Countess Of Provence
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The
County A county () is a geographic region of a country used for administrative or other purposesL. Brookes (ed.) '' Chambers Dictionary''. Edinburgh: Chambers Harrap Publishers Ltd, 2005. in some nations. The term is derived from the Old French denoti ...
of
Provence Provence is a geographical region and historical province of southeastern France, which stretches from the left bank of the lower Rhône to the west to the France–Italy border, Italian border to the east; it is bordered by the Mediterrane ...
was a largely autonomous medieval state that eventually became incorporated into the
Kingdom of France The Kingdom of France is the historiographical name or umbrella term given to various political entities of France in the Middle Ages, medieval and Early modern France, early modern period. It was one of the most powerful states in Europe from th ...
in 1481. For four centuries Provence was ruled by a series of counts that were
vassal A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerain ...
s of the
Carolingian Empire The Carolingian Empire (800–887) was a Franks, Frankish-dominated empire in Western and Central Europe during the Early Middle Ages. It was ruled by the Carolingian dynasty, which had ruled as List of Frankish kings, kings of the Franks since ...
,
Burgundy Burgundy ( ; ; Burgundian: ''Bregogne'') is a historical territory and former administrative region and province of east-central France. The province was once home to the Dukes of Burgundy from the early 11th until the late 15th century. ...
and finally the
Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire, also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe, usually headed by the Holy Roman Emperor. It developed in the Early Middle Ages, and lasted for a millennium ...
, but in practice they were largely independent.


Summary

The County of Provence (in
Old Occitan Old Occitan (, ), also called Old Provençal, was the earliest form of the Occitano-Romance languages, as attested in writings dating from the 8th to the 14th centuries. Old Occitan generally includes Early and Old Occitan. Middle Occitan is some ...
, ''Comtat de Provensa'') was a former
fief A fief (; ) was a central element in medieval contracts based on feudal law. It consisted of a form of property holding or other rights granted by an overlord to a vassal, who held it in fealty or "in fee" in return for a form of feudal alle ...
east of the Rhône delta. A territory that emerged from
Middle Francia Middle Francia () was a short-lived Frankish kingdom which was created in 843 by the Treaty of Verdun after an intermittent civil war between the grandsons of Charlemagne resulted in division of the united empire. Middle Francia was allocated ...
, Provence was first organized as a kingdom before gradually disintegrating due to feudal transfers and the civil war of the
Union of Aix The Union of Aix, founded in 1382, was a confederation of cities of Provence. It supported the party of Charles of Durazzo against the Capetian Louis I, Duke of Anjou during the unrest that followed the capture and death of Queen Joanna I of Naple ...
. Its natural borders originally stretched south from the
Rhône The Rhône ( , ; Occitan language, Occitan: ''Ròse''; Franco-Provençal, Arpitan: ''Rôno'') is a major river in France and Switzerland, rising in the Alps and flowing west and south through Lake Geneva and Southeastern France before dischargi ...
to
Nice Nice ( ; ) is a city in and the prefecture of the Alpes-Maritimes department in France. The Nice agglomeration extends far beyond the administrative city limits, with a population of nearly one millionEmbrun to the
Vivarais Vivarais (; ; {{cite web , url=http://www.columbia.edu/acis/ets/Graesse/orblatv.html , title = ORBIS LATINUS - Letter V) is a traditional region in the south-east of France, covering the ''département'' of Ardèche, named after its capital Vivier ...
, passing through the . To the north, its boundaries extended as far as Valence. The county was annexed to France in 1487, and the king assumed the title "
Count of Provence The asterisk ( ), from Late Latin , from Ancient Greek , , "little star", is a Typography, typographical symbol. It is so called because it resembles a conventional image of a star (heraldry), heraldic star. Computer scientists and Mathematici ...
, , and adjacent lands," while appointing
Palamède de Forbin Palamède de Forbin (died 1508), seigneur of Solliès, nicknamed "the Great", was president of the Chambre des comptes and counsellor to René d'Anjou. He helped this prince decide to cede his estates to Louis XI. Louis then became his master, a ...
as Grand Seneschal,
Governor A governor is an politician, administrative leader and head of a polity or Region#Political regions, political region, in some cases, such as governor-general, governors-general, as the head of a state's official representative. Depending on the ...
, and Lieutenant General of Provence. Provence retained its privileges, franchises, and freedoms. In terms of taxation, Provence was a '' pays de taille réelle'' (a land-tax-paying region); the don gratuit, the principal
direct tax Although the actual definitions vary between jurisdictions, in general, a direct tax is a tax imposed upon a person or property as distinct from a tax imposed upon a transaction, which is described as an indirect tax. There is a distinction betwee ...
, was levied on property, except “noble property.” Regarding the salt tax (
gabelle The ''gabelle'' () was a very unpopular French salt tax that was established during the mid-14th century and lasted, with brief lapses and revisions, until 1946. The term ''gabelle'' is derived from the Italian ''gabella'' (a duty), itself orig ...
), Provence was a ''pays de petite gabelle'' (small salt-tax region); salt was sold through five salt warehouses (in Berre,
Toulon Toulon (, , ; , , ) is a city in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of southeastern France. Located on the French Riviera and the historical Provence, it is the prefecture of the Var (department), Var department. The Commune of Toulon h ...
,
Hyères Hyères (), Provençal dialect, Provençal Occitan language, Occitan: ''Ieras'' in classical norm, or ''Iero'' in Mistralian norm) is a Communes of France, commune in the Var (département), Var Departments of France, department in the Provence-Al ...
,
Fréjus Fréjus (; ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Var (department), Var Departments of France, department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region in Southeastern France. It neighbours Saint-Raphaël, Var, Saint-Raphaël ...
, and
Cannes Cannes (, ; , ; ) is a city located on the French Riviera. It is a communes of France, commune located in the Alpes-Maritimes departments of France, department, and host city of the annual Cannes Film Festival, Midem, and Cannes Lions Internatio ...
), along with additional storage depots. The political structure of the County was reformed into
departments Department may refer to: * Departmentalization, division of a larger organization into parts with specific responsibility Government and military * Department (administrative division), a geographical and administrative division within a country, ...
in 1790, with legislative institutions transferred to the new capital, Paris. These events triggered federalist movements, which were repressed by the Convention’s centralist armies. During this time,
Toulon Toulon (, , ; , , ) is a city in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of southeastern France. Located on the French Riviera and the historical Provence, it is the prefecture of the Var (department), Var department. The Commune of Toulon h ...
and
Marseille Marseille (; ; see #Name, below) is a city in southern France, the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Departments of France, department of Bouches-du-Rhône and of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region. Situated in the ...
were renamed Port-la-Montagne and La Ville-sans-nom (“The City Without a Name”), respectively.


Toponymy

The term “County of Provence” is attested as early as 1059. It derives from the title “Count of Provence,” which had been recorded since 972 and became more commonly used from the 1020s–1030s onward. Provence owes its name to
Roman Roman or Romans most often refers to: *Rome, the capital city of Italy *Ancient Rome, Roman civilization from 8th century BC to 5th century AD *Roman people, the people of Roman civilization *Epistle to the Romans, shortened to Romans, a letter w ...
times: it was the first region of
Transalpine Gaul Gallia Narbonensis (Latin for "Gaul of Narbonne", from its chief settlement) was a Roman province located in Occitania (administrative region) , Occitania and Provence, in Southern France. It was also known as Provincia Nostra ("Our Prov ...
conquered between 58 and 51 BCE, and it became part of the
Roman province The Roman provinces (, pl. ) were the administrative regions of Ancient Rome outside Roman Italy that were controlled by the Romans under the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire. Each province was ruled by a Roman appointed as Roman g ...
(''Provincia'' in Latin), with
Narbonne Narbonne ( , , ; ; ; Late Latin:) is a commune in Southern France in the Occitanie region. It lies from Paris in the Aude department, of which it is a sub-prefecture. It is located about from the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and was ...
as its capital—thus the name
Gallia Narbonensis Gallia Narbonensis (Latin for "Gaul of Narbonne", from its chief settlement) was a Roman province located in Occitania and Provence, in Southern France. It was also known as Provincia Nostra ("Our Province"), because it was the first ...
. The
Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
''Provincia'' gave rise to the
Provençal Provençal may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Provence, a region of France ** Provençal dialect, a dialect of the Occitan language, spoken in the southeast of France ** ''Provençal'', meaning the whole Occitan language * Provenca ...
form ''Proensa'', which evolved into ''Provensa'', then ''Prouvença'' (in Provençal dictionary), and eventually Prouvenço under French influence in Provençal orthography. The spelling ''Prouvènço'' was standardized by followers of Roumanille and the phonetic writing system known as mistralian or “modern.” Classicists later proposed returning to a more original form, ''Provensa'', which appeared on several early 20th-century maps. However, the medieval form ''Provença'' was chosen, as it included the letter ç representing the etymological c of provincia. In '' The Gallic Wars'',
Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (12 or 13 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in a civil war. He ...
mentions passing from ''Provincia to Narbonnensis'' when crossing the Rhône, which likely explains why only the part of former Narbonese Gaul east of the Rhône came to be known as Provence.


Geography


Borders

Historically, after the fall of the
Roman Empire The Roman Empire ruled the Mediterranean and much of Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. The Roman people, Romans conquered most of this during the Roman Republic, Republic, and it was ruled by emperors following Octavian's assumption of ...
, “Provence” referred to the territory incorporated into the
Frankish Kingdom The Kingdom of the Franks (), also known as the Frankish Kingdom, or just Francia, was the largest post-Roman barbarian kingdom in Western Europe. It was ruled by the Frankish Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties during the Early Middle A ...
in 536 and which became the
Marquisate of Provence The County of Provence was a largely autonomous medieval state that eventually became incorporated into the Kingdom of France in 1481. For four centuries Provence was ruled by a series of counts that were vassals of the Carolingian Empire, Burgun ...
under the Kingdom of Burgundy-Provence in 947. It later became the County of Provence, with Arles, then
Aix-en-Provence Aix-en-Provence, or simply Aix, is a List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, city and Communes of France, commune in southern France, about north of Marseille. A former capital of Provence, it is the Subprefectures in France, s ...
as its capitals (Arles suffering frequent attacks from the Count of Toulouse, Marquis of Provence). The borders fluctuated: in 1125, a treaty between Raymond Berenger and Alphonse Jourdain of Toulouse divided Provence. The County of Provence was tied to the Crown of Aragon until the Treaty of Meaux-Paris (1229). In 1388, after Queen Joanna’s death, her territories east of the Var were lost and ceded to the States of Savoy in what became known as the , initially forming the Terres Neuves de Provence and later the
County of Nice The County of Nice (; ; Niçard ) was a historical region of France and Italy located around the southeastern city of Nice and roughly equivalent to the modern arrondissement of Nice. It was part of the Savoyard state within the Holy Roman Emp ...
from 1526. A century later, in 1481, the County of Provence passed by succession to King
Louis XI Louis XI (3 July 1423 – 30 August 1483), called "Louis the Prudent" (), was King of France from 1461 to 1483. He succeeded his father, Charles VII. Louis entered into open rebellion against his father in a short-lived revolt known as the ...
of France and thus became a French province. In the
Middle Ages In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire and ...
, Provence included the southern Alps up to the left-bank tributaries of the Var. Parts of the Alpine regions were later separated: in the north, incorporated into the
Dauphiné The Dauphiné ( , , ; or ; or ), formerly known in English as Dauphiny, is a former province in southeastern France, whose area roughly corresponded to that of the present departments of Isère, Drôme and Hautes-Alpes. The Dauphiné was ...
province, and in the east, the Pays NiçoisThe County of Nice belongs to Provence, not only as an administrative entity but also geographically and historically, since it was part of Provence when the region was incorporated in 536 into the
Frankish Kingdom The Kingdom of the Franks (), also known as the Frankish Kingdom, or just Francia, was the largest post-Roman barbarian kingdom in Western Europe. It was ruled by the Frankish Merovingian and Carolingian dynasties during the Early Middle A ...
, and it remained so until 1388. (County of Nice) was granted to the
House of Savoy The House of Savoy (, ) is a royal house (formally a dynasty) of Franco-Italian origin that was established in 1003 in the historical region of Savoy, which was originally part of the Kingdom of Burgundy and now lies mostly within southeastern F ...
in 1388 under the name ''Terres Neuves de Provence''. This Savoyard acquisition, at Provence’s expense, led to the creation of the County of Nice from 1526 to 1860. During the French Revolution, Provence was divided into three departments:
Basses-Alpes Alpes-de-Haute-Provence (sometimes abbreviated as AHP; ; ; ), formerly until 1970 known as Basses-Alpes (, ), is a Departments of France, department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region of France, bordering Alpes-Maritimes ...
(renamed
Alpes-de-Haute-Provence Alpes-de-Haute-Provence (sometimes abbreviated as AHP; ; ; ), formerly until 1970 known as Basses-Alpes (, ), is a department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of France, bordering Alpes-Maritimes and Italy to the east, Var to the sou ...
in 1970),
Bouches-du-Rhône Bouches-du-Rhône ( ; , ; ; "the Mouths of the Rhône") is a Departments of France, department in southern France. It borders Vaucluse to the north, Gard to the west and Var (department), Var to the east. The Mediterranean Sea lies to the sout ...
, and Var. The department of
Vaucluse Vaucluse (; or ) is a department in the southeastern French region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. It had a population of 561,469 as of 2019.
was created in 1793 from Avignon, the
Comtat Venaissin The (; ; 'County of Venaissin'), often called the for short, was a part of the Papal States from 1274 to 1791, in what is now the region of Southern France. The region was an enclave within the Kingdom of France, comprising the area aroun ...
, and the northern part of Bouches-du-Rhône. The
Alpes-Maritimes Alpes-Maritimes (; ; ; ) is a Departments of France, department of France located in the country's southeast corner, on the France–Italy border, Italian border and Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean coast. Part of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'A ...
were created in 1860 from the
County of Nice The County of Nice (; ; Niçard ) was a historical region of France and Italy located around the southeastern city of Nice and roughly equivalent to the modern arrondissement of Nice. It was part of the Savoyard state within the Holy Roman Emp ...
and the eastern part of Var (
Grasse Grasse (; Provençal dialect, Provençal in classical norm or in Mistralian norm ; traditional ) is the only Subprefectures in France, subprefecture of the Alpes-Maritimes Departments of France, department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur Re ...
district). The southern part of
Drôme Drôme (; Occitan: ''Droma''; Arpitan: ''Drôma'') is the southernmost department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region of Southeastern France. Named after the river Drôme, it had a population of 516,762 as of 2019.
, though historically part of the
Dauphiné The Dauphiné ( , , ; or ; or ), formerly known in English as Dauphiny, is a former province in southeastern France, whose area roughly corresponded to that of the present departments of Isère, Drôme and Hautes-Alpes. The Dauphiné was ...
, is known as Drôme provençale. It is culturally close to Provence due to language, the fact that the bishopric of
Saint-Paul-Trois-Châteaux Saint-Paul-Trois-Châteaux (; ), sometimes known as -en-Tricastin, is a commune, an administrative region, in the Drôme department in southeastern France. Name The settlement is attested as ''Augusta Tricastinorum'' (1st c. AD), ''Trikastinoi ...
belonged to the metropolitan province of Provence (Archbishopric of Arles), the region of Bouchet was part of the Comtat Venaissin (Upper Comtat), and because Diois and Valentinois were vassals of the Marquis of Provence. Over time, some authentically Provençal enclaves persisted in southern Drôme provençale, such as the County of Grignan (including the neighboring villages of
Réauville Réauville (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France. Population See also * Aiguebelle Abbey *Communes of the Drôme department * Albert Severin Roche, WW1 Legion of Honour The National Order of the Legion of Ho ...
,
Montjoyer Montjoyer (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France. Population See also *Aiguebelle Abbey *Communes of the Drôme department A commune is an alternative term for an intentional community. Commune or comună or comun ...
, Salles, Colonzelle, Allan), the Provençal enclave of Lemps (written Lens in the 18th century), and the enclaves of Saint-May,
Rémuzat Rémuzat (; Vivaro-Alpine: ''Remusat'') is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France. Population Sights * The ''Rocher du Caire'', a large cliff inhabited by griffon vultures. See also *Communes of the Drôme department A c ...
, Cornillon, Pommerol, and Eygalayes. All these villages identify with Provence and have legitimate historical claims to that heritage.


