Colectivos (, ) are
far-left
Far-left politics, also known as extreme left politics or left-wing extremism, are politics further to the left on the left–right political spectrum than the standard political left. The term does not have a single, coherent definition; some ...
Venezuela
Venezuela, officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many Federal Dependencies of Venezuela, islands and islets in the Caribbean Sea. It com ...
n armed
paramilitary
A paramilitary is a military that is not a part of a country's official or legitimate armed forces. The Oxford English Dictionary traces the use of the term "paramilitary" as far back as 1934.
Overview
Though a paramilitary is, by definiti ...
groups that support the
Bolivarian government, the
Great Patriotic Pole
The Simón Bolívar Great Patriotic Pole (, GPPSB), or just the Great Patriotic Pole (, GPP), is a left-wing socialist and Chavista electoral alliance/ popular front of Venezuelan political parties created in 2012 to support the re-election of ...
(GPP) political alliance and Venezuela's ruling party, the
United Socialist Party of Venezuela
The United Socialist Party of Venezuela (, PSUV, ) is a Socialism, socialist political party which has been the ruling party of Venezuela since 2007. It was formed from a merger of some of the political and social forces that support the Bolivar ...
(PSUV).
[ ''Colectivo'' has become an umbrella term for irregular armed groups that operate in poverty-stricken areas.]
The term may also refer to a community organization with any shared purpose, such as a neighborhood group that organizes social events. Some colectivos began by doing community work or helping with social programs in barrios, and their members said they promoted democracy, political activism and culture.
As of 2019, there are dozens of colectivos in Venezuela.[ In 2018, ]InSight Crime
InSight Crime is a non-profit think tank and media organization specializing in organized crime in Latin America and the Caribbean. The organization has offices in Washington, D.C., and Medellín, Colombia.
InSight Crime receives funding from the ...
reported 46 groups in one ''barrio'' (slum), 23 de Enero, alone.[ By 2017, they operate in 16 Venezuelan states,] controlling about 10% of Venezuelan cities. Some personnel of Venezuela's intelligence agencies, including the Directorate General of Military Counterintelligence and the Bolivarian Intelligence Service, are also members of colectivos.[ Colectivos have both legal and illegal funding sources.][ They were initially funded by the Bolivarian government;][ some receive funds to distribute government food packages][ and have access to government "slush funds".] Others have been funded by extortion, black-market food and the drug trade.
Human Rights Watch
Human Rights Watch (HRW) is an international non-governmental organization that conducts research and advocacy on human rights. Headquartered in New York City, the group investigates and reports on issues including War crime, war crimes, crim ...
described colectivos as "armed gangs who use violence with impunity" to harass political opponents of the Venezuelan government. Amnesty International
Amnesty International (also referred to as Amnesty or AI) is an international non-governmental organization focused on human rights, with its headquarters in the United Kingdom. The organization says that it has more than ten million members a ...
calls them "armed pro-government supporters who are tolerated or supported by the authorities". Colectivos have attacked anti-government protesters[ and Venezuelan opposition television staff, sent ]death threat
A death threat is a threat, often made anonymously, by one person or a group of people to kill another person or group of people. These threats are often designed to intimidate victims in order to manipulate their behaviour, in which case a d ...
s to journalists, and once tear-gassed the Vatican
Vatican may refer to:
Geography
* Vatican City, an independent city-state surrounded by Rome, Italy
* Vatican Hill, in Rome, namesake of Vatican City
* Ager Vaticanus, an alluvial plain in Rome
* Vatican, an unincorporated community in the ...
envoy. Through violence and intimidation, by 2019 colectivos increasingly became a means of quashing the opposition and maintaining political power; Maduro called on them during the 2019 Venezuelan blackouts
Nationwide recurring electrical blackouts in Venezuela began in March 2019. Experts and state-run Corpoelec (Corporación Eléctrica Nacional) sources attribute the electricity shortages to lack of maintenance and to a lack of technical expert ...
.
An Organization of American States
The Organization of American States (OAS or OEA; ; ; ) is an international organization founded on 30 April 1948 to promote cooperation among its member states within the Americas.
Headquartered in Washington, D.C., United States, the OAS is ...
report on human rights violations in Venezuela stated that colectivos murdered at least 131 individuals between 2014 and 2017 during anti-government protests. The opposition-led National Assembly of Venezuela
The National Assembly () is the federal legislature of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, which was first elected in 2000 under the 1999 constitution. It is a unicameral body made up of a variable number of members, who are elected by a ...
designated the colectivos as terrorist groups due to their "violence, paramilitary actions, intimidation, murders and other crimes," declaring their acts as state-sponsored terrorism
State-sponsored terrorism is terrorist violence carried out with the active support of national governments provided to violent non-state actors. It contrasts with '' state terrorism'', which is carried out directly by state actors.
States can ...
.
On 16 September 2020, the United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is the Earth, global intergovernmental organization established by the signing of the Charter of the United Nations, UN Charter on 26 June 1945 with the stated purpose of maintaining international peace and internationa ...
Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Venezuela concluded in its first report that Venezuelan authorities and colectivos committed "violations amounting to crimes against humanity". The same year, the Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court
The International Criminal Court (ICC) is an intergovernmental organization and International court, international tribunal seated in The Hague, Netherlands. It is the first and only permanent international court with jurisdiction to prosecute ...
stated that it believed there was a "reasonable basis" to believe that "since at least April 2017, civilian authorities, members of the armed forces and pro-government individuals have committed the crimes against humanity".
Description
The has described colectivos as "pro-Government armed groups" that "decide who receives government assistance and perform surveillance and intelligence activities for the authorities nd haveintimidated, threatened and attacked people perceived as opposed to the Government". In 2019, the opposition-led National Assembly of Venezuela
The National Assembly () is the federal legislature of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, which was first elected in 2000 under the 1999 constitution. It is a unicameral body made up of a variable number of members, who are elected by a ...
designated the colectivos as terrorist groups, declaring their acts as state-sponsored terrorism
State-sponsored terrorism is terrorist violence carried out with the active support of national governments provided to violent non-state actors. It contrasts with '' state terrorism'', which is carried out directly by state actors.
States can ...
.
On 16 September 2020, the United Nations
The United Nations (UN) is the Earth, global intergovernmental organization established by the signing of the Charter of the United Nations, UN Charter on 26 June 1945 with the stated purpose of maintaining international peace and internationa ...
