Chuanqi (short Story And Novella)

''Chuanqi'' is a form of fictional short story or novella in Classical Chinese first formed in the Tang dynasty. The term often refers specifically to fictions written in the Tang dynasty, in which case the fictions are also called ''Tang chuanqi'' or ''chuanqi wen''. ''Chuanqi'' originated from the ''zhiguai xiaoshuo'' of the Six Dynasties, was first formed in Early Tang dynasty, became popular in Middle Tang and dwindled in the Song dynasty. ''Chuanqi'' has four main themes: love, gods and demons, ''xiayi'' (heroes and knights-errant) and history.

Well-known works of ''chuanqi'' include '' Youxian ku'' by Zhang Zhuo, " The World Inside a Pillow" and "Renshi zhuan" ("The Tale of Miss Ren" or "The Story of Lady Ren") by Shen Jiji, ''Yingying's Biography'' by Yuan Zhen, ''The Tale of Huo Xiaoyu'' by Jiang Fang, ''The Tale of Li Wa'' by Bai Xingjian, "The Governor of Nanke" by Li Gongzuo, "The Tale of Hongxian" by Yuan Jiao, " Du Zichun" by Niu Sengru, " Tale of the Transcendent Marriage of Dongting Lake" by Li Chaowei, " Nie Yinniang" by Pei Xing, ''Chang hen ge zhuan'' by Chen Hong, and ''The Tale of the Curly-Bearded Guest'' by Du Guangting. Unlike general ''biji xiaoshuo'' and ''zhiguai xiaoshuo'', most ''chuanqi'' stories have a complicated plot with twists and detailed descriptions and are meaningful literary creations instead of mere recordings of factual events. They are some of the earliest Chinese literature written in the form of short and medium-length stories and have provided valuable inspiration plot-wise and in other ways for fiction and drama in later eras. Many were preserved in the 10th-century anthology ''Taiping Guangji'' (Extensive Records of the Taiping Era).

Definition

Referring to fictions written in the Tang dynasty as ''chuanqi'' is established by usage. In the early 1920s the prominent author and scholar Lu Xun prepared an anthology of Tang and Song ''chuanqi'' which was the first modern critical edition of the texts and helped to establish ''chuanqi'' as the term by which they are known. There is no clear definition of ''chuanqi'', and there are debates regarding what fictions precisely should be included as ''chuanqi''. Some scholars have argued that it is not to be used as a general term for all Tang dynasty stories. The scholars Wilt Idema and Lloyd Haft see ''chuanqi'' as a general term for stories written in classical Chinese during the Tang and Song dynasties (excluding ''bianwen'' Buddhist tales written in the colloquial). Certain scholars hold the opinion that all fictional stories written in Classical Chinese except ''Biji xiaoshuo'' are ''chuanqi'', thus making the Qing dynasty the last dynasty where ''chuanqi'' was written. These scholars hold that many of the stories in Pu Songling's 17th-century collection ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' are ''chuanqi''. In this case, ''chuanqi'' is sometimes translated as "marvel tales."

Characteristics

The ''chuanqi'' of the Tang period frequently use incidental poems, set their story in the national capital Chang'an, finish with an instructive moral, and are narrated by someone who claims to have seen the events himself. These stories consisted of anecdotes, jokes, legends, and tales involving mystical, fantastical or legendary elements. The authors did not want to present their works as fiction, but modeled themselves on the literary style of the biographies in the official histories. They went so far as to credit specific people as authorities for the story, however fantastic, and give particular times and places as settings. The authors of these tales were also more careful about the art of storytelling than authors of earlier works, and a number of them have well-developed plots.

The narrative structure of ''chuanqi'' is under great influence from ''Records of the Grand Historian''. Therefore, like in historic records, ''chuanqi'' usually begins with basic information of the main character—their year of birth and death, origin, noteworthy ancestors and their titles—and end with comments on the event or the character. The origin of the story would also be explained so as to prove its authenticity. Poetry, both in regulated verse and folk song style, is largely used to express emotions, describe a person or scenery, make comments or to mark a turn in the plot. Structure-wise, it is important for ''chuanqi'' to have a complete structure and the best works usually meet this standard while having a complex plot. Characterisation-wise, emphasis is laid on the description of a character's psychology and the portrayal of round characters, which is achieved by drawing attention to details and providing different perspectives. ''Renshi zhuan'' by Shen Jiji, for example, allows readers to see the characters from multiple perspectives and, with its witty dialogues, gives a cleverly-drawn picture of the triangular relationship of the characters. ''Yingying's Biography'' has also created layered characters. Technique-wise, compared to fictions from the Six Dynasties, ''chuanqi'' is better at describing scenery, emotions, setting atmosphere and achieving these goals with poetry. Content-wise, its purpose having developed from telling strange stories to reflecting reality, ''chuanqi'' has a large range of themes and reflects different aspects of the society. Taking ''Yingying's Biography'' as an example, it reflects the phenomenon that men with a certain social status would do anything to marry a woman of the same status, even abandoning the love they shared with a common woman.