Relief

The relief of Provence is generally hilly, with impressive
Prealps The Alpine foothills, or Prealps (; ; ; ), may refer generally to any foothills at the base of the Alps in Europe. They are the transition zone between the High Alps and the Swiss Plateau and the Bavarian Alpine Foreland in the north, as well ...
in the central part and, to the east and northeast, the Southern Alps, which reach their highest point at 3,412 meters at the Aiguille de Chambeyron (
Alpes-de-Haute-Provence Alpes-de-Haute-Provence (sometimes abbreviated as AHP; ; ; ), formerly until 1970 known as Basses-Alpes (, ), is a department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of France, bordering Alpes-Maritimes and Italy to the east, Var to the sou ...
). Further south lies the Pelat massif, rising to 3,050 meters. On either side of the Var River, as well as east of the Verdon River, the
Castellane Prealps The Castellane Prealps () are a massif of the southern French Prealps located in the departments of Alpes-Maritimes, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence and Var. The easternmost part is often called the ''Préalpes de Grasse''. Geography Location The mas ...
, which peak at at 1,996 meters, are composed of plateaus and mountain ranges oriented west to east. The High Provence Plains (Plans de Haute-Provence) separate the Prealps from the central hills (, Canjuers Plain, ). To the west, the
Mont Ventoux Mont Ventoux (; ) is a mountain in the Provence region of southern France, located some northeast of Carpentras, Vaucluse. On the north side, the mountain borders the department of Drôme. At , it is the highest mountain in the region and h ...
massif, mostly located in the
Comtat Venaissin The (; ; 'County of Venaissin'), often called the for short, was a part of the Papal States from 1274 to 1791, in what is now the region of Southern France. The region was an enclave within the Kingdom of France, comprising the area aroun ...
, extends into Provence, where it reaches an altitude of 1,600 meters in the Sault National Forest. The Sainte-Victoire Mountain, famous for Cézanne’s paintings, dominates the Aix region (Pays d’Aix). In the
Bouches-du-Rhône Bouches-du-Rhône ( ; , ; ; "the Mouths of the Rhône") is a Departments of France, department in southern France. It borders Vaucluse to the north, Gard to the west and Var (department), Var to the east. The Mediterranean Sea lies to the sout ...
department, the
Alpilles The Alpilles ( , ) is a small range of low mountains in Provence, southern France, located about south of Avignon. Geography The range is an extension of the much larger Luberon range. Although it is not high – some 498 m (1,634 ft) ...
are notable, while in
Vaucluse Vaucluse (; or ) is a department in the southeastern French region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. It had a population of 561,469 as of 2019.
, at the edge of the
Comtat Venaissin The (; ; 'County of Venaissin'), often called the for short, was a part of the Papal States from 1274 to 1791, in what is now the region of Southern France. The region was an enclave within the Kingdom of France, comprising the area aroun ...
, stands the Petit Luberon, Provençal in its eastern part, followed by the Grand Luberon, which reaches its highest point at . Lastly, the Sainte-Baume massif stretches from west to east, from
Gémenos Gémenos (; ) is a commune located 20 kilometers east of Marseille in the Bouches-du-Rhône department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in southern France. Population History A property abstract belonging to Wilhem, Count of Mars ...
(Bouches-du-Rhône) to
Mazaugues Mazaugues (; ) is a commune in the Var department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in southeastern France. See also *Communes of the Var department The following is a list of the 153 Communes of France, communes of the Var (departm ...
(Var). The coastlines from
Marseille Marseille (; ; see #Name, below) is a city in southern France, the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Departments of France, department of Bouches-du-Rhône and of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region. Situated in the ...
to
Menton Menton (; in classical norm or in Mistralian norm, , ; ; or depending on the orthography) is a Commune in France, commune in the Alpes-Maritimes department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region on the French Riviera, close to the Italia ...
are rather rugged (
Calanques A calanque (, "inlet"; , plural ''calanche'' or ''calanchi''; , plural ''calancas'') is a narrow, steep-walled inlet that is developed in limestone, Dolomite (rock), dolomite, or other Carbonate minerals, carbonate strata and found along the Med ...
,
Maures The term Moor is an exonym used in European languages to designate the Muslim populations of North Africa (the Maghreb) and the Iberian Peninsula (particularly al-Andalus) during the Middle Ages. Moors are not a single, distinct or self-defi ...
,
Esterel Esterel is a synchronous programming language for the development of complex reactive systems. The imperative programming style of Esterel allows the simple expression of parallelism and preemption. As a consequence, it is well suited for cont ...
,
French Riviera The French Riviera, known in French as the (; , ; ), is the Mediterranean coastline of the southeast corner of France. There is no official boundary, but it is considered to be the coastal area of the Alpes-Maritimes department, extending fr ...
). Erosion caused by violent summer storms can create deeply carved ravines. The western part of the region is marked by the
Crau The Crau is the ancient confluence of the Durance and Rhône, and constitutes their vast flat alluvial fan. Agriculture The Crau is composed of two different parts: The dry Crau is in the south, and has been used as pasture from Roman times. T ...
Plain and the
Camargue The Camargue (, also , , ; ) is a coastal region in southern France located south of the city of Arles, between the Mediterranean Sea and the two arms of the Rhône river delta. The eastern arm is called the Grand Rhône; the western is the ''P ...
, formed by the
Rhône The Rhône ( , ; Occitan language, Occitan: ''Ròse''; Franco-Provençal, Arpitan: ''Rôno'') is a major river in France and Switzerland, rising in the Alps and flowing west and south through Lake Geneva and Southeastern France before dischargi ...
Delta, which are the only truly flat areas in the Provençal region. File:Barcelonnette-hiver.jpg,
Barcelonnette Barcelonnette (; , also ; obsolete ) is a Communes of France, commune of France and a Subprefectures in France, subprefecture in the Departments of France, department of Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region. It is l ...
File:Moustiers_Ste_Marie_Provence_France.jpg,
Moustiers-Sainte-Marie Moustiers-Sainte-Marie (; ), or simply Moustiers, is a Communes of France, commune in the Alpes-de-Haute-Provence Departments of France, department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region of Southeastern France. It is a membe ...
, in the
Alpes-de-Haute-Provence Alpes-de-Haute-Provence (sometimes abbreviated as AHP; ; ; ), formerly until 1970 known as Basses-Alpes (, ), is a department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of France, bordering Alpes-Maritimes and Italy to the east, Var to the sou ...
File:Calanques_Marseille_Cassis_10.JPG, Calanque de l'Oule in Marseille File:Vallon_de_Mollières_2004_07.jpg, Vallon de Mollières, Mercantour National Park in the
Alpes-Maritimes Alpes-Maritimes (; ; ; ) is a Departments of France, department of France located in the country's southeast corner, on the France–Italy border, Italian border and Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean coast. Part of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'A ...


Hydrography

Among the waterways that cross Provence, the most significant is the
Rhône The Rhône ( , ; Occitan language, Occitan: ''Ròse''; Franco-Provençal, Arpitan: ''Rôno'') is a major river in France and Switzerland, rising in the Alps and flowing west and south through Lake Geneva and Southeastern France before dischargi ...
, which forms the western border of the region. The Rhône has the second-largest flow rate of all rivers flowing into the Mediterranean Sea, after the
Nile The Nile (also known as the Nile River or River Nile) is a major north-flowing river in northeastern Africa. It flows into the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile is the longest river in Africa. It has historically been considered the List of river sy ...
. As it flows into a tide-less sea, the river has formed a delta. Now embanked, this delta remains stable except during exceptional floods such as those in 1993, 1994, and 2003. The
Durance The Durance (; ''Durença'' in the Occitan classical norm or ''Durènço'' in the Mistralian norm) is a major river in Southeastern France. A left tributary of the Rhône, it is long. Its drainage basin is .Montgenèvre Montgenèvre (; ; Italian: ''Monginevro'') is a commune on the Italian border in the Hautes-Alpes department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in Southeastern France. Geography Montgenèvre is located in the French part of the Cott ...
, in the
Hautes-Alpes Hautes-Alpes (; ; ) is a Departments of France, department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region of Southeastern France. It is located in the heart of the French Alps, after which it is named. Hautes-Alpes had a population ...
, near the Italian border. It flows into the
Rhône The Rhône ( , ; Occitan language, Occitan: ''Ròse''; Franco-Provençal, Arpitan: ''Rôno'') is a major river in France and Switzerland, rising in the Alps and flowing west and south through Lake Geneva and Southeastern France before dischargi ...
a few kilometers southwest of
Avignon Avignon (, , ; or , ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Vaucluse department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of southeastern France. Located on the left bank of the river Rhône, the Communes of France, commune had a ...
, between the
Vaucluse Vaucluse (; or ) is a department in the southeastern French region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur. It had a population of 561,469 as of 2019.
and
Bouches-du-Rhône Bouches-du-Rhône ( ; , ; ; "the Mouths of the Rhône") is a Departments of France, department in southern France. It borders Vaucluse to the north, Gard to the west and Var (department), Var to the east. The Mediterranean Sea lies to the sout ...
departments, serving as a border between the two. The Durance is known as a “capricious” river, once feared for both its
flood A flood is an overflow of water (list of non-water floods, or rarely other fluids) that submerges land that is usually dry. In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Floods are of significant con ...
s (Provençal tradition says the three plagues of Provence were the mistral wind, the
Durance The Durance (; ''Durença'' in the Occitan classical norm or ''Durènço'' in the Mistralian norm) is a major river in Southeastern France. A left tributary of the Rhône, it is long. Its drainage basin is .Parliament of Aix) and its low-water periods. The
Ubaye The Ubaye (; ) is a river of southeastern France. It is long and flows through the Alpes-de-Haute-Provence department. Its drainage basin is .
is a river that originates at the at an altitude of 2,655 meters, in the
Ubaye Valley The Ubaye Valley is an area in the Alpes de Haute-Provence ''département'', in the French Alps, having approximately 7,700 residents. Its residents are called ''Ubayens''. Its principal town is the ''sous-préfecture'' of Barcelonnette. 350px, A ...
. It passes through
Barcelonnette Barcelonnette (; , also ; obsolete ) is a Communes of France, commune of France and a Subprefectures in France, subprefecture in the Departments of France, department of Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region. It is l ...
(a sub-prefecture of
Alpes-de-Haute-Provence Alpes-de-Haute-Provence (sometimes abbreviated as AHP; ; ; ), formerly until 1970 known as Basses-Alpes (, ), is a department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of France, bordering Alpes-Maritimes and Italy to the east, Var to the sou ...
) and feeds into the
Durance The Durance (; ''Durença'' in the Occitan classical norm or ''Durènço'' in the Mistralian norm) is a major river in Southeastern France. A left tributary of the Rhône, it is long. Its drainage basin is .Serre-Ponçon hydroelectric reservoir. The
Verdon Verdon may refer to: People *Verdon (surname) Places France * Verdon, Dordogne, in the Dordogne ''département'' * Verdon, Marne, in the Marne ''département'' * Vinon-sur-Verdon, an old French town in the département of Var, Provence-Alpes-Cô ...
River, which rises at the foot of the (altitude 2,572 meters), flows into the
Durance The Durance (; ''Durença'' in the Occitan classical norm or ''Durènço'' in the Mistralian norm) is a major river in Southeastern France. A left tributary of the Rhône, it is long. Its drainage basin is .gorges. File:France_Avignon_Total_1.jpg, The Rhône at
Avignon Avignon (, , ; or , ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Vaucluse department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of southeastern France. Located on the left bank of the river Rhône, the Communes of France, commune had a ...
. File:Gorges_du_Verdon_Frankreich.jpg, The
Verdon Gorge The Verdon Gorge (French language, French: ''Gorges du Verdon'' ) is a river canyon located in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region of Southeastern France. It is about 25 km (15.5 mi) long and up to 700 metres (0.4 ...
. Many coastal rivers also exist in Provence, notably: * The Var River, which originates at an altitude of 1,790 meters, south of the Cayolle Pass, and travels 114 kilometers through
Alpes-Maritimes Alpes-Maritimes (; ; ; ) is a Departments of France, department of France located in the country's southeast corner, on the France–Italy border, Italian border and Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean coast. Part of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'A ...
(it no longer crosses the department that bears its name) before reaching the
Mediterranean Sea The Mediterranean Sea ( ) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the east by the Levant in West Asia, on the north by Anatolia in West Asia and Southern Eur ...
between
Nice Nice ( ; ) is a city in and the prefecture of the Alpes-Maritimes department in France. The Nice agglomeration extends far beyond the administrative city limits, with a population of nearly one millionSaint-Laurent-du-Var Saint-Laurent-du-Var (; Occitan: ''Sant Laurenç de Var'', Italian: ''San Lorenzo del Varo'') is a commune in the Alpes-Maritimes department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region on the French Riviera. History The town was founded in the ...
. The Var River, whose flow is usually low (typically 50 to 100 m³/s), is considered the natural border between Provence and the
County of Nice The County of Nice (; ; Niçard ) was a historical region of France and Italy located around the southeastern city of Nice and roughly equivalent to the modern arrondissement of Nice. It was part of the Savoyard state within the Holy Roman Emp ...
. * The
Argens The Argens (; ) is a 116 km long river of the French Riviera. Its drainage basin is fully included in the Var department.Var department from Seillons Source d’Argens to
Fréjus Fréjus (; ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Var (department), Var Departments of France, department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region in Southeastern France. It neighbours Saint-Raphaël, Var, Saint-Raphaël ...
, where it flows into the Mediterranean.