Independent International Fact-Finding Mission on Venezuela presented its first report to the United Nations Human Rights Council
The United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC) is a United Nations body whose mission is to promote and protect human rights around the world. The Council has 47 members elected for staggered three-year terms on a United Nations Regional Gro ...
, concluding that Venezuelan authorities and colectivos committed "violations amounting to crimes against humanity". Its members stated that they had reasonable grounds to state that “Most of the violations and crimes … were part of a widespread and systematic attack against a civilian population … in furtherance of a state policy.” On 14 December 2020, the Office of the Prosecutor of the International Criminal Court
The International Criminal Court (ICC) is an intergovernmental organization and International court, international tribunal seated in The Hague, Netherlands. It is the first and only permanent international court with jurisdiction to prosecute ...
stated that it believed there was a "reasonable basis" to believe that "since at least April 2017, civilian authorities, members of the armed forces and pro-government individuals have committed the crimes against humanity".
New York University Latin American Studies professor Alejandro Velasco said in 2019, "They have all the trappings of a paramilitary repressive force." Velasco, who studies colectivos, describes a change in the allegiance of colectivos, saying it has become more about power than supporting chavismo
''Chavismo'' (from ), also known in English as Chavism or Chavezism, is a left-wing populist political ideology based on the ideas, programs and government style associated with the Venezuelan President between 1999 and 2013 Hugo Chávez that ...
or a leftist ideology.
History
The history of colectivos predates the presidency of Hugo Chávez
Hugo Rafael Chávez Frías (; ; 28 July 1954 – 5 March 2013) was a Venezuelan politician, Bolivarian Revolution, revolutionary, and Officer (armed forces), military officer who served as the 52nd president of Venezuela from 1999 until De ...
. Colectivos emerged during the 1960s from urban guerrilla warfare
Guerrilla warfare is a form of unconventional warfare in which small groups of irregular military, such as rebels, partisans, paramilitary personnel or armed civilians, which may include recruited children, use ambushes, sabotage, terrorism ...
in metropolitan Venezuela, and made a return during Chávez's tenure when he created their parent organizations, known as Bolivarian Circles. Bolivarian Circles also took part in demonstrations that became violent against the 2002 coup attempt against Chávez.[http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/home/opendoc.htm?tbl=RSDCOI&page=research&id=3dec9b4b4 UNHCR] InSight Crime
InSight Crime is a non-profit think tank and media organization specializing in organized crime in Latin America and the Caribbean. The organization has offices in Washington, D.C., and Medellín, Colombia.
InSight Crime receives funding from the ...
says their power began to increase after the attempted coup, when Chávez decided he needed a security force independent of the military to counteract opposition demonstrators.[ A 2005 report by the newspaper '' El Nacional'' stated that paramilitary and motorcycle groups, described as "colectivos", were present in 36 cities around the country. In 2006, they received arms and funding from the state when they were brought under the government's community councils.][ In 2007, masked gunmen riding motorcycles opened fire on students returning from a march in Caracas. At the ]Central University of Venezuela
Central is an adjective usually referring to being in the center of some place or (mathematical) object.
Central may also refer to:
Directions and generalised locations
* Central Africa, a region in the centre of Africa continent, also known as ...
, eight people were injured, including one by gunfire. Chávez eliminated the Metropolitan Police in 2011, turning security over to the colectivos in some Caracas barrios.[
''Bloomberg'' says that when he created the Bolivarian Circles, Chávez "brought the former outlaws into the socialist fold", where some also gained access to weapons through government jobs.][ ]Stratfor
Strategic Forecasting Inc., commonly known as Stratfor, is an American strategic intelligence publishing company founded in 1996. Stratfor's business model is to provide individual and enterprise subscriptions to Stratfor Worldview, its online p ...
says that Diosdado Cabello
Diosdado Cabello Rondón (born 15 April 1963Vicepresidencia de la República Bolivariana de VenezuelaDiosdado Cabello Rondón, accessed 19 April 2010) is a Venezuelan politician who currently serves as Minister of Interior, Justice and Peace s ...
, then serving as chief of staff for Chávez, was instrumental in the founding of the Bolivarian Circles, and maintains close ties to the colectivos.[ Chávez assigned colectivos to be "the armed wing of the Bolivarian Revolution" for the Venezuelan government, giving them weapons, communication systems, motorcycles and surveillance equipment to exercise control in the hills of Caracas where police are forbidden entry.] Some weapons given to the groups include assault rifle
An assault rifle is a select fire rifle that uses an intermediate cartridge, intermediate-rifle cartridge and a Magazine (firearms), detachable magazine.C. Taylor, ''The Fighting Rifle: A Complete Study of the Rifle in Combat'', F.A. Moyer '' ...
s, submachine gun
A submachine gun (SMG) is a magazine (firearms), magazine-fed automatic firearm, automatic carbine designed to fire handgun cartridges. The term "submachine gun" was coined by John T. Thompson, the inventor of the Thompson submachine gun, to descri ...
s and grenades
A grenade is a small explosive weapon typically thrown by hand (also called hand grenade), but can also refer to a shell (explosive projectile) shot from the muzzle of a rifle (as a rifle grenade) or a grenade launcher. A modern hand grenade g ...
. Various colectivos have said that the Venezuelan government has had authorities disguise themselves as colectivo members in attempts to attack the opposition.
Colectivos were historically aligned with far-left politics in Venezuela, and act as "enforcers for the government", working with the Venezuelan armed forces
The Bolivarian National Armed Forces ( - FANB) of Venezuela are controlled by the Commander-in-Chief (the President) and the Minister of Defense. In addition to the army, navy, and air force there is also a national guard and national militi ...
and the ruling political party, PSUV
The United Socialist Party of Venezuela (, PSUV, ) is a socialist political party which has been the ruling party of Venezuela since 2007. It was formed from a merger of some of the political and social forces that support the Bolivarian Revolu ...
. ''The Economist
''The Economist'' is a British newspaper published weekly in printed magazine format and daily on Electronic publishing, digital platforms. It publishes stories on topics that include economics, business, geopolitics, technology and culture. M ...
'' says they bring money into slums, punish criminals and intimidate political opponents. Some colectivos partake in drug trafficking
A drug is any chemical substance other than a nutrient or an essential dietary ingredient, which, when administered to a living organism, produces a biological effect. Consumption of drugs can be via inhalation, injection, smoking, ingestion, ...