Development

In the Tang dynasty, the increasing social productivity and booming economy led to rising demand for entertainments and cultural activities. The development of urban economy also offered a variety of themes and source material for writers. Intellectuals began to write invented stories in order to show off their literary talent. They are all factors that resulted in the popularity of ''chuanqi''.

Certain scholars believe that candidates of the imperial examination in the Tang dynasty often handed in works of ''chuanqi'' so as to gain favour from the examiners, which led to the popularity of the form of fiction. An example is that ''Ji xuan guai lu'' by Li Fuyan was written during an examination. However, some scholars think this belief is without foundation.

Early and High Tang

''Chuanqi'' appeared during the reigns of Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu Zetian. In Early and High Tang, the number of ''chuanqi'' written was limited and their general quality was not as high. The works of that period also bear heavy influence from the ''zhiguai xiaoshuo'' popular in the Six dynasties. Only three works are extant today: ''Gu jing ji'' supposedly by Wang Du, ''Supplement to Jiang Zong's Biography of a White Ape'' by an anonymous author and ''You xian ku'' by Zhang Zhuo. They were all written during the reigns of Emperor Gaozong and Empress Wu Zetian. None of the ''chuanqi'' written in High Tang still remains.Among the three, ''Supplement to Jiang Zong's Biography of a White Ape'' is considered to be of the highest quality. In the story, after a white ape abducts a beauty, the husband of the woman enters the ape's palace, kills the white ape and rescues her. The complex personality of the white ape is portrayed in a realistic and fascinating way, making the story a classic among early works of ''chuanqi''. ''You xian ku'' recounts the love affair a man has with two female immortals; graphic description of intercourse can be found in the story.

Middle Tang

Middle Tang was the golden age of ''chuanqi''. There was a great number of new writers and new works. The stories of this period are generally of high quality and rich in both content and form. Although the influence of the old gods and demons fiction still lingered, many stories had begun to reflect reality instead of telling mere fantasies.The themes are mainly satire, love and history, among which love is the best explored. Some of the best ''chuanqi'' are love stories about unions and separations. Representative ''chuanqi'' about love include ''Yingying's Biography'' by Yuan Zhen, ''The Tale of Huo Xiaoyu'' by Jiang Fang and ''The Tale of Li Wa'' by Bai Xingjian. They all have a diversity of realistic characters, which make them the classics. ''Renshi Zhuan'' written in 781 AD by Shen Jiji is a masterpiece. It marks the beginning of a new era for Tang fiction, where ''chuanqi'' was separate from the traditional gods and demons stories and where the focus of a story shifted from the recounting of strange events to the literary use of language and the portrayal of characters. In ''Renshi Zhuan'', Renshi, a fox spirit, seduces the impoverished scholar Zheng. Although Zheng discovers that she is actually a fox, he continues the relationship. Because of his genuine affection and the help of his relative Wei Yin, Renshi marries Zheng as his concubine. At some point, Wei also falls in love with the beautiful Renshi and courts her, but Renshi, being true, is unmoved and refuses him. Years later, Zheng has to journey to take up an official post and wants Renshi to go with him. Renshi is unwilling but is eventually persuaded. She is killed on their way by hounds.Another notable ''chuanqi'' is ''Liushi zhuan'' by Xu Yaozuo, a story about the courtesan Liushi and her lover Han Hong. Liushi is abducted by a foreign general in a rebellion before being rescued by the fierce warrior Xu Jun and finally reunited with Han Hong.After the 820s, intellectuals gradually lost interest in writing ''chuanqi''.

Late Tang

In the Late Tang, it was once again the trend for ''chuanqi'' writers to tell mysterious stories unrelated to real life. There emerged many works about youxia "heroes and knights-errant". ''The Tale of Wushuang'' by Xue Diao, '' Kūnlún nú'' and '' Nie Yinniang'' by Pei Xing, ''Hongxian Zhuan'' by Yuan Jiao and ''The Tale of the Curly-Bearded Guest'' by Du Guangting are famous examples. ''Kūnlún nú'' is the story of a Negrito slave who saves the lover of his master from a harem. ''Nie Yinniang'' tells the amazing story of Nie Yinniang's youth—how she learns martial arts and spells under the guidance of an extraordinary Buddhist nun, chooses her own husband, which is unorthodox considering the time period, and does heroic deeds. ''A Daughter of the Wei Family'' by an anonymous author is also a well-known ''chuanqi'' written in this period.