Climate

Provence is a region with a
Mediterranean climate A Mediterranean climate ( ), also called a dry summer climate, described by Köppen and Trewartha as ''Cs'', is a temperate climate type that occurs in the lower mid-latitudes (normally 30 to 44 north and south latitude). Such climates typic ...
, featuring hot, dry summers. Winters are mild along the coast and generally humid in the east but are harsher in the north and northeast ( Pelat,
Ubaye The Ubaye (; ) is a river of southeastern France. It is long and flows through the Alpes-de-Haute-Provence department. Its drainage basin is .
, Digne Prealps), where the climate becomes alpine. In its central and Mediterranean areas, the vegetation of Provence is characteristic of the
garrigue Garrigue or garigue ( ), also known as phrygana ( , n. pl.), is a type of low scrubland ecoregion and plant community in the Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub biome. It is found on limestone soils in southern France and around the ...
(scrubland), and the summer drought makes it particularly vulnerable to
wildfire A wildfire, forest fire, or a bushfire is an unplanned and uncontrolled fire in an area of Combustibility and flammability, combustible vegetation. Depending on the type of vegetation present, a wildfire may be more specifically identified as a ...
s. However, the region becomes greener and more humid in its more easterly and alpine parts. The main wind is the mistral, whose speed can exceed 110 km/h. It blows between 120 and 160 days per year, with gusts averaging 90 km/h. The following table (not included here) indicates the various mistral wind speeds recorded at the Orange and Carpentras-Serres stations in the southern Rhône Valley and its frequency during the year 2006. The "normal" corresponds to the average of the past 53 years for Orange’s meteorological records and 42 years for those of Carpentras.


History


Antiquity


Greek provence

The Provençal coastline was colonized by the
Greeks Greeks or Hellenes (; , ) are an ethnic group and nation native to Greece, Greek Cypriots, Cyprus, Greeks in Albania, southern Albania, Greeks in Turkey#History, Anatolia, parts of Greeks in Italy, Italy and Egyptian Greeks, Egypt, and to a l ...
: around 600 BCE, the
Phocaea Phocaea or Phokaia (Ancient Greek language, Ancient Greek: Φώκαια, ''Phókaia''; modern-day Foça in Turkey) was an ancient Ionian Ancient Greece, Greek city on the western coast of Anatolia. Colonies in antiquity, Greek colonists from Phoc ...
ns settled in
Marseille Marseille (; ; see #Name, below) is a city in southern France, the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Departments of France, department of Bouches-du-Rhône and of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region. Situated in the ...
(''Massalia'' in Greek; ''Massilia'' in Latin). They spread out to other areas, founding colonies in
Nice Nice ( ; ) is a city in and the prefecture of the Alpes-Maritimes department in France. The Nice agglomeration extends far beyond the administrative city limits, with a population of nearly one millionAntibes Antibes (, , ; ) is a seaside city in the Alpes-Maritimes Departments of France, department in Southeastern France. It is located on the French Riviera between Cannes and Nice; its cape, the Cap d'Antibes, along with Cap Ferrat in Saint-Jean-Ca ...
(Antipolis),
Hyères Hyères (), Provençal dialect, Provençal Occitan language, Occitan: ''Ieras'' in classical norm, or ''Iero'' in Mistralian norm) is a Communes of France, commune in the Var (département), Var Departments of France, department in the Provence-Al ...
(Olbia), Six-Fours (Tauroeis),
Arles Arles ( , , ; ; Classical ) is a coastal city and Communes of France, commune in the South of France, a Subprefectures in France, subprefecture in the Bouches-du-Rhône Departments of France, department of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Reg ...
,
La Ciotat La Ciotat (; ; in Mistralian spelling ''La Ciéutat''; 'the City') is a Communes of France, commune in the Bouches-du-Rhône Departments of France, department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region in Southern France. It ...
(Citharista), Brégançon (Pergantion),
Monaco Monaco, officially the Principality of Monaco, is a Sovereign state, sovereign city-state and European microstates, microstate on the French Riviera a few kilometres west of the Regions of Italy, Italian region of Liguria, in Western Europe, ...
(Monoïkos), Athénopolis, and on certain parts of the Languedoc coast such as
Agde Agde (; ) is a commune in the southern French department of Hérault. It is the Mediterranean port of the Canal du Midi. It is situated on an ancient basalt volcano, hence the name "Black Pearl of the Mediterranée". Location Agde is locate ...
(Agathé) and south of
Nîmes Nîmes ( , ; ; Latin: ''Nemausus'') is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Gard Departments of France, department in the Occitania (administrative region), Occitanie Regions of France, region of Southern France. Located between the Med ...
. To the north, they founded
Le Pègue Le Pègue (; ) is a commune in the Drôme department in southeastern France. With a history spanning 6,000 years Le Pègue showcases in its archaeological museum the discoveries made within its territory. As a significant Iron Age site, it ...
near
Valréas Valréas (; ) is a commune in the Vaucluse department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in southeastern France. History The area around the town of Valréas is known as ''L'Enclave des Papes''. It is an enclave of Vaucluse, surround ...
and stopped at La Laupie, east of Montélimar. Before the Roman invasion and colonization, the region was mainly inhabited by
Ligurians The Ligures or Ligurians were an ancient people after whom Liguria, a region of present-day north-western Italy, is named. Because of the strong Celtic influences on their language and culture, they were also known in antiquity as Celto-Liguria ...
, who later mixed with some Celtic soldiers and founded what is now referred to as the Celto-Ligurians (formerly Celto-Lygians).


The Roman conquest in the 2nd century BCE

Brief timeline * 181 BCE: The Phocaean Massaliotes of the city of
Marseille Marseille (; ; see #Name, below) is a city in southern France, the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Departments of France, department of Bouches-du-Rhône and of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region. Situated in the ...
and their Helleno-Celtic allies, the
Cavares The Cavarī or Cavarēs (Gaulish: *''Cauaroi'', 'the heroes, champions, mighty men') were a Gallic tribe dwelling in the western part of modern Vaucluse, around the present-day cities of Avignon, Orange and Cavaillon, during the Roman period. Th ...
from the Cavaillon–Avignon–Orange region, called on
Rome Rome (Italian language, Italian and , ) is the capital city and most populated (municipality) of Italy. It is also the administrative centre of the Lazio Regions of Italy, region and of the Metropolitan City of Rome. A special named with 2, ...
for help against Ligurian pirates. * 154 BCE: Nice and Antibes were besieged by Ligurians from the Maritime Alps; a Roman expedition led by Opimius. * 125/124 BCE: A coalition of Celto-Ligurian tribes (the
Salyens The Salyes or Salluvii (Greek: ) were an ancient Celto-Ligurian people dwelling between the Durance river and the Greek colony of Massalia during the Iron Age. Although earlier writers called them 'Ligurian', Strabo used the denomination 'Celto-lig ...
), supported by the
Vocontii The Vocontii (Gaulish: *''Uocontioi''; Ancient Greek, Greek: Οὐοκόντιοι, Οὐοκοντίων) were a Gauls, Gallic people dwelling on the western foothills of the Alps during the La Tène culture, Iron Age and the Roman period. The Vo ...
,
Allobroges The Allobroges (Gaulish language, Gaulish: *''Allobrogis'', 'foreigner, exiled'; ) were a Gauls, Gallic people dwelling in a large territory between the Rhône river and the Alps during the Iron Age Europe, Iron Age and the Roman period. The Allob ...
, and
Arverni The Arverni (Gaulish: *''Aruernoi'') were a Gallic people dwelling in the modern Auvergne region during the Iron Age and the Roman period. They were one of the most powerful tribes of ancient Gaul, contesting primacy over the region with the n ...
, was defeated by Consul Marcus Fulvius Flaccus, who crossed the Alps. * 123 BCE: A new campaign ends with the destruction of the
oppidum An ''oppidum'' (: ''oppida'') is a large fortified Iron Age Europe, Iron Age settlement or town. ''Oppida'' are primarily associated with the Celts, Celtic late La Tène culture, emerging during the 2nd and 1st centuries BC, spread acros ...
of Entremont. * 123/122 BCE: Foundation of
Aix-en-Provence Aix-en-Provence, or simply Aix, is a List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, city and Communes of France, commune in southern France, about north of Marseille. A former capital of Provence, it is the Subprefectures in France, s ...
to control the Salyens. * 122 BCE: Proconsul
Domitius Ahenobarbus Ahenobarbus (Latin, 'red-beard', literally 'bronze-beard'), also spelled Aenobarbus or Ænobarbus, may refer to: * Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (disambiguation), Romans * Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus (disambiguation), Romans * Lucius Domitius Ahen ...
crushes the Allobroges. * 121 BCE: The Volcae, ruling a vast territory of 24 oppida, welcomed the Roman legions without resistance. * 120 BCE: Ahenobarbus continued his campaign and is credited with the foundation and organization of the Provincia (Province). * 117 BCE: Beginning of the construction of the ''
Via Domitia The Via Domitia was the first Roman road built in Gaul, to link Italy and Hispania through Gallia Narbonensis, across what is now Southern France. The route that the Romans regularised and paved was ancient when they set out to survey it, and tra ...
'' (in honor of Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus) toward the
Pyrenees The Pyrenees are a mountain range straddling the border of France and Spain. They extend nearly from their union with the Cantabrian Mountains to Cap de Creus on the Mediterranean coast, reaching a maximum elevation of at the peak of Aneto. ...
. It followed the route of an ancient Greek road (the Heraclean Way). Its construction symbolized Romanization and stimulated commercial exchange. * 109–105 BCE: Incursions by Germanic tribes (
Cimbri The Cimbri (, ; ) were an ancient tribe in Europe. Ancient authors described them variously as a Celtic, Gaulish, Germanic, or even Cimmerian people. Several ancient sources indicate that they lived in Jutland, which in some classical texts was ...
,
Teutons The Teutons (, ; ) were an ancient northern European tribe mentioned by Roman authors. The Teutons are best known for their participation, together with the Cimbri and other groups, in the Cimbrian War with the Roman Republic in the late seco ...
, Tigurini,
Ambrones The Ambrones () were an ancient tribe mentioned by Roman authors. They are believed by some to have been a Germanic tribe from Jutland; the Romans were not clear about their exact origin. In the late 2nd century BC, along with the fellow Cimbri ...
). Marius defeated the Teutons at
Pourrières Pourrières (; ) is a commune in the Var department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in southeastern France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas ...
(near Aix-en-Provence) in 102 BCE and the Cimbri at Vercellae in 101 BCE. File:Les_antiques.png, The Antiques in
Saint-Rémy-de-Provence Saint-Rémy-de-Provence (; "Saint-Rémy of Provence"; Provençal dialect, Provençal: ''Sant Romieg de Provença'' and ''Sant Roumié de Prouvènço'' ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Bouches-du-Rhône Departments of France, department ...
File:Marseille_-_Le_jardin_des_vestiges.JPG, The Jardin des Vestiges in
Marseille Marseille (; ; see #Name, below) is a city in southern France, the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Departments of France, department of Bouches-du-Rhône and of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region. Situated in the ...
File:Nice,_France,_Arènes_romaines_de_Cimiez.jpg, The Cimiez Arena in
Nice Nice ( ; ) is a city in and the prefecture of the Alpes-Maritimes department in France. The Nice agglomeration extends far beyond the administrative city limits, with a population of nearly one millionBaux-de-Provence, depicting Marius, his wife and their fortune-teller Martha the Syrian