, control access to the supply of food and medicine,[ and commit acts of ]extortion
Extortion is the practice of obtaining benefit (e.g., money or goods) through coercion. In most jurisdictions it is likely to constitute a criminal offence. Robbery is the simplest and most common form of extortion, although making unfounded ...
.
In 2008, some colectivos helped with after-school programs, child care centers, puppet shows, drug rehabilitation, and sports programs; they also encouraged voting by going door to door and protect communities from criminals. Every member of a colectivo is required to bring ten individuals to vote at polls during elections. Over time, colectivos became more heavily armed and their criminal activity increased.[ A small number of groups maintain community and cultural functions; most are "criminal gangs with immense social control", who "work alongside the security forces, often doing their dirty work for them", according to InSight Crime.][ Members can be difficult to identify because they often wear masks and do not have license plates on their motorcycles.][
]
Activity
2002 coup d'état attempt
When Chávez was briefly ousted in 2002, colectivos helped lead demonstrations supporting him, and worked with the military to help return him as president.
2009 Globovisión attack
In 2009, several dozen La Piedrita motorcyclists with red berets surrounded the entrance of the offices of television station Globovisión
Globovisión is a 24-hour television news network. It broadcasts over-the-air in Caracas, Aragua, Carabobo and Zulia on UHF channel 33. Globovisión is seen in the rest of Venezuela on cable or satellite (Globovisión has an alliance with Dir ...
and subdued the security guards, entering the facility by force while tossing two tear gas canisters into the building. Chávez condemned the attack and pro-government leader Lina Rón was jailed for three months following the incident.
2009 Vatican envoy attack
Colectivos tear-gassed the Vatican envoy in 2009 after Chávez accused the Roman Catholic Church
The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
of interfering with his government.
2012 presidential election
During the 2012 presidential election, at a visit by opposition candidate Henrique Capriles
Henrique Capriles Radonski (; born 11 July 1972) is a Venezuelan politician and lawyer, who served as the 36th Governor of Miranda (state), Miranda from 2008 to 2017.
Born in Caracas, he received a degree in law from the Universidad Católica ...
to the San José de Cotiza neighbourhood in Caracas, a group of armed PSUV members began firing guns "in an apparent effort to break up the rally". Five people were injured, including the son of an opposition member of the National Assembly of Venezuela
The National Assembly () is the federal legislature of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, which was first elected in 2000 under the 1999 constitution. It is a unicameral body made up of a variable number of members, who are elected by a ...
. Capriles was subsequently taken safely from the scene. Journalists for television channel Globovisión
Globovisión is a 24-hour television news network. It broadcasts over-the-air in Caracas, Aragua, Carabobo and Zulia on UHF channel 33. Globovisión is seen in the rest of Venezuela on cable or satellite (Globovisión has an alliance with Dir ...
that were covering the rally (reporter Sasha Ackerman, cameraman Frank Fernández and assistant Esteban Navas) were threatened by the armed men, who confiscated their equipment and footage of the shootings. A Globovisión statement the next day identified the armed men as PSUV supporters, saying "These groups wore red shirts identifying them with a political tendency. More importantly, it was an armed and organized group that fired weapons against people".
Immediate Mobilization Networks
Immediate Mobilization Networks (in Spanish
Spanish might refer to:
* Items from or related to Spain:
**Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain
**Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many countries in the Americas
**Spanish cuisine
**Spanish history
**Spanish culture
...
: Fuerzas Inmediatas de Movilización) were an alleged paramilitary organization formed by Venezuela
Venezuela, officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many Federal Dependencies of Venezuela, islands and islets in the Caribbean Sea. It com ...
n President
President most commonly refers to:
*President (corporate title)
* President (education), a leader of a college or university
*President (government title)
President may also refer to:
Arts and entertainment Film and television
*'' Præsident ...
Hugo Chávez
Hugo Rafael Chávez Frías (; ; 28 July 1954 – 5 March 2013) was a Venezuelan politician, Bolivarian Revolution, revolutionary, and Officer (armed forces), military officer who served as the 52nd president of Venezuela from 1999 until De ...
to remain in control of the country if he was defeated in the 2012 presidential election. Its objectives were to abort the opposition rallies before they could be prepared, detection of opposition leaders, organizing street protests and resistance and control of territory.[Chávez moviliza comandos armados por si pierde las elecciones](_blank)
/ref>
Chávez militias have been responsible (along with the Army) from the custody of the electoral process (polling security, custody of the votes and his move to places count). A first contingent would be deployed in 51% of polling stations, the rest at 49%, precisely in many of the places where the opposition is strong.
Of its approximately 3,800 members, not everyone would have military targets. Some of them could be limited to monitoring process, but other functions provided for these groups, composed of small teams of five to seven members, require violence.
/ref> Venezuelan Army sources said that in June they started handing out about 8,000 AK-103
The AK-103 is an assault rifle designed by Russian small arms designer Mikhail Kalashnikov.
History
The AK-103 was officially offered for export on March 13, 1993.
Design details
It is an AK-100 derivative of the AK-74M that is chambered ...
to this group.
They were formed by "social intelligence teams" and "communicators in action" ("street propaganda and guerrilla internet") and of "territorial control equipment," constituted "as Rapid Action Force and Action street, with ability to block or enable critical road corridors, geographic areas or localities" and "defend the spaces adjacent to state institutions."
Their tactics were based on Iran
Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...
ian Basij
The Basij (, lit. ''The Mobilization'') or Sâzmân-e Basij-e Mostaz'afin (, lit. ''Organization for Mobilization of the Oppressed''), is a paramilitary volunteer militia within the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) and one of its five ...
units whose performance was decisive to abort the 2009 Iranian presidential election protests
After incumbent president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad declared victory in the 2009 Iranian presidential election, protests broke out in major cities across Iran in support of opposition candidates Mir-Hossein Mousavi and Mehdi Karroubi. The protests c ...
in 2009, and used a complex system of communication encryption.
2013 presidential election
During the 2013 presidential election, ''Reuters
Reuters ( ) is a news agency owned by Thomson Reuters. It employs around 2,500 journalists and 600 photojournalists in about 200 locations worldwide writing in 16 languages. Reuters is one of the largest news agencies in the world.
The agency ...
