''Canna indica'', commonly known as Indian shot, African arrowroot, edible canna, purple arrowroot, Sierra Leone arrowroot, is a plant species in the family Cannaceae. It is native to the Americas and naturalized elsewhere. The edible

rhizome In botany and dendrology, a rhizome ( ) is a modified subterranean plant stem that sends out roots and Shoot (botany), shoots from its Node (botany), nodes. Rhizomes are also called creeping rootstalks or just rootstalks. Rhizomes develop from ...

s are a source of

starch Starch or amylum is a polymeric carbohydrate consisting of numerous glucose units joined by glycosidic bonds. This polysaccharide is produced by most green plants for energy storage. Worldwide, it is the most common carbohydrate in human diet ...

Description

''Canna indica'' is a

perennial In horticulture, the term perennial ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the year") is used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. It has thus been defined as a plant that lives more than 2 years. The term is also ...

growing to between , depending on the variety. It is hardy to zone 10 and is frost tender. The plants form an upright, unbranched stem or the overlapping leaf sheaths form a pseudo trunk. It forms branched

s longFAO, "
Canna edulis
''", accessed 23 Feb 2016. that are divided into bulbous segments and covered in two lines by pale green or purple flaky

leaves A leaf (: leaves) is a principal appendage of the stem of a vascular plant, usually borne laterally above ground and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaves are collectively called foliage, as in "autumn foliage", while the leaves, stem, ...

. The surface of the rhizome is carved by transverse grooves, which mark the base of scales that cover it. From the lower part white and apex rootlets emerge, where there are numerous buds, the leaves sprout, the floral stem and the stems. The very large grains of

can supposedly be seen with the naked eye. The alternate and spiral or two-line arranged, very large, simple leaves are divided into leaf sheaths, short petioles and leaf blades. The leaf blade has a length of and a width of . The parallel leaf veins arise from the midrib (not typical of

monocot Monocotyledons (), commonly referred to as monocots, (Lilianae ''sensu'' Chase & Reveal) are flowering plants whose seeds contain only one Embryo#Plant embryos, embryonic leaf, or cotyledon. A monocot taxon has been in use for several decades, but ...

s). The leaves are broad, green or violet green, with elliptical sheets, which can measure 30 to 60 cm long and 10 to 25 cm wide, with the base obtuse or narrowly cuneate and the

apex The apex is the highest point of something. The word may also refer to: Arts and media Fictional entities * Apex (comics) A-Bomb Abomination Absorbing Man Abraxas Abyss Abyss is the name of two characters appearing in Ameri ...

is shortly acuminate or sharp.

Flowers

The flowers are

hermaphrodite A hermaphrodite () is a sexually reproducing organism that produces both male and female gametes. Animal species in which individuals are either male or female are gonochoric, which is the opposite of hermaphroditic. The individuals of many ...

.Johnson's Gardeners Dictionary, 1856Chaté, E. (1867) Le Canna, son histoire, son culture. Libraire Centrale d'Agriculture et de Jardinage. Khoshoo, T.N. & Guha, I. - Origin and Evolution of Cultivated Cannas. Vikas Publishing House.Cooke, Ian, 2001. The Gardener's Guide to Growing cannas, Timber Press. The mostly large flowers are zygomorphic and threefold. On pedicels, they are long, red or yellow-orange, except in some cultivars, long, with the sepals being closely triangular, long and the petals erect, 4–6.5 cm long. The tube is 1.5–2 cm long. The bracts are designed differently. The three free

sepal A sepal () is a part of the flower of angiosperms (flowering plants). Usually green, sepals typically function as protection for the flower in bud, and often as support for the petals when in bloom., p. 106 Etymology The term ''sepalum'' ...

s are usually green. The three petals are green or have depending on the variety shades of yellow about orange and red to pink. The base of the petals is fused with the staminodien to a stamen column. There are two circles, each with originally three stamens present. The petals and staminodes are usually yellow to red. The three carpels are at a constant under (syncarp) ovary adherent which has a soft-spiky surface and many central-angle-constant ovules. The pollen is deposited on the

abaxial {{Short pages monitor Canna can be cultivated from sea level to above

sea level Mean sea level (MSL, often shortened to sea level) is an mean, average surface level of one or more among Earth's coastal Body of water, bodies of water from which heights such as elevation may be measured. The global MSL is a type of vertical ...

, but thrives in temperate, tropical or subtropical mountain climates, between above sea level (in humid tropical climates for higher elevations) at a mean temperature of 14 to 27 °C. The plant prefers a mean annual rainfall between , but it can tolerate 500–5,000 mm per year. Canna prefers light sandy-loamy soils, but can also grow on heavy soils, as far as they are not wet. It is indifferent to

soil pH Soil pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity (alkalinity) of a soil. Soil pH is a key characteristic that can be used to make informative analysis both qualitative and quantitatively regarding soil characteristics. pH is defined as the neg ...

. For seeds to germinate, they must soak in water for two to three days.

Distribution and habitat

It is native to much of South America, Central America, the West Indies, and Mexico. It is also naturalized in the southeastern United States (

Florida Florida ( ; ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It borders the Gulf of Mexico to the west, Alabama to the northwest, Georgia (U.S. state), Georgia to the north, the Atlantic ...

Texas Texas ( , ; or ) is the most populous U.S. state, state in the South Central United States, South Central region of the United States. It borders Louisiana to the east, Arkansas to the northeast, Oklahoma to the north, New Mexico to the we ...