Middle Ages


Early Middle Ages

The lower
Rhône Valley The Rhône ( , ; Occitan: ''Ròse''; Arpitan: ''Rôno'') is a major river in France and Switzerland, rising in the Alps and flowing west and south through Lake Geneva and Southeastern France before discharging into the Mediterranean Sea ( Gu ...
experienced various invasions. The
Visigoths The Visigoths (; ) were a Germanic people united under the rule of a king and living within the Roman Empire during late antiquity. The Visigoths first appeared in the Balkans, as a Roman-allied Barbarian kingdoms, barbarian military group unite ...
and
Alans The Alans () were an ancient and medieval Iranian peoples, Iranic Eurasian nomads, nomadic pastoral people who migrated to what is today North Caucasus – while some continued on to Europe and later North Africa. They are generally regarded ...
plundered many cities and reached as far as
Orange Orange most often refers to: *Orange (fruit), the fruit of the tree species '' Citrus'' × ''sinensis'' ** Orange blossom, its fragrant flower ** Orange juice *Orange (colour), the color of an orange fruit, occurs between red and yellow in the vi ...
and
Avignon Avignon (, , ; or , ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Vaucluse department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of southeastern France. Located on the left bank of the river Rhône, the Communes of France, commune had a ...
. The
Burgundians The Burgundians were an early Germanic peoples, Germanic tribe or group of tribes. They appeared east in the middle Rhine region in the third century AD, and were later moved west into the Roman Empire, in Roman Gaul, Gaul. In the first and seco ...
settled in the region in 442 and chose
Vienne Vienne may refer to: Places *Vienne (department), a department of France named after the river Vienne *Vienne, Isère, a city in the French department of Isère * Vienne-en-Arthies, a village in the French department of Val-d'Oise * Vienne-en-Bessi ...
, which retained its prestige as a great Roman city, as their capital. Avignon marked the southernmost point of this kingdom. However, in 484, upon the death of the Visigoth king
Euric Euric ( Gothic: 𐌰𐌹𐍅𐌰𐍂𐌴𐌹𐌺𐍃, ''Aiwareiks'', see ''Eric''), also known as Evaric ( 420 – 28 December 484), son of Theodoric I, ruled as king (''rex'') of the Visigoths, after murdering his brother, Theodoric II, from ...
, the Burgundians crossed the Durance and seized all of
Provence Provence is a geographical region and historical province of southeastern France, which stretches from the left bank of the lower Rhône to the west to the France–Italy border, Italian border to the east; it is bordered by the Mediterrane ...
, which they returned to the Visigoths in 501. In 508, the
Ostrogoths The Ostrogoths () were a Roman-era Germanic peoples, Germanic people. In the 5th century, they followed the Visigoths in creating one of the two great Goths, Gothic kingdoms within the Western Roman Empire, drawing upon the large Gothic populatio ...
in turn seized Provence and established a duchy in the south of the
Burgundian kingdom The Kingdom of the Burgundians, or First Kingdom of Burgundy, was established by Germanic Burgundians in the Rhineland and then in eastern Gaul in the 5th century. History Background The Burgundians, a Germanic tribe, may have migrated from the ...
, dependent on their Italo-Dalmatian realm: the Duchy of Provence, which would later become Lower Provence or the County of Provence (the Burgundian part would become the Margraviate of Provence). In 536, the Franks took possession of the duchy, partially integrating it into the Frankish kingdom of Burgundy.
Charles Martel Charles Martel (; – 22 October 741), ''Martel'' being a sobriquet in Old French for "The Hammer", was a Franks, Frankish political and military leader who, as Duke and Prince of the Franks and Mayor of the Palace, was the de facto ruler of ...
fought against the patrician of Provence,
Maurontus Maurontus was the Duke or Patrician of Provence in the early 8th century (720s and 730s). He aspired to independence in the face of Charles Martel, Duke of the Franks, and the Provençal patrician Abbo. Maurontus appeared in the ''Chronicle of ...
, an ally of the Moors of Gothia, and permanently brought Provence into the
Frankish Frankish may refer to: * Franks, a Germanic tribe and their culture ** Frankish language or its modern descendants, Franconian languages, a group of Low Germanic languages also commonly referred to as "Frankish" varieties * Francia, a post-Roman ...
domain in 736. In 843, the
Treaty of Verdun The Treaty of Verdun (; ), agreed to on 10 August 843, ended the Carolingian civil war and divided the Carolingian Empire between Lothair I, Louis the German, Louis II and Charles the Bald, Charles II, the surviving sons of the emperor Louis the ...
granted Provence to
Lothair I Lothair I (9th. C. Frankish: ''Ludher'' and Medieval Latin: ''Lodharius''; Dutch and Medieval Latin: ''Lotharius''; German: ''Lothar''; French: ''Lothaire''; Italian: ''Lotario''; 795 – 29 September 855) was a 9th-century emperor of the ...
. His son,
Charles of Provence Charles of Provence or Charles of Burgundy (84525 January 863) was a Carolingian king and ruler of Provence and Lower Burgundy from 855 until his early death in 863. Charles was the youngest son of Emperor Lothair I and Ermengarde of Tours. ...
, made it the Kingdom of Provence-Viennois or Lower Burgundy, a short-lived entity (855–863). Upon his death, Provence was incorporated into Italy and Viennois into the Lotharingia of Lothair II. After a period of unrest, Provence was once again included in the imperial domain by the
Treaty of Meerssen The Treaty of Mersen or Meerssen, concluded on 8 August 870, was a treaty to partition the realm of Lothair II, known as Lotharingia, by his uncles Louis the German of East Francia and Charles the Bald of West Francia, the two surviving sons of ...
, though briefly, as it returned, upon the death of Emperor Louis II in 875, to the King of West Francia,
Charles the Bald Charles the Bald (; 13 June 823 – 6 October 877), also known as CharlesII, was a 9th-century king of West Francia (843–877), King of Italy (875–877) and emperor of the Carolingian Empire (875–877). After a series of civil wars during t ...
, again for a short time. Boson of Provence, his brother-in-law, had himself proclaimed king of the second Kingdom of Provence in 879. Boson conflicted with the
Carolingians The Carolingian dynasty ( ; known variously as the Carlovingians, Carolingus, Carolings, Karolinger or Karlings) was a Frankish noble family named after Charles Martel and his grandson Charlemagne, descendants of the Arnulfing and Pippinid ...
. Boson's son,
Louis Louis may refer to: People * Louis (given name), origin and several individuals with this name * Louis (surname) * Louis (singer), Serbian singer Other uses * Louis (coin), a French coin * HMS ''Louis'', two ships of the Royal Navy See also ...
, who became emperor, entrusted the governance of Provence to
Hugh of Arles Hugh of Italy ( 880/885 – April 10, 948), known as Hugh of Arles or Hugh of Provence, was the king of Italy from 926 until 947, and regent in Lower Burgundy and Provence from 911 to 933. He belonged to the Bosonid family. During his reign in ...
, who in turn handed it over in 934 to Rudolph II, King of Transjurane Burgundy. The new entity became the second Kingdom of Burgundy-Provence, also known as the Kingdom of Arles. It lasted until 1032. In the 880s, some
Saracen upright 1.5, Late 15th-century German woodcut depicting Saracens ''Saracen'' ( ) was a term used both in Greek and Latin writings between the 5th and 15th centuries to refer to the people who lived in and near what was designated by the Rom ...
s from the Emirate of
Al-Andalus Al-Andalus () was the Muslim-ruled area of the Iberian Peninsula. The name refers to the different Muslim states that controlled these territories at various times between 711 and 1492. At its greatest geographical extent, it occupied most o ...
accidentally landed on the Var coast and established a base at
Fraxinet Fraxinetum or Fraxinet ( or , from Latin ''fraxinus'': "ash tree", ''fraxinetum'': "ash forest") was the site of a Muslim stronghold at the centre of a frontier state in Provence between about 887 and 972. It is identified with modern La Garde-Fre ...
(''Fraxinetum'') or Freinet, traditionally located in the
La Garde-Freinet La Garde-Freinet (; Provençal: ''La Gàrdia Frainet'') is a commune in the Var department in the Côte d'Azur area in southeastern France. Location La Garde-Freinet is a medieval French mountain village, located in the Massif des Maures, 1 ...
region, from which they launched raids, particularly in eastern Lower Provence.
Hugh of Arles Hugh of Italy ( 880/885 – April 10, 948), known as Hugh of Arles or Hugh of Provence, was the king of Italy from 926 until 947, and regent in Lower Burgundy and Provence from 911 to 933. He belonged to the Bosonid family. During his reign in ...
led two victorious attacks against them in 931 and 942 with the help of Byzantine ships, but without pursuing the advantage to expel them entirely. In 947, the
Bosonid The Bosonids were a dynasty of Carolingian-era counts, dukes, bishops, kings and emperors descended from Boso the Elder and his wife Engeltrude. They married into the Carolingian dynasty and raised to power during the second half of the 9th cen ...
Boson In particle physics, a boson ( ) is a subatomic particle whose spin quantum number has an integer value (0, 1, 2, ...). Bosons form one of the two fundamental classes of subatomic particle, the other being fermions, which have half odd-intege ...
,
Count of Arles This is a list of the counts of Arles. *Guerin of Provence, Garin, or Warin, (until 853), also ''Guerin'' in French language, French, ''Garí'' in Spanish language, Spanish, and ''Guerí'' in Catalan language, Catalan; also count of Toulouse, duke ...
, was invested with Provence. Upon his death, his two sons, Guilhem known as the Liberator (
William I William I may refer to: Kings * William the Conqueror (–1087), also known as William I, King of England * William I of Sicily (died 1166) * William I of Scotland (died 1214), known as William the Lion * William I of the Netherlands and Luxembour ...
) and Roubaud, jointly inherited the county, an indivision maintained by their descendants. The branch descending from Guilhem produced the Counts of Provence; the branch from Roubaud produced the Marquises of Provence.


The county of Provence within the Kingdom of Arles

The County of Provence was one of the great fiefs of the Rodolphian Kingdom of Burgundy. In 948, Conrad the Peaceful, with the support of
Otto Otto is a masculine German given name and a surname. It originates as an Old High German short form (variants '' Audo'', '' Odo'', '' Udo'') of Germanic names beginning in ''aud-'', an element meaning "wealth, prosperity". The name is recorded fr ...
, King of Germany, reclaimed the territory south of Viennois to the Mediterranean Sea, which had been excluded from the 932 cession by
Hugh of Arles Hugh of Italy ( 880/885 – April 10, 948), known as Hugh of Arles or Hugh of Provence, was the king of Italy from 926 until 947, and regent in Lower Burgundy and Provence from 911 to 933. He belonged to the Bosonid family. During his reign in ...
to
Rudolph II of Burgundy Rudolph II (/885 – 12 or 13 July 937) was King of Upper Burgundy from 912 until 933, and then King of the united Kingdom of Burgundy (the polity later known as the Kingdom of Arles) from 933 until his death in 937. He was also King of Italy f ...
. To govern this territory, Conrad appointed counts who were loyal to him and chosen from outside Provence, since Conrad had no personal domain in Provence and thus only theoretical ownership, preferring to appoint counts who would remain faithful to him. He selected two brothers from the Mâcon region, Boson and Guillaume, sons of Rotbald or Roubaud, with the former as
Count of Arles This is a list of the counts of Arles. *Guerin of Provence, Garin, or Warin, (until 853), also ''Guerin'' in French language, French, ''Garí'' in Spanish language, Spanish, and ''Guerí'' in Catalan language, Catalan; also count of Toulouse, duke ...
and the latter as Count of
Avignon Avignon (, , ; or , ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Vaucluse department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of southeastern France. Located on the left bank of the river Rhône, the Communes of France, commune had a ...
. It seems both brothers acted jointly, with the younger subordinate to the elder in managing the north, center, west, and southeast of the County of Provence. In eastern Provence, Conrad appointed a third count, , in the region of Apt and probably Glandèves and Senez, to administer Alpine Provence. This choice of two counts from the same family in Arles and Avignon may stem from
Hugh of Arles Hugh of Italy ( 880/885 – April 10, 948), known as Hugh of Arles or Hugh of Provence, was the king of Italy from 926 until 947, and regent in Lower Burgundy and Provence from 911 to 933. He belonged to the Bosonid family. During his reign in ...
having, under the reign of
Louis the Blind Louis the Blind ( – 5 June 928) was king in Provence and Lower Burgundy from 890 to 928, and also king of Italy from 900 to 905, and also the emperor between 901 and 905, styled as Louis III. His father was king Boso, from the Bosonid family ...
, unified the administration of the domain in Provence. To limit the risk of the County of Provence becoming independent of his sovereignty, Conrad divided authority by appointing two viscounts:The term viscount does not appear in the texts. Arlulf received fiscal lands and public rights in the Valley of Trets in 950 and owed homage to the Count of Arles. one in Marseille and one in Cavaillon. The territories entrusted to the lords of
Marseille Marseille (; ; see #Name, below) is a city in southern France, the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Departments of France, department of Bouches-du-Rhône and of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region. Situated in the ...
and Cavaillon were separate from those of the counts of Arles, Avignon, and Apt. The viscounty of Apt quickly disappeared around 1017–1018. The appointment of distinct lords in Marseille deprived the counts of Arles and Avignon of easy access to the Mediterranean. This creation of the seigneury of Marseille is evidenced in a charter dated October 7, 948, where the
bishop of Marseille The Archdiocese of Marseille (Latin: ''Archidioecesis Massiliensis''; French: ''Archidiocèse de Marseille'') is a Latin Church ecclesiastical jurisdiction or archdiocese of the Catholic Church in France.Boson In particle physics, a boson ( ) is a subatomic particle whose spin quantum number has an integer value (0, 1, 2, ...). Bosons form one of the two fundamental classes of subatomic particle, the other being fermions, which have half odd-intege ...
are mentioned. The term “viscounty” for Marseille first appeared in 977. The autonomy of the viscounty of Marseille relative to the County of Provence only ended with the authoritative actions of
Charles of Anjou Charles I (early 1226/12277 January 1285), commonly called Charles of Anjou or Charles d'Anjou, was King of Sicily from 1266 to 1285. He was a member of the royal Capetian dynasty and the founder of the House of Anjou-Sicily. Between 1246 a ...
in 1252 and 1257. Conrad only visited the County of Provence in 963. The Kings of Burgundy seemed to have little interest in Provence. During the reigns of Conrad I and his son Rudolph III, four or five acts relating to Provence are known. In 972, following the kidnapping of Mayeul, Abbot of
Cluny Cluny () is a commune in the eastern French department of Saône-et-Loire, in the region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté. It is northwest of Mâcon. The town grew up around the Benedictine Abbey of Cluny, founded by Duke William I of Aquitaine in ...
, William I, and Roubaud, with the help of
Provençal Provençal may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Provence, a region of France ** Provençal dialect, a dialect of the Occitan language, spoken in the southeast of France ** ''Provençal'', meaning the whole Occitan language * Provenca ...
lords and the Marquis of Turin, liberated Provence from the Saracens who had been pillaging the region from the
Massif des Maures The Massif des Maures (, "plateau of the Moors") is a small mountain range in southeastern France. It is located in the department of Var, near Fraxinet and between Hyères and Fréjus. Its highest point, at ''Signal de la Sauvette'', is high. ...
(above
Saint-Tropez Saint-Tropez ( , ; ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Var (department), Var departments of France, department and the regions of France, region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, Southern France. It is west of Nice and east of Marseille, o ...
). The
Battle of Tourtour The Battle of Tourtour of 973 was a significant victory for the Christian forces of William I of Provence over the Andalusi settlers based at Fraxinetum. Background For decades, the Saracens had been making inroads into Provence, building several ...
marked William's final victory over the Saracens. This military campaign against the Saracens, conducted without
Conrad Conrad may refer to: People * Conrad (name) * Saint Conrad (disambiguation) Places United States * Conrad, Illinois, an unincorporated community * Conrad, Iowa, a city * Conrad, Montana, a city * Conrad Glacier, Washington Elsewher ...
's troops, was a means to bring Provence, its local aristocracy, and its urban and rural communities—who had until then always resisted feudal transformation and comital power—into line. It allowed William to acquire de facto suzerainty over Provence. He distributed reconquered lands to his vassals, arbitrated disputes, and thereby established Provençal feudalism. Named marquis in 975, William made
Arles Arles ( , , ; ; Classical ) is a coastal city and Communes of France, commune in the South of France, a Subprefectures in France, subprefecture in the Bouches-du-Rhône Departments of France, department of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Reg ...
his capital. File:Image_taken_from_page_567_of_'Bibliothek_deutscher_Geschichte_..._Herausgegeben_von_H._v._Zwiedineck-Südenhorst'_(16564104686).jpg, Provence divided between the
Kingdom of Burgundy Kingdom of Burgundy was a name given to various successive Monarchy, kingdoms centered in the historical region of Burgundy during the Middle Ages. The heartland of historical Burgundy correlates with the border area between France and Switze ...
and the Kingdom of Austrasia in 561. File:Empire_carolingien_855-fr.svg, The
Kingdom of Provence Lower Burgundy (; ) was a historical region in the early medieval Burgundy, and a distinctive realm known as the ''Kingdom of Lower Burgundy'', that existed from 879 to 933, when it was incorporated into the reunited Kingdom of Burgundy. During t ...
in 855 when the kingdom of Emperor Lothair I was divided after the
Treaty of Prüm The Treaty of Prüm, concluded on 19 September 855, was the second of the main Partition (politics), partition treaties of the Carolingian Empire. As Emperor Lothair I was approaching death, he divided his realm of Middle Francia among his three ...
File:Holy_Roman_Empire_1000_map-fr.svg, Provence around the year 1000, within the
Kingdom of Arles The Kingdom of Burgundy, known from the 12th century as the Kingdom of Arles, was a realm established in 933 by the merger of the kingdoms of Upper and Lower Burgundy under King Rudolf II. It was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire in 1033 ...
File:Map_France_1030-fr.svg, The County of Provence within the
Kingdom of Arles The Kingdom of Burgundy, known from the 12th century as the Kingdom of Arles, was a realm established in 933 by the merger of the kingdoms of Upper and Lower Burgundy under King Rudolf II. It was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire in 1033 ...
in the year 1030 Upon the death of Boson II of Arles, his two sons— William known as the Liberator, and Rotbold—shared the county jointly, a joint rule maintained by their descendants. The branch from Guilhem produced the
Counts of Provence The land of Provence has a history quite separate from that of any of the larger nations of Europe. Its independent existence has its origins in the frontier nature of the dukedom in Merovingian Gaul. In this position, influenced and affected by ...
; the branch from Roubaud, from 1054 onward, produced the
Counts of Forcalquier The County of Forcalquier was a large medieval county in the region of Provence in the Kingdom of Arles, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. It was named after the fortress around which it grew, Forcalquier. The earliest mention of a castle at For ...
and the Marquises of Provence. In 972, following the kidnapping of Maïeul of Cluny, Abbot of
Cluny Cluny () is a commune in the eastern French department of Saône-et-Loire, in the region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté. It is northwest of Mâcon. The town grew up around the Benedictine Abbey of Cluny, founded by Duke William I of Aquitaine in ...
, William I, and Roubaud, with the help of Provençal lords and the Marquis of Turin, freed Provence from the
Saracen upright 1.5, Late 15th-century German woodcut depicting Saracens ''Saracen'' ( ) was a term used both in Greek and Latin writings between the 5th and 15th centuries to refer to the people who lived in and near what was designated by the Rom ...
s who, from their fortress of
Fraxinet Fraxinetum or Fraxinet ( or , from Latin ''fraxinus'': "ash tree", ''fraxinetum'': "ash forest") was the site of a Muslim stronghold at the centre of a frontier state in Provence between about 887 and 972. It is identified with modern La Garde-Fre ...
, had been pillaging the region. This military campaign, conducted without the troops of
Conrad I of Burgundy Conrad I, called the Peaceful (; ; ; – 19 October 993), was King of Burgundy (ruling a political unit also called the Kingdom of Arles) from 937 until his death in 993. Life A member of the Elder House of Welf, Conrad was the son of King ...
, served to subdue Provence, its local aristocracy, and the urban and rural communities that had always resisted feudal transformation and comital authority. It enabled William to gain de facto suzerainty over Provence. He distributed reconquered lands to his vassals, settled disputes, and thus established Provençal feudalism. Named Marquis in 975, William made
Arles Arles ( , , ; ; Classical ) is a coastal city and Communes of France, commune in the South of France, a Subprefectures in France, subprefecture in the Bouches-du-Rhône Departments of France, department of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Reg ...
his capital. As
Rudolph III of Burgundy Rudolph III (, ; 970 – 6 September 1032), called the Idle or the Pious, was the king of Burgundy from 993 until his death. He was the last ruler of an independent Kingdom of Burgundy, and the last legitimate male member of the Burgundian line ...
had no offspring, he named Conrad II the Salian, Holy Roman Emperor, as his heir. Upon Rudolph's death in 1032, the Kingdom of Burgundy—and with it the Kingdom of Arles, which included the County of Provence—was annexed to the
Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire, also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe, usually headed by the Holy Roman Emperor. It developed in the Early Middle Ages, and lasted for a millennium ...
. However, the suzerainty of the Holy Roman Emperor over Provence thereafter was only nominal and theoretical. In 1019, Emma, Countess of Provence, married William Taillefer,
Count of Toulouse The count of Toulouse (, ) was the ruler of Toulouse during the 8th to 13th centuries. Originating as vassals of the Frankish kings, the hereditary counts ruled the city of Toulouse and its surrounding county from the late 9th century until 12 ...
, transmitting the rights of Roubaud’s lineage to the House of Toulouse. The title of Marquis of Provence permanently passed to this house in 1093. In 1112, Douce of Provence, heir to the rights of Guilhem's line, married Raymond-Berenger III,
Count of Barcelona The count of Barcelona (, , , ) was the ruler of the County of Barcelona and also, by extension and according with the Usages of Barcelona, Usages and Catalan constitutions, of the Principality of Catalonia as Prince#Prince as generic for ruler, p ...
, who became ''Raymond-Berenger I of Provence''. The Houses of Toulouse and Barcelona then entered into conflict over the marquisate. A treaty was concluded in 1125 between Raymond-Berenger and Alphonse-Jourdain of Toulouse: according to it, the County of Provence was divided into a marquisate north of the
Durance The Durance (; ''Durença'' in the Occitan classical norm or ''Durènço'' in the Mistralian norm) is a major river in Southeastern France. A left tributary of the Rhône, it is long. Its drainage basin is . Meanwhile, the northeastern part of the County of Provence had become de facto independent under the Count of Forcalquier. In 1193,
Alfonso II of Provence Alfonso II (1180 – 2 February 1209) was the second son of Alfonso II of Aragon (who was Alfonso I of Provence) and Sancha of Castile. His father transferred the County of Provence from his uncle Sancho to him in 1185. Alfonso II was born in Bar ...
married Gersande of Sabran, granddaughter of William II, Count of Forcalquier, which enabled the County of Provence to recover the southern part of the County of Forcalquier, while the northern part of this county, around Gap and Embrun, came under the suzerainty of the Dauphiné. This explains the presence of the dolphin emblem in the current coat of arms of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur region. During this period, the
County of Orange The Principality of Orange (French language, French: Principauté d'Orange) was, from 1163 to 1713, a feudal state in Provence, in the south of modern-day France, on the east bank of the river Rhone, north of the city of Avignon, and surrounded ...
, a vassal of Provence, was elevated to a principality in 1181.