'' said colectivos were "a key part of the government's electoral machinery" that "help dsway close races and are sometimes tarred by critics as poll station thugs who intimidate opponents". The Carter Center
The Carter Center is a nongovernmental, nonprofit organization founded in 1982 by former U.S. president Jimmy Carter. He and his wife Rosalynn Carter partnered with Emory University after his defeat in the 1980 United States presidential ele ...
said that during the elections, voting centers had an "intimidating climate" when motorcyclists "associated with the governing party" surrounded them.
2014 protests
The Venezuelan Prison Minister, Iris Varela, said that colectivos were a "fundamental pillar in the defense of the homeland". During the 2014 Venezuelan protests against new president Nicolás Maduro
Nicolás Maduro Moros (; born 23 November 1962) is a Venezuelan politician and former union leader serving as the 53rd president of Venezuela since 2013. Previously, he was the 24th Vice President of Venezuela, vice president from 2012 to 20 ...
, colectivos acted with impunity against the opposition protesters. When armed groups threatened to rape individuals in an apartment complex in Maracaibo
Maracaibo ( , ; ) is a city and municipality in northwestern Venezuela, on the western shore of the strait that connects Lake Maracaibo to the Gulf of Venezuela. It is the largest city in Venezuela and is List of cities in Venezuela by population ...
, the National Guard did not intervene. The Civil Association for Citizen Control said that more than half of those killed during the protests were killed by colectivos.
During the 2014 protests, armed colectivos attacked and burned a large portion of Fermín Toro University after intimidating student protesters and shooting one. The colectivos broke into the facility, looted, and damaged 40% of the university.
President Maduro thanked some groups of motorcyclists for their help against what he viewed as a "fascist coup d'etat... being waged by the extreme right"; at the same time, he distanced himself from armed groups by stating that they "had no place in the revolution". Jorge Arreaza
Jorge Alberto Arreaza Montserrat (Venezuelan ; born 6 June 1973) is a Venezuelan politician who has held several important positions in the administration of President Hugo Chávez and his successor Nicolás Maduro. From August 2017 to August ...
, Venezuela's vice president at the time, also praised them saying, "If there has been exemplary behavior it has been the behavior of the motorcycle colectivos that are with the Bolivarian revolution." In 2014, Arreaza promised that the government would disarm all irregular armed groups in Venezuela.
The European Parliament
The European Parliament (EP) is one of the two legislative bodies of the European Union and one of its seven institutions. Together with the Council of the European Union (known as the Council and informally as the Council of Ministers), it ...
asked the Venezuelan government to "immediately disarm and dissolve the uncontrolled armed pro-government groups and end their impunity". United States Secretary of State John Kerry
John Forbes Kerry (born December 11, 1943) is an American attorney, politician, and diplomat who served as the 68th United States secretary of state from 2013 to 2017 in the Presidency of Barack Obama#Administration, administration of Barac ...
accused the Venezuelan government of using "armed vigilantes" against those who opposed it.
In a report titled "Punished for Protesting", Human Rights Watch
Human Rights Watch (HRW) is an international non-governmental organization that conducts research and advocacy on human rights. Headquartered in New York City, the group investigates and reports on issues including War crime, war crimes, crim ...
(HRW) stated that government forces allowed colectivos "to attack protesters, journalists, students, or people they believed to be opponents of the government with security forces just meters away" and that "in some cases, the security forces openly collaborated with the pro-government attackers". HRW also stated that they "found compelling evidence of uniformed security forces and pro-government gangs attacking protesters side by side",[ and that the government tolerated this activity.]
Robert Serra's murder
Rising PSUV
The United Socialist Party of Venezuela (, PSUV, ) is a socialist political party which has been the ruling party of Venezuela since 2007. It was formed from a merger of some of the political and social forces that support the Bolivarian Revolu ...
member and colectivo mediator Robert Serra was stabbed more than 30 times, killing him, in his "heavily guarded home" on 1 October 2014. The Venezuelan government blamed the opposition for Serra's death; ''Foreign Policy
Foreign policy, also known as external policy, is the set of strategies and actions a State (polity), state employs in its interactions with other states, unions, and international entities. It encompasses a wide range of objectives, includ ...
'' said others considered his murder an "inside job
An inside job is a crime committed by a person in a position of trust, or with the help of someone either employed by the victim or entrusted with access to the victim's affairs or premises.
Inside Job may also refer to:
Books
* ''Inside J ...
" because the government was "more factionalized since the death of Hugo Chávez" with different "ideological strains and interests lashingbeneath the party's surface".
A week after Serra's death, clashes between Venezuelan police and colectivos began when police raided the headquarters of the Shield of the Revolution group and according to José Odreman, "a close associate of Serra" and leader of the 5 de Marzo group, a colectivo member was "shot dead in his sleep" during the raid. Three officers were reportedly taken hostage.
Right before he was shot, Odreman had made statements hinting at government involvement in Serra's death, saying to Minister Miguel Rodríguez Torres, "I lay full responsibility on you of what might happen to me. Enough comrades have been sacrificed".[ Also available a]
San Diego Tribune
A little over an hour after his statements, photographs emerged showing the 5 de Marzo colectivo leader Odreman being held captive by Venezuelan authorities, followed by videos which showed his dead body lying in a pool of blood.
The Venezuelan government denied any relationship to Serra's death and stated that the clashes between colectivos and authorities were due to a murder investigation. The director of CICPC, José Gregorio Sierralta, stated that officers were fired upon and responded with deadly force that killed the colectivo members including Odreman. Residents of the building denied Sierralta's statements, stating that there was no confrontation or hostages, that Venezuelan authorities first raided the building reportedly killing one member in his sleep then raided the building once more supposedly capturing and executing the other four colectivo members, altered nearby evidence and stole items from the scene. Maduro stated that the five men who were killed in the incident were a gang of former police officers led by Odreman. ''Runrunes'' noted in an investigative article that the police and bodyguards arrested by Venezuelan authorities involved with Serra's death were also members of colectivos.
Following the clashes, Humberto López ("El Ché"), a colectivo leader, stated that all colectivos were on " war footing" and that the colectivos "did not bet on death, we are committed to war. All colectivos are up in arms." Noting that the Venezuelan Housing Mission buildings are in the hills of Caracas, El Ché assured that "the people would come down from the hills" if needed. Colectivos protested against the incidents and demanded the dismissal of then Ministry of Popular Power for Interior, Justice and Peace
The Ministry of the Popular Power for Interior, Justice and Peace (''Ministerio del Poder Popular para Relaciones Interiores, Justicia y Paz'') is one of 39 agencies that make up the executive office of the Venezuelan government. This ministry is ...
