mesopotamia (Iraq). The Bedouin originated in the Sy ...

s (between themselves or with the Umayyad governor), (retreats for the nobles) or caravanserais. A proliferation of desert castles appeared around the same time as the number of caravans increased substantially.''Jordan: Annual'', Volume 36, Dāʼirat al-Āthār al-ʻĀmmah, 1992, p. 317 (translated from French) Many seem to have been surrounded by natural or man-made oases and to have served as country estates or hunting lodges, given that hunting was a favoured pastime for the aristocracy.Meyers, E.M. (ed.), ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East'', Volume 5, Oxford University Press, 1997, p. 241 The generic term "desert castle" is not ideal, since it artificially separates similar ''quṣur'' according to their location. Jordan possesses at least one urban Umayyad ''qaṣr'': the Amman Citadel. While the majority of ''quṣur'' are located in Jordan, examples can also be found in Syria, the West Bank and Israel, either in cities (

Jerusalem Jerusalem is a city in the Southern Levant, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest cities in the world, and ...

), in relatively green areas ( al-Sinnabra, Khirbat al-Minya), or indeed in the desert ( Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi and Qasr al-Hayr al-Sharqi, Jabal Sais, Hisham's Palace).Teller, M., ''Jordan'', Rough Guides, 2002 p. 200 The more isolated "desert castles" built in arid regions are chiefly located on the ancient trade routes connecting Damascus with

Medina Medina, officially al-Madinah al-Munawwarah (, ), also known as Taybah () and known in pre-Islamic times as Yathrib (), is the capital of Medina Province (Saudi Arabia), Medina Province in the Hejaz region of western Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ...

and

Kufa Kufa ( ), also spelled Kufah, is a city in Iraq, about south of Baghdad, and northeast of Najaf. It is located on the banks of the Euphrates, Euphrates River. The estimated population in 2003 was 110,000. Along with Samarra, Karbala, Kadhimiya ...

or adjacent to a natural oasis. Their location along major routes and next to the very scarce water sources seems to indicate that they enabled the Umayyads to control the roads militarily, monitor and tax the seasonal movement of people and their

livestock Livestock are the Domestication, domesticated animals that are raised in an Agriculture, agricultural setting to provide labour and produce diversified products for consumption such as meat, Egg as food, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. The t ...

, and not least, impress travellers and local tribes with lavish displays of monumental architecture, baths and ponds in the middle of an arid landscape.The spatial analysis of a historical phenomenon: using GIS to demonstrate the strategic placement of the Umayyad "desert palaces"
Mahmoud Bashir Abdallah Alhasanat, M. Sc. thesis, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 2009

Artistic value

The castles represent some of the most impressive examples of early

Islamic art Islamic art is a part of Islamic culture and encompasses the visual arts produced since the 7th century CE by people who lived within territories inhabited or ruled by Muslims, Muslim populations. Referring to characteristic traditions across ...

and

Islamic architecture Islamic architecture comprises the architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam. It encompasses both Secularity, secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day. The Muslim world, Islamic world encompasse ...

, and some are notable for including many figurative

fresco Fresco ( or frescoes) is a technique of mural painting executed upon freshly laid ("wet") lime plaster. Water is used as the vehicle for the dry-powder pigment to merge with the plaster, and with the setting of the plaster, the painting become ...

s and

relief Relief is a sculpture, sculptural method in which the sculpted pieces remain attached to a solid background of the same material. The term ''wikt:relief, relief'' is from the Latin verb , to raise (). To create a sculpture in relief is to give ...

s depicting people and animals, less frequently found in later Islamic art on such a large and public scale. Many elements of the desert palaces are on display in museums in Amman, in

's Rockefeller Museum (decorations from Hisham's Palace) and the

Pergamon Museum The Pergamon Museum (; ) is a Kulturdenkmal , listed building on the Museum Island in the Mitte (locality), historic centre of Berlin, Germany. It was built from 1910 to 1930 by order of Emperor Wilhelm II, German Emperor, Wilhelm II and accordi ...

of Berlin (the Mshatta Facade).