Late Middle Ages

In 1245, Raymond-Bérenger V of Provence died. His four daughters married respectively: Marguerite to Saint Louis (King Louis IX), Sancie to
Richard of Cornwall Richard (5 January 1209 – 2 April 1272) was an English prince who was King of the Romans from 1257 until his death in 1272. He was the second son of John, King of England, and Isabella, Countess of Angoulême. Richard was nominal Count of ...
,
Eleanor Eleanor () is a feminine given name, originally from an Old French adaptation of the Old Provençal name ''Aliénor''. It was the name of a number of women of royalty and nobility in western Europe during the High Middle Ages">Provençal dialect ...
to Henry III, King of England, and
Beatrice Beatrice may refer to: * Beatrice (given name) Places In the United States * Beatrice, Alabama, a town * Beatrice, Humboldt County, California, a locality * Beatrice, Georgia, an unincorporated community * Beatrice, Indiana, an unincorporated ...
to
Charles Charles is a masculine given name predominantly found in English language, English and French language, French speaking countries. It is from the French form ''Charles'' of the Proto-Germanic, Proto-Germanic name (in runic alphabet) or ''* ...
,
Count of Anjou The Count of Anjou was the ruler of the County of Anjou, first granted by King Charles the Bald, Charles the Bald of West Francia in the 9th century to Robert the Strong. Ingelger and his son, Fulk the Red, were viscounts until Fulk assumed the t ...
and Maine, brother of Saint Louis. It was the latter who inherited the two counties of Provence and Forcalquier, passing them on to the first Capetian House of Anjou. That is why the city of Forcalquier is nicknamed "the city of the four queens." Accumulating royal titles ( Naples-Sicily,
Jerusalem Jerusalem is a city in the Southern Levant, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest cities in the world, and ...
,
Cyprus Cyprus (), officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Situated in West Asia, its cultural identity and geopolitical orientation are overwhelmingly Southeast European. Cyprus is the List of isl ...
,
Acre The acre ( ) is a Unit of measurement, unit of land area used in the Imperial units, British imperial and the United States customary units#Area, United States customary systems. It is traditionally defined as the area of one Chain (unit), ch ...
,
Thessalonica Thessaloniki (; ), also known as Thessalonica (), Saloniki, Salonika, or Salonica (), is the second-largest city in Greece (with slightly over one million inhabitants in its metropolitan area) and the capital city, capital of the geographic reg ...
, etc.), the counts began calling themselves kings. However, the County of Provence-Forcalquier was fragmented. Following the Treaty of Meaux-Paris (1229), which marked the end of the
Albigensian Crusade The Albigensian Crusade (), also known as the Cathar Crusade (1209–1229), was a military and ideological campaign initiated by Pope Innocent III to eliminate Catharism in Languedoc, what is now southern France. The Crusade was prosecuted pri ...
, upon the death of
Alphonse of Poitiers Alphonse (11 November 122021 August 1271) was the Count of Poitou from 1225 and Count of Toulouse (as such called Alphonse II) from 1249. As count of Toulouse, he also governed the Marquisate of Provence. Birth and early life Born at Poissy, A ...
in 1271, the marquisate passed to King Philip III of France, who ceded it in 1274 to Pope
Gregory X Pope Gregory X (;  – 10 January 1276), born Teobaldo Visconti, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 1 September 1271 to his death and was a member of the Third Order of St. Francis. He was elected at th ...
to become the
Comtat Venaissin The (; ; 'County of Venaissin'), often called the for short, was a part of the Papal States from 1274 to 1791, in what is now the region of Southern France. The region was an enclave within the Kingdom of France, comprising the area aroun ...
. In 1382, upon the death of Queen Joanna, the first Capetian House of Anjou ended. She had adopted
Louis I Louis I may refer to: Cardinals * Louis I, Cardinal of Guise (1527–1578) Counts * Ludwig I, Count of Württemberg (c. 1098–1158) * Louis I of Blois (1172–1205) * Louis I of Flanders (1304–1346) * Louis I of Châtillon (died 13 ...
(brother of King
Charles V Charles V may refer to: Kings and Emperors * Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor (1500–1558) * Charles V of Naples (1661–1700), better known as Charles II of Spain * Charles V of France (1338–1380), called the Wise Others * Charles V, Duke ...
), who was made Count and then Duke of Anjou, thus founding—after a period of unrest known as the War of the
Union of Aix The Union of Aix, founded in 1382, was a confederation of cities of Provence. It supported the party of Charles of Durazzo against the Capetian Louis I, Duke of Anjou during the unrest that followed the capture and death of Queen Joanna I of Naple ...
—the second Capetian House of Anjou. This dynasty ended with the death of Charles V of Anjou in 1481. In 1388, following the unrest and civil war accompanying Queen Joanna’s succession, the city of
Nice Nice ( ; ) is a city in and the prefecture of the Alpes-Maritimes department in France. The Nice agglomeration extends far beyond the administrative city limits, with a population of nearly one millionPuget-Théniers Puget-Théniers (; ; ) is a commune in the Alpes-Maritimes department in southeastern France. Geography It is situated on in the valley of the Var. History It was part of the historic County of Nice until 1860 as ''Poggetto Tenieri''. Pe ...
, and the valleys of the
Tinée The Tinée (; ) is a river that flows through the Alpes-Maritimes department of southeastern France. It is long. Its drainage basin is .Vésubie The Vésubie is a river in the southeast of France. It is a left tributary of the Var in the Maritime Alps. It is long. Its drainage basin is .
formed the Terres Neuves de Provence (New Lands of Provence) and placed themselves under the protection of the
House of Savoy The House of Savoy (, ) is a royal house (formally a dynasty) of Franco-Italian origin that was established in 1003 in the historical region of Savoy, which was originally part of the Kingdom of Burgundy and now lies mostly within southeastern F ...
—this is known as the . These lands became known as the
County of Nice The County of Nice (; ; Niçard ) was a historical region of France and Italy located around the southeastern city of Nice and roughly equivalent to the modern arrondissement of Nice. It was part of the Savoyard state within the Holy Roman Emp ...
in 1526. On December 10, 1481, Count Charles III of Provence dictated a will naming King
Louis XI Louis XI (3 July 1423 – 30 August 1483), called "Louis the Prudent" (), was King of France from 1461 to 1483. He succeeded his father, Charles VII. Louis entered into open rebellion against his father in a short-lived revolt known as the ...
of France as his universal heir. Charles III died the following day, December 11. On December 19, Louis XI instructed
Palamède de Forbin Palamède de Forbin (died 1508), seigneur of Solliès, nicknamed "the Great", was president of the Chambre des comptes and counsellor to René d'Anjou. He helped this prince decide to cede his estates to Louis XI. Louis then became his master, a ...
to take possession of Provence. On December 29, the Estates (local representatives) met under the presidency of Pierre de La Jaille to acknowledge Charles III’s will. Forbin convened the Estates for January 15, 1482. The acts drafted and adopted from January 1482 to April 1487 confirmed the union of Provence and France “as one principal to another principal (...) without the County and the land of Provence being subordinate to the crown f France” In August 1486, the Estates requested Charles VIII to proclaim the union of Provence with France as “definitive and eternal.” The King of France granted their request with royal letters in October 1486, and communicated to the Estates on April 9, 1487. Legally, it was only a personal union of crowns—the King of France acted in Provence solely as Count of Provence, and this remained so until the French Revolution. “May it please Your Majesty to style yourself ..Count of Provence, ..so that we are in no way obliged to obey any letter lacking this title.”