, Miguel Rodríguez Torres. Weeks later, on 24 October, Rodríguez Torres was replaced by Carmen Meléndez
Carmen Teresa Meléndez Rivas (born 3 November 1961) is a Venezuelan politician and Navy admiral. She was Minister of Interior and Justice from 25 October 2014 to 9 March 2015, and chief of staff in President Nicolás Maduro's cabinet for nearl ...
, with one of the reasons reportedly being the pressure colectivos placed on the government. Maduro also called on Freddy Bernal
Freddy Alirio Bernal Rosales is a Venezuelan politician. He served as mayor of the Libertador Municipality in Caracas and is a member of the United Socialist Party of Venezuela (PSUV).
Law enforcement
Prior to becoming a politician, the BBC s ...
, a government leader with close ties to colectivos, to "reform" the police after the incident. Following the dismissal of Rodríguez Torres, the 5 de Marzo colectivo also called for the dismissal of Diosdado Cabello
Diosdado Cabello Rondón (born 15 April 1963Vicepresidencia de la República Bolivariana de VenezuelaDiosdado Cabello Rondón, accessed 19 April 2010) is a Venezuelan politician who currently serves as Minister of Interior, Justice and Peace s ...
.
Attack on the University of Los Andes
Armed groups reported to be colectivos attacked the University of Los Andes in the city of Mérida in March 2015 to intimidate the protesters, shooting guns at students and faculty, holding the students hostage and stealing belongings of students.
2017 protests
During the 2017 Venezuelan protests against Maduro, ''The New York Times'' stated that colectivos "appear to be playing a key role in repressing dissent"; they fight alongside officials and "engage in fiercer and often deadly intimidation". ''Bloomberg News'' said Maduro "unleashed the gangs on a large scale" during the protests.[ Days before the ]Mother of All Marches
The Mother of All Marches (), also known as the Mother of All Protests, was a day of protests held on April 19, 2017, in Venezuela against the Chavista government of President of Venezuela, president Nicolás Maduro. The protests began after th ...
, Diosdado Cabello
Diosdado Cabello Rondón (born 15 April 1963Vicepresidencia de la República Bolivariana de VenezuelaDiosdado Cabello Rondón, accessed 19 April 2010) is a Venezuelan politician who currently serves as Minister of Interior, Justice and Peace s ...
, a high-level PSUV official loyal to the Bolivarian government, stated that 60,000 motorized colectivos and the Bolivarian Militia would be spread throughout Caracas on 19 April to deter the opposition's march, calling the protest terrorism. During that march, Carlos Moreno, a 17-year-old boy, and 23-year-old Paola Ramírez, were killed by members of colectivos.
*
*
Colectivos also attacked Venezuela's opposition-majority National Assembly
In politics, a national assembly is either a unicameral legislature, the lower house of a bicameral legislature, or both houses of a bicameral legislature together. In the English language it generally means "an assembly composed of the repr ...
in 2017.[ Taking over the building where the legislature meets, they beat deputies and protesters with clubs and batons, splitting open the head of one deputy.][
As the 2017 protests intensified, during the 11 May ]United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence
The United States Senate Select Committee on Intelligence (sometimes referred to as the Intelligence Committee or SSCI) is dedicated to overseeing the United States Intelligence Community—the agencies and bureaus of the federal government of ...
Worldwide Threats Hearing (SH-216), Senator Marco Rubio
Marco Antonio Rubio (; born May 28, 1971) is an American politician, lawyer, and diplomat serving since 2025 as the 72nd United States Secretary of State, United States secretary of state. A member of the Republican Party (United States) , Rep ...
discussed with Director of the Central Intelligence Agency
The director of the Central Intelligence Agency (D/CIA) is a statutory office () that functions as the head of the Central Intelligence Agency, which in turn is a part of the United States Intelligence Community.
The director reports to the D ...
Mike Pompeo
Michael Richard Pompeo (; born December 30, 1963) is an American retired politician who served in the First presidency of Donald Trump#Administration, first administration of Donald Trump as director of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) fr ...
the role and actions of colectivos in Venezuela. Rubio asked if there was a "real threat" of colectivos selling advanced weaponry to the FARC
The Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia – People's Army (, FARC–EP or FARC) was a Marxist–Leninist guerrilla group involved in the continuing Colombian conflict starting in 1964. The FARC-EP was officially founded in 1966 from peasan ...
, drug cartels or terrorists on the black market, to which Director Pompeo replied, "it is a real threat ... Maduro gets more desperate by the hour, the risk of these colectivos acting in a way that is not under his control increases as time goes on as well", mentioning that there has not been evidence of major arms deals taking place, though "stockpiles exist".
2018
In early 2018, ''Voice of America'' said members of colectivos in Aragua state appeared on a Colombian radio show and explained that they were paid by the government to violently prevent opposition marches and that some of their colleagues had "murdered several people".
According to ''Meduza
''Meduza'' (Russian: Медуза, named after the Greek goddess Medusa) is a Russian- and English-language independent news website, headquartered in Riga, Latvia. It was founded in 2014 by a group of former employees of the then-independent ...
'', the Russian government
The Russian Government () or fully titled the Government of the Russian Federation () is the highest federal executive governmental body of the Russian Federation. It is accountable to the president of the Russian Federation and controlled by ...
supplied "specialists" who were involved in training of colectivos back in 2018.[At the time, ]Vladimir Putin
Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin (born 7 October 1952) is a Russian politician and former intelligence officer who has served as President of Russia since 2012, having previously served from 2000 to 2008. Putin also served as Prime Minister of Ru ...
was in charge of President.
El Junquito raid
Colectivos were involved in the 2018 operation to kill Venezuelan rebel Óscar Alberto Pérez, working alongside Venezuelan troops during the El Junquito raid. Heiker Leobaldo Vásquez Ferrera of a colectivo located in 23 de Enero was killed during the operation, with Bellingcat
Bellingcat (stylised bell¿ngcat) is a Netherlands-based investigative journalism group that specialises in fact-checking and open-source intelligence (OSINT). It was founded by British citizen journalist and former blogger Eliot Higgins in Ju ...
and Forensic Architecture
Forensic Architecture is a multidisciplinary research group based at Goldsmiths, University of London that uses architectural techniques and technologies to investigate cases of state violence and violations of human rights around the world. The ...
highlighting that such cooperation between colectivos and Venezuelan authorities showed there was little separation between them.