List of sites

Partial alphabetical list by main name (without Qasr, Khan, etc.) andwithout article (al-, etc.):

Jordan

* Qasr Ain es-Sil, an Umayyad farming estate with an attached bathing complex in the Azraq oasis, east of Amman * Qusayr 'Amra, a "desert castle" about east of Amman, important for frescos * Qasr al-'Azraq, a "desert castle" about east of AmmanQasr Azraq
at Archiqoo, with satellite view. Accessed 2 Apr 2024. * Qasr Bayir constructed in AD 743 by Al-Walid II * Qasr Burqu', a preexisting structure converted into a ''qasr'' by Al-Walid I, about east of Amman * Qasr al-Hallabat, a "desert castle" about northeast of Amman. ** Hammam al-Sarah aka as-Sarkh, the bath complex of Qasr al-Hallabat, about northeast of Amman * Humayma, site with a ''qasr'' where the Abbasid family resided while plotting their rebellion against the Umayyad caliphs, ousting them in 750 * Qasr Kharana, a "desert castle" about east of Amman * Qasr Mshatta, a "desert castle" about southeast of Amman; a large part of its facade is on display at the

Berlin Berlin ( ; ) is the Capital of Germany, capital and largest city of Germany, by both area and List of cities in Germany by population, population. With 3.7 million inhabitants, it has the List of cities in the European Union by population withi ...

* Qasr al-Mushash, ''qasr'' on the historical caravan route between Amman and Azraq via Qusayr 'Amra, some 20 km east of Muwaqqar * Qasr al-Muwaqqar, a "desert castle" southeast of Amman on the caravan route to Azraq * Qasr al-Qastal, a "desert castle" about south of Amman * Qasr at-Tuba, a "desert castle" about southeast of Amman * The Umayyad Palace, a ''qasr'' on the Citadel Hill of Amman * Umm al-Walid, site of 3 Umayyad ''qusur'' with a mosque and an agricultural settlement near Madaba Concise but comprehensive article with plans and reconstructions. * Khan az-Zabib, site of two Umayyad ''qusur'' with a mosque and a pastoral village, 25 km southeast of Umm al-Walid

Syria

* Al-Bakhra (ancient Avatha) near

Palmyra Palmyra ( ; Palmyrene dialect, Palmyrene: (), romanized: ''Tadmor''; ) is an ancient city in central Syria. It is located in the eastern part of the Levant, and archaeological finds date back to the Neolithic period, and documents first menti ...

with particularly large mosque; possibly more than a qasr * Khirbat al-Bayda', well-built ''qasr'' in the

Hauran The Hauran (; also spelled ''Hawran'' or ''Houran'') is a region that spans parts of southern Syria and northern Jordan. It is bound in the north by the Ghouta oasis, to the northeast by the al-Safa field, to the east and south by the Harrat ...

, probably Umayyad but possibly Ghassanid (se
1895 photo
by Burchardt). * Al-Dumayr, site of a ''qasr'' possibly dating to the

Byzantine The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived the events that caused the fall of the Western Roman E ...

period, maybe built by the Ghassanids, but possibly Umayyad * Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi, a "desert castle" in the

Syrian Desert The Syrian Desert ( ''Bādiyat Ash-Shām''), also known as the North Arabian Desert, the Jordanian steppe, or the Badiya, is a region of desert, semi-desert, and steppe, covering about of West Asia, including parts of northern Saudi Arabia, ea ...