Independence

More pressing affairs within the Empire regularly drew Emperor Charles IV back to
Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...
. No longer able to focus on Provence, he decided to relinquish it and ceded his rights to the Crown of Arles to Louis of Anjou in 1366, who was thus freed from all suzerainty. In 1382, upon the death of Queen Joanna, the first Capetian House of Anjou came to an end. Joanna adopted
Louis I of Anjou Louis I, Duke of Anjou (23 July 1339 – 20 September 1384) was a French prince, the second son of John II of France and Bonne of Bohemia. His career was markedly unsuccessful. Born at the Château de Vincennes, Louis was the first of the Ang ...
, son of King John II the Good of France, thereby founding the second Capetian House of Anjou-Provence. The capture and death of Queen Joanna triggered a period of turmoil between supporters of the second House of Anjou-Provence and those of Charles of Durazzo, descendant of the first House of Anjou-Provence. The latter’s followers formed the
Union of Aix The Union of Aix, founded in 1382, was a confederation of cities of Provence. It supported the party of Charles of Durazzo against the Capetian Louis I, Duke of Anjou during the unrest that followed the capture and death of Queen Joanna I of Naple ...
(1382–1387). The largely political defeat of Charles of Durazzo definitively secured the second Anjou dynasty over the County of Provence (1387). Eastern Provence (east of the Var), being the only region that remained loyal to him, received no assistance from Charles, who allowed it to submit to a lord of its choosing, as long as it was not an enemy. This led, in 1388, to the separation of the viguerie of Nice (City of
Nice Nice ( ; ) is a city in and the prefecture of the Alpes-Maritimes department in France. The Nice agglomeration extends far beyond the administrative city limits, with a population of nearly one millionPuget-Théniers Puget-Théniers (; ; ) is a commune in the Alpes-Maritimes department in southeastern France. Geography It is situated on in the valley of the Var. History It was part of the historic County of Nice until 1860 as ''Poggetto Tenieri''. Pe ...
, and the valleys of the
Tinée The Tinée (; ) is a river that flows through the Alpes-Maritimes department of southeastern France. It is long. Its drainage basin is .Vésubie The Vésubie is a river in the southeast of France. It is a left tributary of the Var in the Maritime Alps. It is long. Its drainage basin is .
), which opted for the Dédition of Nice to Savoy, forming the ''Terres Neuves de Provence''. The upper Ubaye valley, around Barcelonnette, also came under Savoyard suzerainty. France annexed the Barcelonnette region in 1713 under the Treaty of Utrecht, and Nice in 1860 by referendum.


Precursors to Independence

There is no clear date of the first use of the title of Count of Provence, although an independent state had been forming for some time. The first non-
Carolingian The Carolingian dynasty ( ; known variously as the Carlovingians, Carolingus, Carolings, Karolinger or Karlings) was a Frankish noble family named after Charles Martel and his grandson Charlemagne, descendants of the Arnulfing and Pippinid c ...
ruler of Provence was Boso who made himself king and was confirmed by the Synod of Mantaille, whose
Bosonid The Bosonids were a dynasty of Carolingian-era counts, dukes, bishops, kings and emperors descended from Boso the Elder and his wife Engeltrude. They married into the Carolingian dynasty and raised to power during the second half of the 9th cen ...
descendants would rule Provence for a time. His son
Louis Louis may refer to: People * Louis (given name), origin and several individuals with this name * Louis (surname) * Louis (singer), Serbian singer Other uses * Louis (coin), a French coin * HMS ''Louis'', two ships of the Royal Navy See also ...
was a short lasting
Holy Roman Emperor The Holy Roman Emperor, originally and officially the Emperor of the Romans (disambiguation), Emperor of the Romans (; ) during the Middle Ages, and also known as the Roman-German Emperor since the early modern period (; ), was the ruler and h ...
who despite being crowned in 901 was twice expelled from Italy and on the second time was blinded and returned to Provence which was now effectively governed by his cousin,
Hugh of Arles Hugh of Italy ( 880/885 – April 10, 948), known as Hugh of Arles or Hugh of Provence, was the king of Italy from 926 until 947, and regent in Lower Burgundy and Provence from 911 to 933. He belonged to the Bosonid family. During his reign in ...
. Hugh moved the capital of Provence from Vienne to Arles, and when Louis died took the title Duke of Provence. Hugh became
King of Italy King is a royal title given to a male monarch. A king is an absolute monarch if he holds unrestricted governmental power or exercises full sovereignty over a nation. Conversely, he is a constitutional monarch if his power is restrained by ...
in 926 ruling both Italy and Provence for twenty years. He traded Provence to
Rudolph I of Burgundy Rudolph I ( – 25 October 912) was King of Upper Burgundy from his election in 888 until his death. A member of the elder Welf family, Rudolph was the son of Conrad, Count of Auxerre and Waldrada of Worms. From his father he inherited the l ...
in exchange for preserving his power in Italy. After Hugh's death
Conrad of Burgundy Conrad I, called the Peaceful (; ; ; – 19 October 993), was King of Burgundy (ruling a political unit also called the Kingdom of Arles) from 937 until his death in 993. Life A member of the Elder House of Welf, Conrad was the son of King Rud ...
became Count of Provence as King of Burgundy. He named a number of counts of Burgundian origin, one of whom Rotbald founded a new dynasty who would control the county for the next century and a half. Despite unsuccessful attempts by Louis and Hugh to expel them, partially because they had been occupied in Italy, the Muslim
Saracens file:Erhard Reuwich Sarazenen 1486.png, upright 1.5, Late 15th-century History of Germany, German woodcut depicting Saracens ''Saracen'' ( ) was a term used both in Greek language, Greek and Latin writings between the 5th and 15th centuries to ...
had established a base on the coast of Provence called
Fraxinetum Fraxinetum or Fraxinet ( or , from Latin ''fraxinus'': " ash tree", ''fraxinetum'': "ash forest") was the site of a Muslim stronghold at the centre of a frontier state in Provence between about 887 and 972. It is identified with modern La Garde- ...
, near modern-day
Saint-Tropez Saint-Tropez ( , ; ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Var (department), Var departments of France, department and the regions of France, region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, Southern France. It is west of Nice and east of Marseille, o ...
. From here they controlled the mountains of the
Massif des Maures The Massif des Maures (, "plateau of the Moors") is a small mountain range in southeastern France. It is located in the department of Var, near Fraxinet and between Hyères and Fréjus. Its highest point, at ''Signal de la Sauvette'', is high. ...
and the coast between modern
Fréjus Fréjus (; ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Var (department), Var Departments of France, department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Regions of France, region in Southeastern France. It neighbours Saint-Raphaël, Var, Saint-Raphaël ...
and
Hyères Hyères (), Provençal dialect, Provençal Occitan language, Occitan: ''Ieras'' in classical norm, or ''Iero'' in Mistralian norm) is a Communes of France, commune in the Var (département), Var Departments of France, department in the Provence-Al ...
, and raided throughout Provence getting as far east as the Italian Riviera and north to the alpine valleys of
Piedmont Piedmont ( ; ; ) is one of the 20 regions of Italy, located in the northwest Italy, Northwest of the country. It borders the Liguria region to the south, the Lombardy and Emilia-Romagna regions to the east, and the Aosta Valley region to the ...
.Edouard Baratier, ''Entre Francs et Arabes'', in the collection ''Histoire de Provence''. pg. 109.


Expulsion of the Saracens

In 973, the Saracens captured Maiolus, the
abbot Abbot is an ecclesiastical title given to the head of an independent monastery for men in various Western Christian traditions. The name is derived from ''abba'', the Aramaic form of the Hebrew ''ab'', and means "father". The female equivale ...
of the monastery at
Cluny Cluny () is a commune in the eastern French department of Saône-et-Loire, in the region of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté. It is northwest of Mâcon. The town grew up around the Benedictine Abbey of Cluny, founded by Duke William I of Aquitaine in ...
, and held him for ransom. The ransom was paid and the abbot was released. Count William I, the Count of Arles, organized an army with the help of allied soldiers from Piedmont, and defeated the Saracens near
La Garde-Freinet La Garde-Freinet (; Provençal: ''La Gàrdia Frainet'') is a commune in the Var department in the Côte d'Azur area in southeastern France. Location La Garde-Freinet is a medieval French mountain village, located in the Massif des Maures, 1 ...
at the
Battle of Tourtour The Battle of Tourtour of 973 was a significant victory for the Christian forces of William I of Provence over the Andalusi settlers based at Fraxinetum. Background For decades, the Saracens had been making inroads into Provence, building several ...
. The Saracens who were not killed at the battle were forcibly baptized and made into slaves, and the remaining Saracens in Provence fled the region. The expulsion of the Saracens in 973 became an epic event in the history and legends of Provence. William became known as "William the Liberator." He distributed the lands taken from the Saracens between Toulon and Nice to his entourage. His descendants became the recognized leaders of Provence, above the other counts of the region. During this long period of wars and banditry in Provence, the population retreated to walled cities, maritime trade was rare, and little new art or architecture, other than fortification, was created. The
Provençal language Provençal may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Provence, a region of France ** Provençal dialect, a dialect of the Occitan language, spoken in the southeast of France ** ''Provençal'', meaning the whole Occitan language * Proven ...
was formed, closer to Latin than the French spoken in northern France. In the 11th century Provençal terms began to appear, mixed with Latin, in documents.


Catalan dynasty (12th-13th century)

The German Emperor Conrad the Salic forced the childless
King of Burgundy The following is a list of the kings of the two kingdoms of Burgundy, and a number of related political entities devolving from Carolingian machinations over family relations. Kings of the Burgundians * Gebicca (late 4th century – c. 40 ...
, Rudolph III, to name him as successor which in 1032 led to Provence becoming a fiefdom of the
Holy Roman Empire The Holy Roman Empire, also known as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation after 1512, was a polity in Central and Western Europe, usually headed by the Holy Roman Emperor. It developed in the Early Middle Ages, and lasted for a millennium ...
, which it remained until 1246. There was a tradition of shared inheritance practiced by the family of the Counts, leading to two lines each using the title of Count. In 1112, a descendant of Count William I,
Douce I, Countess of Provence Douce I (also Dulcia or Dolça, called "of Rouergue" or "of Gévaudan") ( – 1127) was the daughter of Gilbert I of Gévaudan and Gerberga of Provence and wife of Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona. In 1112, she inherited the county of ...
, married the Catalan
Ramon Berenguer III, Count of Barcelona Ramon Berenguer III ''the Great'' (11 November 1082 – 23 January or 19 July 1131) was the count of Barcelona, Girona, and Ausona from 1086 (jointly with Berenguer Ramon II and solely from 1097), Besalú from 1111, Cerdanya from 1117, and cou ...
, who as a result became Raymond Berenguer I, Count of Provence. He ruled Provence until 1131, and his descendants, the Catalan Dynasty, ruled Provence until 1246. The claim of the other line, sometimes using the title of
Margraves of Provence The land of Provence has a history quite separate from that of any of the larger nations of Europe. Its independent existence has its origins in the frontier nature of the dukedom in Merovingian Gaul. In this position, influenced and affected by ...
, passed by marriage to
William III, Count of Toulouse William III Taillefer (also spelled ''Tallefer'' or ''Tallifer''; – September 1037) was the Count of Toulouse, Albi, and Quercy, as well as the Marquis of Gothie from 972 or 978 to his death. He was the first of the Toulousain branch of his fam ...
. This led to a long-standing Toulouse claim to the county, finally resolved by partition in 1125. Provence north and west of the
Durance The Durance (; ''Durença'' in the Occitan classical norm or ''Durènço'' in the Mistralian norm) is a major river in Southeastern France. A left tributary of the Rhône, it is long. Its drainage basin is .Count of Toulouse The count of Toulouse (, ) was the ruler of Toulouse during the 8th to 13th centuries. Originating as vassals of the Frankish kings, the hereditary counts ruled the city of Toulouse and its surrounding county from the late 9th century until 12 ...
, while the lands between the
Durance The Durance (; ''Durença'' in the Occitan classical norm or ''Durènço'' in the Mistralian norm) is a major river in Southeastern France. A left tributary of the Rhône, it is long. Its drainage basin is .Brignoles Brignoles (; ) is a commune in the Var department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of Southeastern France. Alongside Draguignan, it is one of two subprefectures in Var. It was the summer residence of the counts of Provence; their ...
. A shorter lasting partition in the next generation, between the County of Provence and the
County of Forcalquier The County of Forcalquier was a large medieval county in the region of Provence in the Kingdom of Arles, then part of the Holy Roman Empire. It was named after the fortress around which it grew, Forcalquier. The earliest mention of a castle at For ...
. was ended by an intra-dynastic marriage in 1193. Following the
Crusades The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and at times directed by the Papacy during the Middle Ages. The most prominent of these were the campaigns to the Holy Land aimed at reclaiming Jerusalem and its surrounding t ...
, international commerce began to resume in the ports of the Mediterranean and along the Rhône. The port of Marseille flourished again. A new city built on the Petit-Rhône, Saint-Gilles, became a transit point for cloth from
Flanders Flanders ( or ; ) is the Dutch language, Dutch-speaking northern portion of Belgium and one of the communities, regions and language areas of Belgium. However, there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, la ...
and spices and the products of the eastern Mediterranean.
Tarascon Tarascon (; ), sometimes referred to as Tarascon-sur-Rhône, is a commune situated at the extreme west of the Bouches-du-Rhône department of France in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region. Inhabitants are referred to as Tarasconnais or Tara ...
and
Avignon Avignon (, , ; or , ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Vaucluse department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region of southeastern France. Located on the left bank of the river Rhône, the Communes of France, commune had a ...
on the Rhône became important trading ports. During the 12th century some of the cities of Provence became virtually autonomous. They were ruled by consuls, formally under the Counts of Provence but with considerable autonomy. Consulates existed in Avignon in 1229, 1131 in Arles, between 1140 and 1150 in Tarascon, Nice and Grasse, and 1178 in Marseille. Marseille went farther than the others, establishing a ''confrerie'' or charitable and religious organization of the one hundred leaders of the professions, crafts and businesses in the city, which drew up a code of justice and municipal regulations. Several Provençal cities directly negotiated commercial treaties with the republics of
Pisa Pisa ( ; ) is a city and ''comune'' (municipality) in Tuscany, Central Italy, straddling the Arno just before it empties into the Ligurian Sea. It is the capital city of the Province of Pisa. Although Pisa is known worldwide for the Leaning Tow ...
and
Genoa Genoa ( ; ; ) is a city in and the capital of the Italian region of Liguria, and the sixth-largest city in Italy. As of 2025, 563,947 people live within the city's administrative limits. While its metropolitan city has 818,651 inhabitan ...
in Italy. Other cities, however, such as Aix, Toulon, Hyères, Digne, Cavaillon and Carpentras, remained under the authority of the Counts. In the 13th century the counts of Provence suppressed most of the consulates, but the seeds of civil liberty and democracy had been planted in the cities.