Presidential crisis
InSight Crime says that colectivos provided strong support for Maduro when he assumed the presidency in his disputed second term. With National Assembly-designated acting President of Venezuela, Juan Guaidó
Juan Gerardo Antonio Guaidó Márquez (born 28 July 1983) is a Venezuelan politician and opposition figure. He belonged to the social-democratic party Popular Will, and was a federal deputy to the National Assembly representing the state of V ...
, challenging Maduro's claim to the office, and amid an international effort to convince Maduro to step down and allow humanitarian aid into the country, ''Bloomberg News'' reported that colectivos "led the charge" against the opposition to Maduro. Because Guaidó offered an amnesty law to officials and military officers who disavow Maduro, and the colectivos have "nothing to lose", the "government may be using colectivos to relieve pressure on the military" during the 2019 Venezuelan protests, according to Velasco.
As tens of thousands of protesters marched in support on the day that Guaidó took the oath to serve as president, ''The Guardian'' reported that Maduro "allies threatened the use of armed pro-government militias–known as colectivos—to quell disturbances". Rafael Uzcátegui—Director of Venezuela's human rights organization, PROVEA—said there were 43 deaths at the protests as of 6 February; he believed most could be attributed to Venezuela's Special Action Force (FAES), followed by the colectivos. InSight Crime said that it is likely that Maduro "recruited (...) FAES members from the colectivos for their callousness and bloodthirstiness". ''The Washington Post'' said colectivos are increasingly made up of government or police personnel.
InSight Crime says that, as a result of the crisis in Venezuela
An ongoing socioeconomic and political crisis began in Venezuela during the presidency of Hugo Chávez and has worsened during the presidency of successor Nicolás Maduro. It has been marked by hyperinflation, escalating starvation, disease, c ...
, some colectivo members "are beginning to waver in their allegiance to the government because they have not been receiving the economic benefits they once did", but that "they fear persecution should they abandon the government's revolution". ''The Washington Post'' said that Maduro relies on them and they help him stay in power in spite of a crumbling economy; Chávez was more popular and not as dependent on colectivos, while Maduro is unpopular because of the economic conditions in the country, and has resorted to violence and intimidation for power. Public Radio International
Public Radio International (PRI) was an American public radio organization. Headquartered in Minneapolis, Minnesota, PRI provided programming to over 850 public radio stations in the United States.
PRI was one of the main providers of programmi ...
stated that opposition demonstrations "are routinely broken up by masked motorcyclists who open fire onto crowds" and that the government relies on the "loyalty of these irregular paramilitary groups to deal with the public heavy-handedly rather than the military, which could potentially disobey uncomfortable orders and cause a government-military rupture". The ''South Florida Sun'' reported that "colectivos have escalated attacks (...) opening fire on civilians and terrorizing communities."
In 2019, the opposition-led National Assembly of Venezuela
The National Assembly () is the federal legislature of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, which was first elected in 2000 under the 1999 constitution. It is a unicameral body made up of a variable number of members, who are elected by a ...
designated the colectivos as terrorist groups due to their "violence paramilitary actions, intimidation, murders and other crimes", declaring their acts as state-sponsored terrorism
State-sponsored terrorism is terrorist violence carried out with the active support of national governments provided to violent non-state actors. It contrasts with '' state terrorism'', which is carried out directly by state actors.
States can ...
.
Shipping of humanitarian aid
Over the weekend of 23–24 February, as Guaidó and the opposition sought to bring humanitarian aid across Venezuela's borders and into the country, colectivos attacked people at both the Colombian and Brazilian borders. ''Bloomberg'' said "within a block of an international bridge where food and medicine were waiting" for aid to enter, "colectivos terrorized thousands". They fired weapons from speeding motorcycles, and one protester stated that masked men stepped from behind a row of Venezuelan National Guard
The Bolivarian National Guard of Venezuela ( - GNB), is a gendarmerie component of the National Bolivarian Armed Forces of Venezuela, National Armed Forces of Venezuela. The national guard can serve as gendarmerie, perform civil defense roles, or ...
and fired on the crowd at the Venezuelan border, while a doctor said that colectivos terrorized with weapons medics who were volunteering to help the wounded. According to a member of Bolivar and Zamora Revolutionary Current (CRBZ), a group present that was described as a colectivo, said that CRBZ went to the border to defend Venezuela's sovereignty
Sovereignty can generally be defined as supreme authority. Sovereignty entails hierarchy within a state as well as external autonomy for states. In any state, sovereignty is assigned to the person, body or institution that has the ultimate au ...
and defend against possible military intervention. The CRBZ member said that members of the opposition collaborated with Colombian guerilla groups on the border and that some CRBZ members had to find alternative transportation home since opposition protesters burned their vehicles.
At the Brazilian border, ''Bloomberg'' reported that observers said "colectivos ran rampant"; four died and hundreds were wounded. Humberto Prado, the director of the Venezuelan Prison Observatory, "accused the Maduro government of releasing prison inmates to fill the colectivos' ranks in their repression efforts", according to InSight Crime. As many military personnel defected into Colombia during the border clashes, InSight Crime suggested that "many of those who fled (...) did so because they were forced to work with the colectivos".
Blackouts
During blackouts in March 2019, Maduro called on the armed paramilitary gangs, saying, "The time has come for active resistance". US State Department special envoy to Venezuela Elliot Abrams labeled this a "breakdown in law and order", and said, "That's calling for armed gangs to take over the streets (...) Perhaps it is a sign of Maduro's lack of confidence in his own security forces." As blackouts continued, on 31 March, citizens protested the lack of electricity and water in Caracas and other cities; some of the protests occurred close to the presidential palace. Maduro called again on the colectivos, asking them "to defend the peace of every barrio, of every block". Videos circulated on social media showing colectivos threatening protesters and shooting in the streets; two protesters were shot.
2020 Barqusimeto shooting
On 29 February 2020, the Speaker of the National Assembly of Venezuela
The National Assembly () is the federal legislature of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, which was first elected in 2000 under the 1999 constitution. It is a unicameral body made up of a variable number of members, who are elected by a ...