* Qasr al-Hayr ash-Sharqi, a large "desert castle" in the

of a "different and higher status", described as a '' madinah'' or semi-urban settlement.Jacobson, David M. (1985-86)
"Upper Herodium: A Fortress or a Château?"
In ''Bulletin of the Anglo-Israel Archaeological Society'' 5, pp.56-68 3-64 Accessed 31 March 2024 via academia.edu. * Qudaym, site of a ''qasr'' with a mosque inside its courtyard, northern Palmyrene, or Palmyra regionGenequand, Denis (2009)
''Économie de production, affirmation du pouvoir et dolce vita : aspects de la politique de l’eau sous les Omeyyades au Bilad al-Sham''
. In: Mohamed Al-Dbiyat, Michel Mouton
''Stratégies d'acquisition de l'eau et société au Moyen-Orient depuis l'Antiquité''
New edition nline Beyrouth: Presses de l’Ifpo. . . Accessed 2 Apr 2024. *

Resafa Resafa (), sometimes spelled Rusafa, and known in the Byzantine era as Sergiopolis ( or , ) and briefly as Anastasiopolis (, ), was a city located in the Roman province of Euphratensis, in modern-day Syria. It is an archaeological site situated so ...

, city with vast ''qusur'' built by Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (r. 724–743), of a "different and higher status" than the Umayyad castles * Jabal Sais or Jabal Says, a "desert castle" in

north of Azraq

Israel and Palestine

* Hisham's Palace, in Arabic Qasr Hisham or Khirbet el-Mafjar, a "desert castle" on the

near

Jericho Jericho ( ; , ) is a city in the West Bank, Palestine, and the capital of the Jericho Governorate. Jericho is located in the Jordan Valley, with the Jordan River to the east and Jerusalem to the west. It had a population of 20,907 in 2017. F ...

, the four probably Umayyad ''qusur'' clustered around the southwest corner of the

Temple Mount The Temple Mount (), also known as the Noble Sanctuary (Arabic: الحرم الشريف, 'Haram al-Sharif'), and sometimes as Jerusalem's holy esplanade, is a hill in the Old City of Jerusalem, Old City of Jerusalem that has been venerated as a ...

/Haram ash-Sharif * Qasr al-Minya, a ''qasr'' on the

Sea of Galilee The Sea of Galilee (, Judeo-Aramaic languages, Judeo-Aramaic: יַמּא דטבריא, גִּנֵּיסַר, ), also called Lake Tiberias, Genezareth Lake or Kinneret, is a freshwater lake in Israel. It is the lowest freshwater lake on Earth ...

* Al-Sinnabra, a ''qasr'' on the

, Israel

Lebanon

* Anjar, an Umayyad palace-city built by

Caliph A caliphate ( ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with Khalifa, the title of caliph (; , ), a person considered a political–religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of ...

al-Walid I

Iraq

* Ukhaidir is a double exception: it was built in 775 by an Abbasid prince, Isa ibn Musa (c. 721–783/4), and is the only ''qasr'' outside the region of greater Syria.

Gallery

File:Qasr Kharana in Jordan.jpg, Qasr Kharana, Jordan File:Qasr Al-Azraq.jpg, Qasr al-Azraq, Jordan File:Qasr Amra.jpg, Quseir Amra, Jordan File:Qasr al-Hayr al-Sharqi.jpg, Qasr al-Hayr ash-Sharqi, Syria File:Ruïnes van Qasr Al Hair, Bestanddeelnr 255-6064.jpg, Qasr al-Hayr al-Gharbi, Syria (1950) File:Arabischer Mosaizist um 735 001.jpg, Khirbat al-Mafjar, "Hisham's Palace", Jericho: floor mosaic in bathhouse File:Horvat Minya, Israel 17.jpg, Qasr al-Minya, Israel File:Anjar, Lebanon, Umayyad city.jpg, Anjar, Umayyad city with qasr, Lebanon

References

Furtht reading

* Kennedy, David; and Riley, Derrick (2012; first edition: 1990)
''Rome's Desert Frontier from the Air''
Routledge, pp. 8–91 provide a comprehensive list of castles, forts, mosques and other major edifices.

External links

Shahid Kabir et al., ''Historical Significance of Strategic Location of Umayyad Desert Palaces'', Universiti Sains Malaysia 2010
{{Umayyad Caliphate topics Castles in Jordan Umayyad architecture Tourism in Jordan