France, Toulouse and Catalonia battle for Provence

In the early 13th century the
Albigensian crusade The Albigensian Crusade (), also known as the Cathar Crusade (1209–1229), was a military and ideological campaign initiated by Pope Innocent III to eliminate Catharism in Languedoc, what is now southern France. The Crusade was prosecuted pri ...
in neighboring
Languedoc The Province of Languedoc (, , ; ) is a former province of France. Most of its territory is now contained in the modern-day region of Occitanie in Southern France. Its capital city was Toulouse. It had an area of approximately . History ...
upset the existing order in Provence.
Pope Innocent III Pope Innocent III (; born Lotario dei Conti di Segni; 22 February 1161 – 16 July 1216) was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 8 January 1198 until his death on 16 July 1216. Pope Innocent was one of the most power ...
sent missionaries and then soldiers to suppress the
Cathar Catharism ( ; from the , "the pure ones") was a Christian quasi- dualist and pseudo-Gnostic movement which thrived in Southern Europe, particularly in northern Italy and southern France, between the 12th and 14th centuries. Denounced as a he ...
religious movement in
Languedoc The Province of Languedoc (, , ; ) is a former province of France. Most of its territory is now contained in the modern-day region of Occitanie in Southern France. Its capital city was Toulouse. It had an area of approximately . History ...
. The Pope accused
Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse Raymond VI (; 27 October 1156 – 2 August 1222) was Count of Toulouse and Marquis of Provence from 1194 to 1222. He was also Count of Melgueil (as Raymond IV) from 1173 to 1190. Early life Raymond was born at Saint-Gilles, Gard, the son of ...
of supporting the Cathars, excommunicated him, and invited an army of French knights on a
crusade The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and at times directed by the Papacy during the Middle Ages. The most prominent of these were the campaigns to the Holy Land aimed at reclaiming Jerusalem and its surrounding t ...
to cleanse the south of France of the
heresy Heresy is any belief or theory that is strongly at variance with established beliefs or customs, particularly the accepted beliefs or religious law of a religious organization. A heretic is a proponent of heresy. Heresy in Heresy in Christian ...
. A war began in Provence between the French knights and the soldiers of Raymond VI and his son
Raymond VII Raymond VII (July 1197 – 27 September 1249) was Count of Toulouse, Duke of Narbonne and Marquis of Provence from 1222 until his death. Family and marriages Raymond was born at the Château de Beaucaire, the son of Raymond VI of Toulouse and ...
. Soldiers from Tarascon, Marseille and Avignon joined the army of the Counts of Provence to fight the French. The French commander,
Simon de Montfort Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, 1st Earl of Chester ( – 4 August 1265), also known as Simon V de Montfort, was an English nobleman of French origin and a member of the English peerage, who led the baronial opposition to the rule of ...
, was killed at the siege of Toulouse in 1218. Then Raymond VI died in 1222, and a dispute over his lands in Provence began. King
Louis VIII of France Louis VIII (5 September 1187 8 November 1226), nicknamed The Lion (), was King of France from 1223 to 1226. As a prince, he invaded Kingdom of England, England on 21 May 1216 and was Excommunication in the Catholic Church, excommunicated by a ...
decided to intervene, and a French royal army marched down the valley of the Rhône and laid siege to Avignon. The city held out for three months but was finally forced by hunger to surrender. Avignon was forced to destroy its
city walls A defensive wall is a fortification usually used to protect a city, town or other settlement from potential aggressors. The walls can range from simple palisades or earthworks to extensive military fortifications such as curtain walls with to ...
and accept a French castle on the other side of the river, and by a treaty signed in Paris on April 12, 1229, the part of Provence west of the Rhône that had belonged to the Counts of Toulouse became part of France. Beginning in 1220, Provence east of the Rhône had a new ruler, Ramon Berenguer IV, of the Catalan dynasty. He was the first Count of Provence to actually reside in Provence permanently, usually living with his court in Aix. He launched a military campaign to impose his authority over the cities of Provence, ending the independence of
Grasse Grasse (; Provençal dialect, Provençal in classical norm or in Mistralian norm ; traditional ) is the only Subprefectures in France, subprefecture of the Alpes-Maritimes Departments of France, department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte-d'Azur Re ...
and Tarascon, occupying Nice, which had tried to ally with Genoa; and founding a new town,
Barcelonette Barcelonnette (; , also ; obsolete ) is a commune of France and a subprefecture in the department of Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region. It is located in the southern French Alps, at the crossroads between Prove ...
, in the far east of Provence, near the Italian border. The ambitions of Ramon Berenguer were energetically resisted by the new Count of Toulouse, Raymond VII, who had lost most of his own territory to France. Raymond VII became an ally of Marseille and Avignon in their fight against Ramon Berenguer. In 1232 his army devastated the territories of Ramon Berenguer around Tarascon and Arles. Ramon Berenguer responded to this attack by strengthening his alliance with France; he married his daughter, Marguerite, to King
Louis IX of France Louis IX (25 April 1214 – 25 August 1270), also known as Saint Louis, was King of France from 1226 until his death in 1270. He is widely recognized as the most distinguished of the Direct Capetians. Following the death of his father, Louis VI ...
, and appealed to
Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II (, , , ; 26 December 1194 – 13 December 1250) was King of Sicily from 1198, King of Germany from 1212, King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor from 1220 and King of Jerusalem from 1225. He was the son of Emperor Henry VI, Holy Roman ...
, for support. In exchange for his support, Frederic demanded that the cities of Arles and Avignon be governed by the Holy Roman Empire. A prolonged struggle took place between Raymond VII and his allies, the cities of Marseille and Avignon, against Ramon Berenguer for authority in Provence. Arles was
blockade A blockade is the act of actively preventing a country or region from receiving or sending out food, supplies, weapons, or communications, and sometimes people, by military force. A blockade differs from an embargo or sanction, which are ...
d and all traffic on the Rhône stopped. The French army finally intervened to help Ramon Berenguer, the French king's father-in-law. Raymond VII was forced to abandon his quest, and Ramon Berenguer was able to appoint his own candidate as bishop of Avignon and to subdue the rest of eastern Provence. When Ramon Berenguer died in 1245, not quite forty years old, he controlled all of Provence between the Rhône and Italian border except the rebellious city of Marseille. Ramon Berenguer had four daughters, but no sons. After his death his youngest daughter and heiress,
Beatrice Beatrice may refer to: * Beatrice (given name) Places In the United States * Beatrice, Alabama, a town * Beatrice, Humboldt County, California, a locality * Beatrice, Georgia, an unincorporated community * Beatrice, Indiana, an unincorporated ...
, married Charles, Count of Anjou, the youngest son of
Louis VIII of France Louis VIII (5 September 1187 8 November 1226), nicknamed The Lion (), was King of France from 1223 to 1226. As a prince, he invaded Kingdom of England, England on 21 May 1216 and was Excommunication in the Catholic Church, excommunicated by a ...
. Provence's fortunes became even more closely tied to the Angevin dynasty.


Good King René, the last ruler of Provence

The 15th century saw a series of wars between the Kings of
Aragon Aragon ( , ; Spanish and ; ) is an autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. In northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces of Spain, ...
and the Counts of Provence. In 1423 the army of Alphonse V of Aragon captured Marseille, and in 1443 captured Naples and forced its ruler, King
René I of Naples René (''born again'' or ''reborn'' in French) is a common first name in French-speaking, Spanish-speaking, and German-speaking countries. It derives from the Latin name Renatus. René is the masculine form of the name ( Renée being the feminin ...
, to flee. He eventually settled in one of his remaining territories, Provence. History and legend has given René the title "Good King René of Provence", though he only lived in Provence in the last ten years of his life, from 1470 to 1480, and his political policies of territorial expansion were costly and unsuccessful. Provence benefitted from population growth and economic expansion, and René was a generous patron of the arts, sponsoring painters
Nicolas Froment Nicolas Froment () was a French painter of the Early Renaissance. Froment is one of the most notable representatives of the Second School of Avignon (''École d'Avignon''), a group of artists at the court of the Popes in Avignon, who were loca ...
,
Louis Bréa Ludovico (or Louis) Brea (c. 1450 – c. 1523) was an Italian painter of the Renaissance, active mainly in and near Genoa. Brea was born into a family of coopers in Nice, and later moving to Liguria, he painted numerous altarpieces that display ...
, and other masters. He also completed one of the finest castles in Provence at
Tarascon Tarascon (; ), sometimes referred to as Tarascon-sur-Rhône, is a commune situated at the extreme west of the Bouches-du-Rhône department of France in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region. Inhabitants are referred to as Tarasconnais or Tara ...
, on the Rhône. When René died in 1480, his title passed to his nephew Charles du Maine. One year later, in 1481, when Charles died, the title passed to
Louis XI of France Louis XI (3 July 1423 – 30 August 1483), called "Louis the Prudent" (), was King of France from 1461 to 1483. He succeeded his father, Charles VII. Louis entered into open rebellion against his father in a short-lived revolt known as the ...
. Provence was legally incorporated into the French royal domain in 1486.


Politics and administration


Main cities

The names below represent the names of the cities in
Provençal Provençal may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Provence, a region of France ** Provençal dialect, a dialect of the Occitan language, spoken in the southeast of France ** ''Provençal'', meaning the whole Occitan language * Provenca ...
, in both the classical (original and traditional) and the so-called Mistralian (modernized and French-influenced) orthographies. For the communes with only one spelling shown, it means that the spelling is the same in both writing systems, and thus the older or classically inspired form has been preserved in the phonetic (Mistralian) version. The following translations come from
Frédéric Mistral Joseph Étienne Frédéric Mistral (; , 8 September 1830 – 25 March 1914) was an Occitan writer and lexicographer of the Provençal form of the language. He received the 1904 Nobel Prize in Literature "in recognition of the fresh origina ...
’s dictionary Lou Trésor dóu Felibrige and include the names of some major present-day towns in the County of Provence, showing both their natural evolution and the influence of French—with the original -''o'' sound, which was pronounced similarly to -''ou'', or the final -''a'' becoming almost silent and resembling an -''o'', -''e'', or sometimes remaining -''a'' depending on the region. The traditional -''nh'' became -''gn'', while it remained -nh in Portuguese, which adopted the spelling used by troubadours. The translations in the Mistralian spelling are complemented by those in the classical spelling, which is inspired by the original orthography (before the strong influence of French) to give an authentic image to the language, while generally preserving the modern evolutions of the language such as the consonantal vocalization (consonant becoming a vowel) of -''l'' into -''u'', although this has been preserved in Languedoc (or Occitania). Regardless of the spelling, the pronunciation is the same. These classical translations come from the Provençal-French Dictionary (Diccionari provençau-francés) of the Creo-Provença association (supported by the
Provence Provence is a geographical region and historical province of southeastern France, which stretches from the left bank of the lower Rhône to the west to the France–Italy border, Italian border to the east; it is bordered by the Mediterrane ...
region, the General Council of
Bouches-du-Rhône Bouches-du-Rhône ( ; , ; ; "the Mouths of the Rhône") is a Departments of France, department in southern France. It borders Vaucluse to the north, Gard to the west and Var (department), Var to the east. The Mediterranean Sea lies to the sout ...
, the city of
Aix-en-Provence Aix-en-Provence, or simply Aix, is a List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, city and Communes of France, commune in southern France, about north of Marseille. A former capital of Provence, it is the Subprefectures in France, s ...
, the city of
Cannes Cannes (, ; , ; ) is a city located on the French Riviera. It is a communes of France, commune located in the Alpes-Maritimes departments of France, department, and host city of the annual Cannes Film Festival, Midem, and Cannes Lions Internatio ...
, the city of
Le Cannet Le Cannet (; ; older ) is a commune of the Alpes-Maritimes department in southeastern France. Administration Le Cannet was part of Cannes until 1778, when it was made a separate commune. Location Le Cannet is located in the north of Canne ...
, and the city of
Mougins Mougins (; ; ) is a commune in the Alpes-Maritimes department in the region of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, Southeastern France. It is located on the heights of Cannes, in the arrondissement of Grasse. Mougins is a 15-minute drive from Ca ...
).


Culture


Language

The historical language of Provence is
Occitan Occitan may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to the Occitania territory in parts of France, Italy, Monaco and Spain. * Something of, from, or related to the Occitania administrative region of France. * Occitan language, spoken in parts o ...
(revival of the term langue d’Oc by Occitanists replacing the term
Provençal Provençal may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Provence, a region of France ** Provençal dialect, a dialect of the Occitan language, spoken in the southeast of France ** ''Provençal'', meaning the whole Occitan language * Provenca ...
language (used for the entire South) around 1930) in its dialectal grouping called Provençal. Several varieties of Provençal are distinguished: Maritime (also called Marseillais or Central), Rhodanian,
Alpine Alpine may refer to any mountainous region. It may also refer to: Places Europe * Alps, a European mountain range ** Alpine states, which overlap with the European range Australia * Alpine, New South Wales, a Northern Village * Alpine National P ...
(also called Gavot), and Niçard. The Alpine Provençal or Gavot was also considered a variant of Provençal. Niçard derives from medieval Provençal and has received some Northern Italian influences.
Frédéric Mistral Joseph Étienne Frédéric Mistral (; , 8 September 1830 – 25 March 1914) was an Occitan writer and lexicographer of the Provençal form of the language. He received the 1904 Nobel Prize in Literature "in recognition of the fresh origina ...
’s point of view on the langue d’Oc, called in his time the Provençal language and today more broadly Occitan: “The main dialects of modern langue d’Oc are: Provençal, Languedocian, Gascon, Aquitanian, Limousin, Auvergnat, and Dauphinois. Provençal includes the sub-dialects: Rhodanian, Marseillais (former name for Maritime), Alpine, and Niçard.” Provence also included enclaves of Ligurian-speaking populations, whose dialect was called ''Figoun'' in
Biot The British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT) is an Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom situated in the Indian Ocean, halfway between Tanzania and Indonesia. The territory comprises the seven atolls of the Chagos Archipelago with over 1,000 ...
,
Vallauris Vallauris (; ; Niçard subdialect: ''Valàuri'') is a seaside commune in the Alpes-Maritimes department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region in Southeastern France. It is located in the metropolitan area (and is today effectively an ext ...
,
Mouans-Sartoux Mouans-Sartoux (; known in Occitan as ''Moans e Sartòu'' or ''Moans e Sartol'') is a commune in the Alpes-Maritimes department in southeastern France. The inhabitants are called Mouansois. The commune of Sartoux was combined with the commun ...
,
Mons Mons commonly refers to: * Mons, Belgium, a city in Belgium * Mons pubis (mons Venus or mons veneris), in mammalian anatomy, the adipose tissue lying above the pubic bone * Mons (planetary nomenclature), a sizable extraterrestrial mountain * Batt ...
, and
Escragnolles Escragnolles (; ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Alpes-Maritimes Departments of France, department in southeastern France. Landmarks The Church of ''Saint Martin'', which dates to the 16th and 18th centuries, and the remnants of an ...
. The Mentonasque dialect, spoken in
Menton Menton (; in classical norm or in Mistralian norm, , ; ; or depending on the orthography) is a Commune in France, commune in the Alpes-Maritimes department in the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur region on the French Riviera, close to the Italia ...
, is a transitional variety with Ligurian. In the Roya Valley, on the eastern borders of the
Alpes-Maritimes Alpes-Maritimes (; ; ; ) is a Departments of France, department of France located in the country's southeast corner, on the France–Italy border, Italian border and Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean coast. Part of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'A ...
, the
Royasc Royasc is a dialect bridging the gap between the Ligurian language and the Occitan language. It is spoken in Italy and France. Area of use The Royasc dialect is spoken in the Upper Roya valley, at the boundary of France and Italy. In France, i ...
and its variant
Brigasc Brigasc is a dialect of the Ligurian language. It is spoken in Italy and France. Area of use The Brigasc dialect is spoken in La Brigue (France) and Briga Alta (Italy) and some villages of the communes of Ormea and Triora. It is very close ...
are used; both are transitional Ligurian dialects influenced by
Vivaro-Alpine Vivaro-Alpine () is a variety of Occitan spoken in southeastern France (namely, around the Dauphiné area) and northwestern Italy (the Occitan Valleys of Piedmont and Liguria). There is also a small Vivaro-Alpine enclave in the Guardia Piemontes ...
Occitan.