Juan Guaidó
Juan Gerardo Antonio Guaidó Márquez (born 28 July 1983) is a Venezuelan politician and opposition figure. He belonged to the social-democratic party Popular Will, and was a federal deputy to the National Assembly representing the state of V ...
mobilized a march against Nicolás Maduro in the Juan de Villegas parish, Barquisimeto
Barquisimeto (; ) is a city in Venezuela. Barquisimeto is located in the Central-Western Region, Venezuela. It is the capital of the state of Lara (state), Lara and head of Iribarren Municipality. It is an important urban, industrial, commercial a ...
, Lara state
Lara State (, ) is one of the 23 states of Venezuela. Lara is located in the Central-Western Region, Venezuela. The state capital is Barquisimeto.
Lara State covers a total surface area of and, in 2015, had a census population of 2,019,211.
...
. Colectivos shot at Guaido's supporters and him, who was in a van at the time, leaving ten injured.
Other incidents
On 3 November 2022, colectivos attacked and denailed four female students of the University of the Andes that were protesting against the visit in Mérida state
Mérida or Merida may refer to:
Places
* Mérida (state), one of the 23 states which make up Venezuela
* Mérida, Mérida, the capital city of the state of Mérida, Venezuela
* Merida, Leyte, Philippines, a municipality in the province of Leyte
...
of Diosdado Cabello
Diosdado Cabello Rondón (born 15 April 1963Vicepresidencia de la República Bolivariana de VenezuelaDiosdado Cabello Rondón, accessed 19 April 2010) is a Venezuelan politician who currently serves as Minister of Interior, Justice and Peace s ...
, vice-president of the United Socialist Party of Venezuela
The United Socialist Party of Venezuela (, PSUV, ) is a Socialism, socialist political party which has been the ruling party of Venezuela since 2007. It was formed from a merger of some of the political and social forces that support the Bolivar ...
(PSUV).
2023 opposition primary elections
In the morning of the 2023 Unitary Platform presidential primaries, on 22 October, colectivos prevented the installation of the voting center in the El Guarataro neighborhood of western Caracas. The non-governmental organization Voto Joven denounced that the groups stole material from a voting table and that violence with a firearm was registered. Neighbors of the neighborhood installed the voting center after the intimidation. In Plaza La Estrella, in Caracas, the beginning of voting was postponed due to the intentional burning of garbage in the center of the voting point. Nuns of the Patronato San José de Tarbes denounced that voters who tried to participate were threatened by colectivos, and that the center had to be moved to another location. Also in the morning, armed civilians entered the voting point La Cañada, in San Juan parish, pointed at the coordinator of the voting center and took away a table during the beginning of the process, firing several shots.
Prominent groups
There were between 20 and 100 different colectivo groups in Venezuela as of 2014, with the most prominent groups being the Tupamaros
The National Liberation Movement – Tupamaros (, MLN-T) was a Marxist–Leninist urban guerrilla group that operated in Uruguay during the 1960s and 1970s. In 1989, the group was admitted into the Broad Front and a large number of its membe ...
, La Piedrita, Tres Raices, Frente Francisco de Miranda, Alexis Vive, and Ciudad Socialista Frente 5 de Marzo, In 2018, InSight Crime
InSight Crime is a non-profit think tank and media organization specializing in organized crime in Latin America and the Caribbean. The organization has offices in Washington, D.C., and Medellín, Colombia.
InSight Crime receives funding from the ...
reported 46 groups in the 23 de Enero barrio alone.[ They control about 10% of Venezuelan cities,] and operate in 16 Venezuelan states;[ Velasco says they number 5,000 to 7,000 individuals nationwide as of 2019.][ InSight Crime says that Tres Raíces and Frente 5 de Marzo are closely linked with Venezuela's security forces.][ Tres Raíces is also "one of the better armed" with members also working government jobs for ]SEBIN
The Bolivarian National Intelligence Service (, SEBIN) is the premier intelligence agency in Venezuela. SEBIN is an internal security force subordinate to the Vice President of Venezuela since 2012 and is dependent on Vice President Delcy Rodríg ...
(Intelligence), DGCIM (military counterintelligence), FAES (police special action force) or municipal police.[
]
La Piedrita
La Piedrita colectivo is one of the most influential in Caracas, specifically in 23 de Enero barrio where it has its roots dating to 1985 with founders Carlos Ramírez and Valentín Santana. La Piedrita formally organized when Bolivarian Circles were established by Chávez in Venezuela,[ and since then, has been described as a colectivo that is one of "the most violent in the country".] La Piedrita was also headed by Lina Ron, who at the time of her leadership stated that thousands of Bolivarian Circles such as her own were "armed to the teeth". Ron had a connection with Diosdado Cabello
Diosdado Cabello Rondón (born 15 April 1963Vicepresidencia de la República Bolivariana de VenezuelaDiosdado Cabello Rondón, accessed 19 April 2010) is a Venezuelan politician who currently serves as Minister of Interior, Justice and Peace s ...
from as early as 2002 when Cabello was the key supporter of Ron.[ Also, Cabello had supposedly mediated between La Piedrita and the Tupamaros when they had a conflict in 2010.][
]
Tupamaros
The Revolutionary Tupamaro Movement (Tupamaro) is a far left
Far or FAR may refer to:
Government
* Federal Acquisition Regulation, US
* Federal Aviation Regulations, US
* Florida Administrative Register, US
Military and paramilitary
* Rebel Armed Forces (Spanish: '), a defunct guerilla organization ...
Marxist-Leninist colectivo and political organization in Venezuela. Several Tupamaros participate in peaceful movements while some believe the "idea of armed struggle as a means to gain power". Chávez's government had an "ambiguous" relationship with the Tupamaros, who helped manage social programs, such as child care and drug rehabilitation centers, and promoted political participation; however, the Tupamaros' involvement in vigilante justice in high crime areas that the police force often avoided led to rifts with the federal government, which resorted on occasions to using the military to deal with the groups when they clashed with police. The Tupamaros are known to "cleanse" neighborhoods of criminals: if repeated warnings to criminals to leave an area fail, they often resort to murder using "death squads
A death squad is an armed group whose primary activity is carrying out extrajudicial killings, massacres, or enforced disappearances as part of political repression, genocide, ethnic cleansing, or revolutionary terror. Except in rare cases in ...
", though some claim that these measures are taken to remove competition in the area. During the 2014 Venezuelan protests, Tupamaros worked with the Venezuelan National Guard to attack protesters, with videos and pictures being uploaded to social networks.