Song dynasty

The number of ''chuanqi'' written in the Song dynasty is few. Some examples are ''Luzhu zhuan'' and ''Yang Taizhen wai zhuan'' by Yue Shi, ''Wu yi zhuan'' by Qian Yi or Liu Fu and ''Li Shishi wai zhuan'' by an anonymous author. Among these, the works of Yue Shi are the most outstanding. In the Song dynasty, because the prominent philosophy, Neo-Confucianism promoted that literature should be a vehicle for ideology, highlighted the educational function of literature and in turn disapproved of unorthodox plots, the freedom and creativity of authors were limited. In the meantime, the rise to popularity of vernacular novels reduced novels in classical Chinese to second place and also led to the decline of ''chuanqi''. The only fictional work from this period that can be counted as chuanqi is ''Zhi cheng Zhang zhu guan''.

Ming and Qing dynasties

In Ming and Qing dynasties, vernacular novels were far more popular than those written in classical Chinese. Many of the latter imitated the themes and writing of ''chuanqi'' from Tang and Song dynasties. Certain scholars also categorise them in a broad sense as ''chuanqi''. Typical works from this period include "Jin feng chai ji" from ''Jiandeng Xinhua'' by Qu You, ''The Wolf of Zhongshan'' by Ma Zhongxi, and "The Taoist of Lao Mountain", "Xia nu" and "Hong Yu" from ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio'' by Pu Songling. Notably, both ''chuanqi'' and ''biji'' are included in ''Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio''.

Themes

Tang ''chuanqi'' has four main themes:

Love

Love is the most explored theme of ''chuanqi''. Well known ''chuanqi'' about love includes ''The Tale of Huo Xiaoyu'' by Jiang Fang, ''The Tale of Li Wa'' by Bai Xingjian, and ''Yingying's Biography'' by Yuan Zhen. The love stories told in ''chuanqi'' show criticism to the traditional concept that one must not marry out of their social class and celebrate freedom of choice in love and marriage. ''Yingying's Biography'' is the ''chuanqi'' with the most long-lasting influence on later generations. The student Zhang meets Cui Yingying in a temple and falls in love. After a while, they establish a secret sexual relationship and meet each other at night. Months later, Zhang leaves to take the examination and abandons Yingying, believing her to be untrue. His friends all approve of his decision. ''The Tale of Huo Xiaoyu'' tells the story between poet Li Yi and courtesan Huo Xiaoyu. They originally vow to be life-long lovers, but Xiaoyu worries that their relationship will not last, so she asks Li Yi to put off their marriage for eight years. Having successfully passed the examination, Li Yi becomes an official. Immediately afterwards, he marries a woman from his own elevated social status and avoids Xiaoyu. Xiaoyu falls gravely ill. Dying, she reprimands and curses Li Yi. As a result of the curse, he becomes extremely jealous and abusive, so much so that none of his marriages can last. ''The Tale of Li Wa'', with its clear structure and unpredictable, moving plot, is one of the best works of ''chuanqi''. The story involves a young student who falls in love with the famous courtesan Li Wa. Having spent all his money on Li Wa, he is abandoned by Li Wa and her Madam and then beaten by his father. Injured and impoverished, he roams the street as a beggar until meeting Li Wa again. Li Wa changes her heart and takes him in. She makes him study hard for the examinations. After he successfully passes the examinations, his father reconciles with him and accepts his marriage with Li Wa. The story concludes in a rare happy ending.

Zhiguai (tales of the strange)

''Zhiguai'' ''chuanqi'', influenced by the tradition from the Six Dynasties, contains ideas from both Buddhism and Taoism. For example, ''Record of an Ancient Mirror'' written in Early Tang dynasty tells the story of how Wang Du from the Sui dynasty receives an ancient mirror from Hou of Fenyin and slays demons with its help; Liu Yi zhuan by Li Chaowei tells the story of how Liu Yi, when passing the north bank of Jing River after failing the examinations, meets a shepherdess, who turns out to be the daughter of the Dragon King, abused by her husband, and helps her send words to her father. In order to give lessons or express satire, ''zhiguai chuanqi'' are often about supernatural beings or another world. '' The World Inside a Pillow'' by Shen Jiji and ''The Governor of Nanke'' by Li Gongzuo are two examples. '' The World Inside a Pillow'' is a story that advises people to give up the desire for fame and gain. In the story, a student who has failed the examination many times meets a Taoist monk who gives him a porcelain pillow. When the student receives the pillow, the owner of the inn is cooking rice. The student sleeps on the pillow and dreams that he successfully becomes a ''Jinshi'' in the exams and is made an official, but is later exiled because of slanders. When he is in despair, he is pardoned and given back his former position. Later in his dream-life he marries, has a large family and finally dies at the age of eighty. When he wakes up, the rice is not yet cooked. Thus he realises that life is no more than a dream. In ''The Governor of Nanke'', Chunyu Fen, an unsuccessful officer drinks himself to sleep and dreams about a kingdom where he experiences the ups and downs of life and gains wealth and fame, but when he wakes, he finds that the kingdom is merely a large ants' nest. Chunyu Fen then eschews money and women and becomes a Taoist, although he still feels somewhat attached to the ants' nest. The story satirised the corruption and scramble for power among officials. In terms of satire and writing, it is superior to '' The World Inside a Pillow''. ''Du Zichun'', ''The Engaging Inn'' and ''Xin Gongping shang'' ''xian'' written by Li Fuyan in Late Tang dynasty are also noteworthy works of ''chuanqi''. Among them, ''Xin Gongping shang xian'' is particular not because of its beautiful writing, but because it uses a ghost story to reveal the secrets behind an assassination of an emperor.