Literature


The age of the troubadours

The
troubadour A troubadour (, ; ) was a composer and performer of Old Occitan lyric poetry during the High Middle Ages (1100–1350). Since the word ''troubadour'' is etymologically masculine, a female equivalent is usually called a ''trobairitz''. The tr ...
s directly descended from the Provençal movement include
Raimbaut d'Orange Raimbaut of Orange ( Old Provençal: Raimbaut d'Aurenga; 1147 – 1173) was the lord of Orange and Aumelas and an influential troubadour in the Kingdom of Arles in the Holy Roman Empire. His properties included the towns of Frontignan ...
,
Raimbaut de Vaqueiras __NOTOC__ Raimbaut de Vaqueiras or Vaqueyras (fl. 1180 – 1207) was a Provençal troubadour and, later in his life, knight. His life was spent mainly in Italian courtsAmelia E. Van Vleck, ''The Lyric Texts'' p. 33, in ''Handbook of the Troub ...
, Albertet de Sisteron,
Bertran de Lamanon Bertran d'Alamanon, also spelled de Lamanon or d'Alamano (fl. 1229–1266), was a Provençal knight and troubadour, and an official, diplomat, and ambassador of the court of the Count of Provence. Twenty-two of his works survive, mainly provocati ...
,
Folquet de Marseille Folquet de Marselha (alternatively Folquet de Marseille, Foulques de Toulouse, Fulk of Toulouse; c. 1150 – 25 December 1231) came from a Genoese merchant family who lived in Marseille. He is known as a troubadour, and then as a fiercely ant ...
,
Blacatz Blacatz, known in French genealogy as Blacas de Blacas III (1165–1237), was the feudal lord of Aups and a troubadour A troubadour (, ; ) was a composer and performer of Old Occitan lyric poetry during the High Middle Ages (1100–135 ...
, and
Beatritz de Dia The Comtessa de Dia (Countess of Die), possibly named Beatritz or Isoarda (fl. c. 1175 or c. 1212), was a trobairitz (female troubadour). She is only known as the ''comtessa de Dia'' in contemporary documents, but was most likely the daughter o ...
.


Personalities of the county of Provence


Writers

*


Lawyers

*
Jean-Étienne-Marie Portalis Jean-Étienne-Marie Portalis (1 April 1746 – 25 August 1807) was a French jurist and politician in the time of the French Revolution and the First Empire. Portalis was one of the chief draftsmen of the Napoleonic Code, which serves as the fou ...
(° 1746 - † 1807) - Jurist, lawyer, politician, co-editor of the Civil Code, defender of the Provençal nation in the Revolution


Musicians and singers

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André Campra André Campra (; baptized 4 December 1660 – 29 June 1744) was a French composer and conductor of the Baroque era. The leading French opera composer in the period between Jean-Baptiste Lully and Jean-Philippe Rameau, Campra wrote several '' trag ...
(° 1660 - † 1744) - Composer * Jean Gilles (° 1668 - † 1705) - Composer *
Jean-Joseph Mouret Jean-Joseph Mouret (11 April 1682 in Avignon – 10 December 1738 in Charenton-le-Pont) was a French composer whose dramatic works made him one of the leading exponents of Baroque music in his country. Even though most of his works are rarely per ...
(° 1682 – † 1738) - Composer * (° 1709 - † 1779) - Composer of Christmas music * Jean-Claude Trial (° 1732 – † 1771) - Violinist and composer *
Antoine Trial Antoine Trial (13 October 1737, Avignon – 5 February 1795, Paris) was a French singer and actor. He was the younger brother of the musician Jean-Claude Trial (1732–1771) and husband of soprano Marie-Jeanne Milon, stage name Félicité Mandev ...
(° 1737 – † 1795) - Singer and actor


Painters

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Enguerrand Quarton Enguerrand Quarton (or Charonton) ( 1410 – 1466) was a French painter and manuscript illuminator whose few surviving works are among the first masterpieces of a distinctively French style, very different from either Italian or Early Netherlan ...
(15th century) *
Barthélemy d'Eyck Barthélemy d'Eyck, van Eyck or d' Eyck ( 1420 – after 1470), was an Early Netherlandish artist who worked in France and probably in Duchy of Burgundy, Burgundy as a painter and manuscript illuminator. He was active between about 1440 to about ...
(active between 1444 and 1470) *
Nicolas Froment Nicolas Froment () was a French painter of the Early Renaissance. Froment is one of the most notable representatives of the Second School of Avignon (''École d'Avignon''), a group of artists at the court of the Popes in Avignon, who were loca ...
(c. 1430/1435 - c. 1486) *
Josse Lieferinxe Josse Lieferinxe () was a South Netherlandish painter, formerly known by the pseudonym the Master of St. Sebastian. Originating in the diocese of Cambrai in Hainaut, then part of the territories ruled by the Dukes of Burgundy, Josse Lieferinxe ...
(active between 1493 and 1503–08) * (1634 - 1694) *
Joseph Parrocel Joseph Parrocel (3 October 1646 – 1 March 1704) was a French Baroque painter, best known for his paintings and drawings of battle scenes. He was born in Brignoles, into an artistic family that produced fourteen painters over six generations. H ...
(1646 - 1704) *
Nicolas Mignard Nicolas Mignard (), also known as Mignard d’Avignon, (7 February 1606 (baptised) – 20 March 1668) was a French painter known for his religious and mythological scenes and portraits.Lada Nikolenko. "Mignard." Grove Art Online. Oxford Art O ...
(1606 - 1668) * (1667 - 1722) * (1708 - 1732) *
Pierre Parrocel Pierre Parrocel (1664–1739) was a French painter of the late-Baroque period. Life He was born in Avignon to a large family of artists, including his uncle Joseph Parrocel and his father, Louis Parrocel. He was first instructed by his uncle, ...
(1670 - 1739) *
Jean-Baptiste van Loo Jean-Baptiste van Loo (14 January 1684 – 19 December 1745) was a French people, French subject and portrait painter. Life and career He was born in Aix-en-Provence, and was instructed in art by his father Louis-Abraham van Loo, son of Jac ...
(1684 - 1745) *
Carle van Loo Carle or Carlé is a surname. Notable people with the name include: *Andrea Cosima Carle, whose stage name is Maggie Mae (1960–2021), German singer * Barbara Carle (born 1958), French-American poet, critic, translator and Italianist * David Ca ...
(1705 - 1765) *
Louis-Michel van Loo Louis-Michel van Loo (2 March 1707 – 20 March 1771) was a French people, French Painting, painter. Biography He studied under his father, the painter Jean-Baptiste van Loo, at Turin and Rome, and he won a prize at the ''Académie Royale d ...
(1707 - 1771) *
Étienne Parrocel Étienne Parrocel known as Le Romain (Avignon, 8 January 1696 - Rome, 26 August or 12 January 1775 or 1776) was a French people, French Painting, painter working in Rome in the eighteenth century. Biography The son of and Jeanne Marie Périer ...
(1696 - 1776) *
Michel-François Dandré-Bardon Michel François André-Bardon (; 22 May 1700 – 13 April 1785) was a French History painting, history painter and etcher. Biography Early life He was born in Aix-en-Provence, France. He signed his name Dandré-Bardon, or D. Bardon, because his ...
(1700 - 1783) *
Claude Joseph Vernet Claude-Joseph Vernet (; 14 August 17143 December 1789) was a French painter. His son, Carle Vernet, was also a painter. Life and work Vernet was born in Avignon. When only fourteen years of age he aided his father, Antoine Vernet (1689–1753 ...
(1714 - 1789) * (1697 - 1792)


Sculptors and architects

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Antoine Le Moiturier Antoine Le Moiturier (1425–1495) was a French sculptor. He was born in Avignon into a family of sculptors. His uncle was the itinerant French master Jacques Morel. Following from the work of Jean de la Huerta beginning in 1443, Le Moitur ...
(° 1425 – † 1493) - Sculptor * (° 1575 – † 1667) - Architect *
Pierre Puget Pierre Paul Puget (16 October 1620 (or 31 October 1622) – 2 December 1694) was a French Baroque painter, sculptor, architect and engineer. His sculpture expressed emotion, pathos and drama, setting it apart from the more classical and academ ...
(° October 16, 1620 – † December 2, 1694) * (° 1650 – † 1723) - Architect and sculptor *
Pierre II Mignard Pierre II Mignard (20 February 1640 – 10 April 1725) was a French architect and painter. He was the son of painter Nicolas Mignard and the younger brother of Paul Mignard, a portrait painter. Biography Pierre II Mignard was born and died in ...
(° 1640 – † 1725) - Painter and architect, member of the Académie royale d'architecture * (° 1716 – † 1781) - Sculptor and architect * (° 1710 - † 1793) - Architect, son of
Jean-Baptiste Franque Jean-Baptiste Franque (Villeneuve-lès-Avignon, February 1, 1683 - Avignon, March 26, 1758) was a French architect. He was the father of François II Franque and Jean-Pierre Franque, also architects, and therefore the father-in-law of the archit ...


Heraldry

The "ancient" arms of Provence are first recorded during the reign of Raymond Berenger V of Provence (1209–1245), grandson of
Alfonso II of Aragon Alfonso II (1–25 March 1157Benito Vicente de Cuéllar (1995)«Los "condes-reyes" de Barcelona y la "adquisición" del reino de Aragón por la dinastía bellónida» p. 630-631; in ''Hidalguía''. XLIII (252) pp. 619–632."Alfonso II el Casto, h ...
. There are several theories regarding the origin of this coat of arms. French heraldist
Michel Pastoureau Michel Pastoureau (born 17 June 1947) is a French professor of medieval history and an expert in Western symbology. Biography Pastoureau was born in Paris on 17 June 1947. He studied at the École Nationale des Chartes, a college for prospectiv ...
suggests that the arms originated in Provence, tracing them to the Kingdom of Arles. He believes that the Counts of Barcelona, while governing Provence, brought these arms to Catalonia. However, heraldist Faustino Menéndez Pidal de Navascués challenges this theory. He contends that the coat of arms was not inherited by Ramon Berenguer IV as Count of Barcelona but was instead a 16th-century attribution that linked the Counts of Provence to the Royal House of Aragon. According to Menéndez Pidal, the arms can be traced to
Alfonso II of Aragon Alfonso II (1–25 March 1157Benito Vicente de Cuéllar (1995)«Los "condes-reyes" de Barcelona y la "adquisición" del reino de Aragón por la dinastía bellónida» p. 630-631; in ''Hidalguía''. XLIII (252) pp. 619–632."Alfonso II el Casto, h ...
, the grandfather of Raymond Berenger V.


See also

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List of rulers of Provence The land of Provence has a history quite separate from that of any of the larger nations of Europe. Its independent existence has its origins in the frontier nature of the dukedom in Merovingian Gaul. In this position, influenced and affected by ...
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List of Provençal royal consorts Queens, countesses, and duchesses consort of the Kingdom, County, Duchy of Provence include: Queen of Provence :''See: List of Frankish queens and List of Burgundian queens.'' After the division of the Carolingian Empire by the Treaty of Verdun ...
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History of Provence The historic French province of Provence, located in the southeast corner of France between the Alps, the Mediterranean, the Rhône river and the upper reaches of the Durance river, was inhabited by Ligures beginning in Neolithic times; by the C ...
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Félibrige The ''Félibrige'' (; in classical Occitan, in Mistralian spelling, ) is a literary and cultural association founded in 1854 by Frédéric Mistral and other Provençal writers to defend and promote the Occitan language (also called the ) and ...
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Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur (commonly shortened to PACA), also known as Région Sud, is one of the eighteen Regions of France, administrative regions of France, located at the far southeastern point of the Metropolitan France, mainland. The main P ...
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County of Nice The County of Nice (; ; Niçard ) was a historical region of France and Italy located around the southeastern city of Nice and roughly equivalent to the modern arrondissement of Nice. It was part of the Savoyard state within the Holy Roman Emp ...


Notes


References


Bibliography

* * * * * * * * {{Cite book , last=Rouquette , first=Jean-Maurice , url= , title=Galice romane, Provence romane 1. La Provence rhodanienne , date=1974 , publisher=Zodiaque , isbn= , series= , volume= , location= , language=fr , trans-title=Romanesque Galicia, Romanesque Provence 1. The Provence along the Rhône , doi= , oclc= ** Fortieth in the “La nuit des temps” collection. This is the special holiday issue for the year of our Lord 1974 of the quarterly magazine “Zodiaque”, cahiers de l'atelier du cœur Meurtry, published at the Abbey of Sainte-Marie de la Pierre-qui-Vire (Yonne). German translation by G. Schecber, English translation by Alan Mc Leer: * Le Tricastin; * Le Comtat; * Les Alpilles; * Le pays d'Arles; * Marseille


External links

* Authority records
VIAF

BnF

IdRef
Counties of the Holy Roman Empire History of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Rhône Counts States and territories disestablished in the 1480s County of Provence