Funding and resources
Monetary
Colectivos were initially funded by the Bolivarian government, but became less dependent on the government, by funding themselves through crimes such as drug trafficking and extortion.[ Gunson states that some funding for colectivos comes from demanding payment for protection and requiring members to pay fees.] According to ''The New York Times'', colectivos "control vast territory across Venezuela, financed in some cases by extortion, black-market food and parts of the drug trade as the government turns a blind eye in exchange for loyalty". ''The Washington Post'' says some colectivos "have been put in charge of the distribution of government food packages in poor areas—giving them control over hungry neighborhoods.[
In 2018, ]InSight Crime
InSight Crime is a non-profit think tank and media organization specializing in organized crime in Latin America and the Caribbean. The organization has offices in Washington, D.C., and Medellín, Colombia.
InSight Crime receives funding from the ...
reported that the colectivos have diverse income sources—both legal and illegal.[ Some run legal, profitable businesses, but also receive government funds, largely through the profitable venture of distributing food through government concessions.][ One Tupamaro leader told InSight Crime that trafficking food and medicine is as profitable as drug-running, while less risky.][ InSight Crime also learned that colectivos are running "clandestine casinos".][ Also availabl]
in Spanish.
/ref>
Some colectivos, such as the Tupamaros, have formal links with the Venezuelan government and politics, with over 7,000 individuals on the Caracas payroll since 2008. Stratfor
Strategic Forecasting Inc., commonly known as Stratfor, is an American strategic intelligence publishing company founded in 1996. Stratfor's business model is to provide individual and enterprise subscriptions to Stratfor Worldview, its online p ...
says that Diosdado Cabello
Diosdado Cabello Rondón (born 15 April 1963Vicepresidencia de la República Bolivariana de VenezuelaDiosdado Cabello Rondón, accessed 19 April 2010) is a Venezuelan politician who currently serves as Minister of Interior, Justice and Peace s ...
, Freddy Bernal
Freddy Alirio Bernal Rosales is a Venezuelan politician. He served as mayor of the Libertador Municipality in Caracas and is a member of the United Socialist Party of Venezuela (PSUV).
Law enforcement
Prior to becoming a politician, the BBC s ...
and Eliezer Otaiza, have been implicated in directing colectivos or helping fund them.[ Colectivos also receive funds from government funding for community projects.] Velasco states that colectivos "receive government funding through both formal and informal channels, including slush funds the government doles out to different sectors" and also have "personal ties between members and government officials to access resources".
Weapons
'' El Pais'' stated that the Venezuelan government directly arms colectivos with weapons. Velasco believes that the same formal and informal methods of receiving funds is used for weapons. These methods include being armed and trained in formal government militias or working as security and bodyguards. Despite the Venezuelan government's statements saying that only official authorities can carry weapons for the defense of Venezuela, colectivos are armed with automatic rifles such as AK-47
The AK-47, officially known as the Avtomat Kalashnikova (; also known as the Kalashnikov or just AK), is an assault rifle that is chambered for the 7.62×39mm cartridge. Developed in the Soviet Union by Russian small-arms designer Mikhail Kala ...
s, submachine guns, fragmentation grenades, and tear gas.
Crime
Colectivos sometimes provide protection from crime in some neighborhoods they are committed to, though some neighborhoods report that colectivos attack neighbors themselves. As colectivos attempted to gain independence from the government, they began "controlling organized crime like drug trafficking in Caracas barrios. Some colectivos patrol the 23 de Enero barrio on motorcycles, masked and armed, supposedly to protect the neighborhood from criminals such as drug dealers. According to ABC News, "it is widely believed that colectivos kill drug traffickers who do not obey their orders".
According to the International Crisis Group
The International Crisis Group (ICG; also known as the Crisis Group) is a global non-profit, non-governmental organisation founded in 1995. It is a think tank, used by policymakers and academics, conducting research and analysis on global crises. ...
, colectivos may be involved in drug trafficking, arms dealing, and car theft. Phil Gunson, a freelance reporter for foreign media, states that, "It's no secret that many colectivos engage in criminal activities." Gunson reported that colectivos combat criminal gangs in neighborhoods and take over the previous gang's business in crime and also take over buildings already owned by individuals and collect rent from the owners. Colectivos are thought to be partially responsible for the increase in the Venezuelan murder rate, according to the Metropolitan Observatory on Citizen Security.
An Organization of American States
The Organization of American States (OAS or OEA; ; ; ) is an international organization founded on 30 April 1948 to promote cooperation among its member states within the Americas.
Headquartered in Washington, D.C., United States, the OAS is ...
report on human rights violations in Venezuela stated that colectivos murdered at least 131 individuals between 2014 and 2017 during anti-government protests.
Education
As of 2013, colectivos ran education initiatives. According to Ennio Cardozo, a professor of political science at the Central University of Venezuela
Central is an adjective usually referring to being in the center of some place or (mathematical) object.
Central may also refer to:
Directions and generalised locations
* Central Africa, a region in the centre of Africa continent, also known as ...
, colectivos "do talks, forums and they indoctrinate very young kids into Marxism
Marxism is a political philosophy and method of socioeconomic analysis. It uses a dialectical and materialist interpretation of historical development, better known as historical materialism, to analyse class relations, social conflict, ...
. The government finances all this. But if you don't agree with them they will shut you out from most of the social programs until you give allegiance to the (socialist) party." The president of the School of Teachers in Táchira, , stated that the Venezuelan government encouraged the participation of guerrillas and colectivos in schools and that their involvement "promotes violence, confrontation and, if necessary, war".
The president of the Venezuelan Chamber of Private Education, María Teresa Hernández, declared in 2014 that Resolution 058 passed in 2012 by the government was unconstitutional and that it "seeks for colectivos with political projects of the ruling party to be directly involved in public and private schools". She stated that schoolchildren are "very easy to manipulate" and need to develop political beliefs on their own. Article 102, for example, states that "Education, is a public service, and is grounded on the respect for all currents of thought".
See also
Notes
References
{{Chávez presidency
Protests against Nicolás Maduro
Paramilitary organizations based in Venezuela
History of Caracas
Organizations of the Bolivarian Revolution
Political repression in Venezuela
Organizations based in Latin America designated as terrorist
Organizations based in South America designated as terrorist
Terrorism in Venezuela
State-sponsored terrorism