Xiayi (heroism)

''Xiayi'' fictions often reflect the hope for justice and salvation in a time of unrest. Notable works of ''chuanqi'' on this theme include ''The Tale of Wushuang'' by Xue Diao, ''Kunlun Nu'' by Pei Xing, ''Xie Xiao'e zhuan'' by Li Gongzuo, ''Hongxian zhuan'' by Yuan Jiao and ''The Tale of the Curly-Bearded Guest'' by Du Guangting. In ''The Tale of Wushuang'', the protagonist, beautiful Wushuang, after being abducted to a harem, is given a rare potion which allows her to fake death for three days and is thus rescued by a knight-errant. Heroic female characters are greatly praised in ''chuanqi''. For example, Hongxian from ''Hongxian zhuan'', who, in order to scare away an enemy of her master, steals their prized golden box from their bedside at night. She later leaves her master to become a bhikkhuni. Similar characters include Xie Xiao'e from Xie Xiao'e zhuan and Nie Yinniang from the eponymous ''chuanqi''. ''The Tale of the Curly-Bearded Guest'' is set in at the end of the Sui dynasty when warlords fought for power. The curly-bearded guest seeks to dominate the kingdom, but realises that Li Shimin is destined to be emperor after meeting him. Therefore, he gives all his possession to Li Jing so that the latter can help Li Shimin take the throne. Then the curly-bearded guest leaves to be the king of Buyeo. The characterisation of heroes in ''The Tale of the Curly-Bearded Guest'' has reached an unsurpassed peak in fictions written in classical Chinese.

History

Historical fictions among ''chuanqi'' include ''Gao Lishi wai zhuan'' by Guo Shi, ''An Lushan shi ji'' by Yao Runeng, ''Chang hen ge zhuan'' and ''Dong cheng fu lao zhuan'' by Chen Hong as well as ''Li Linfu wai zhuan'' by Anonymous Author. ''Gao Lishi wai zhuan'' focuses on the events that happened when the Emperor Xuanzong of Tang fled from the An Lushan Rebellion and the discussions between the emperor and Gao Lishi. ''Chang hen ge zhuan'' tells the love story between the Emperor Xuanzong and Yang Guifei and their respective ends—when they flee from the rebellion, the emperor is forced to sentence Yang to death at Mawei Courier Station; after the rebellion is suppressed, the emperor is also forced to abdicate. In the end of the story the emperor meets Yang again in his dream.

Translations and studies

* Nienhauser, William H., Jr. ''Tang dynasty Tales: A Guided Reader'' (Singapore and Hackensack, NJ: World Scientific, 2010). Annotated translations of six tales. The Introduction, "Notes for a History of the Translation of Tang Tales," gives a history of the translation of the tales and the scholarship on them.
* Y. W. Ma and Joseph S. M. Lau. ed., ''Traditional Chinese Stories: Themes and Variations.'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1978). Reprinted: Boston: Cheng & Tsui, 1986. . Includes 26 selections, ranging from the Tang dynasty to 1916.
* Wolfgang Bauer, and Herbert Franke, ''The Golden Casket: Chinese Novellas of Two Millennia'' (New York: Harcourt, 1964 Translated by Christopher Levenson from Wolfgang Bauer's and Herbert Franke's German translations.)
* "The World in a Pillow: Classical Tales of the Tang dynasty," in John Minford, and Joseph S. M. Lau, ed., ''Classical Chinese Literature'' (New York; Hong Kong: Columbia University Press; The Chinese University Press, 2000 ), pp. 1019-1076.

See also

*Chinese literature
*Chuanqi (theatre)

References

{{reflist

External links

*
Chuanqi
Ulrich Theobald, Department of Chinese and Korean Studies, University of Tübingen

Chinese fiction
Chinese literary genres
Tang dynasty literature