Louisiana Louisiana ( ; ; ) is a state in the Deep South and South Central regions of the United States. It borders Texas to the west, Arkansas to the north, and Mississippi to the east. Of the 50 U.S. states, it ranks 31st in area and 25 ...

, and

South Carolina South Carolina ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Southeastern United States, Southeastern region of the United States. It borders North Carolina to the north and northeast, the Atlantic Ocean to the southeast, and Georgia (U.S. state), Georg ...

), and much of Europe,

sub-Saharan Africa Sub-Saharan Africa is the area and regions of the continent of Africa that lie south of the Sahara. These include Central Africa, East Africa, Southern Africa, and West Africa. Geopolitically, in addition to the list of sovereign states and ...

Southeast Asia Southeast Asia is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, southeastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent, and northwest of the Mainland Au ...

, and

Oceania Oceania ( , ) is a region, geographical region including Australasia, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Outside of the English-speaking world, Oceania is generally considered a continent, while Mainland Australia is regarded as its co ...

. It (achira in Hispanic America, cana-da-índia in Brazil) has been a minor food crop cultivated by

indigenous peoples of the Americas In the Americas, Indigenous peoples comprise the two continents' pre-Columbian inhabitants, as well as the ethnic groups that identify with them in the 15th century, as well as the ethnic groups that identify with the pre-Columbian population of ...

for thousands of years.

Ecology

Diseases

Cannas suffer from relatively few diseases compared to other species. Nevertheless, some diseases have been recorded to affect ''C. indica''. One of them is Canna rust ('' Puccinia thaliae''), a fungus that causes orange spots on the leaves. In addition, plant viruses occur: Hippeastrum mosaic virus, Tomato aspermy virus, Canna yellow mottle virus and Canna yellow streak virus which can cause mild or strong symptoms from streaked leaves, stunted growth to distorted blooms. Furthermore, there is

Botrytis (fungus) ''Botrytis'' is a genus of anamorphic fungi in the family Sclerotiniaceae. ''Botrytis'' (also known as grey mold) belongs to the group hyphomycetes and has about 30 different species. It is a plant parasite as well as saprophytes on both agricul ...

, a mold that affects the flowers. Many different Canna varieties exist, and some of them are resistant to a certain type of disease. To prevent mold, the soil should be well-drained without too much soil moisture or stagnating water. To diminish the risk of spreading diseases, dead and infected leaves should be removed.

Pests

The canna leaf roller butterfly ('' Calpodes ethlius'') has been seen on ''Canna'' plants in the US. It is a

caterpillar Caterpillars ( ) are the larval stage of members of the order Lepidoptera (the insect order comprising butterflies and moths). As with most common names, the application of the word is arbitrary, since the larvae of sawflies (suborder ...

known as the worst pest for this plant and primarily found in the Southern United States. This pest causes damages by laying its eggs in the bud of developing stalks. To protect the eggs from predators and

insecticide Insecticides are pesticides used to kill insects. They include ovicides and larvicides used against insect eggs and larvae, respectively. The major use of insecticides is in agriculture, but they are also used in home and garden settings, i ...

, caterpillars use sticky webs to keep the leaves from unfurling. The pupate then feed on the leaves which can lead to losses of yield due to reduced photosynthesis. The

Japanese beetle The Japanese beetle (''Popillia japonica'') is a species of Scarabaeidae, scarab beetle. Due to the presence of Predation, natural predators, the Japanese beetle is not considered a pest in its native Japan, but in North America and some region ...

(''Popillia japonica'') is another leaf ragging pest with mainly small consequences for Canna plants. This beetle feeds on the part of the leaves between the veins. In its originating region in Japan, it does not cause a lot of damages. However, in the US it has no natural predator and can cause serious damages on Cannas and other plants. The bird cherry-oat aphid (''

Rhopalosiphum padi Bird cherry-oat aphid (''Rhopalosiphum padi'') is an aphid in the superfamily Aphidoidea in the order Hemiptera. It is a true bug and sucks sap from plants. It is considered a major pest in cereal crops, especially in temperate regions, as well ...

'') has been recorded to affect stored rhizomes. Although this pest has not been causing severe damages yet, it can particularly affect plants grown in greenhouses and can be combatted with parasitical wasps. It is a more common pest on

cereals A cereal is a grass cultivated for its edible grain. Cereals are the world's largest crops, and are therefore staple foods. They include rice, wheat, rye, oats, barley, millet, and maize (Corn). Edible grains from other plant families, suc ...

As an invasive species

''C. indica'' has been included in the

Global Invasive Species Database The Global Invasive Species Database is a database of invasive species around the world run by the Invasive Species Specialist Group (ISSG) of the International Union for Conservation of Nature. It publishes the list 100 of the World's Worst Invasi ...

and has been declared as invasive in the following places: *

South Africa South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the Southern Africa, southernmost country in Africa. Its Provinces of South Africa, nine provinces are bounded to the south by of coastline that stretches along the Atlantic O ...

where it is categorised as a category 1b Invader in terms of the National Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act (10/2004) list of Alien and Invasive Species which prohibits their cultivation, propagation, translocation and trade, and requires them to be removed and destroyed when found. This is because it competes with and replaces indigenous species, often in waterways and marshy areas. * Australia, regarded as a weed in

New South Wales New South Wales (commonly abbreviated as NSW) is a States and territories of Australia, state on the Eastern states of Australia, east coast of :Australia. It borders Queensland to the north, Victoria (state), Victoria to the south, and South ...

and South Eastern

Queensland Queensland ( , commonly abbreviated as Qld) is a States and territories of Australia, state in northeastern Australia, and is the second-largest and third-most populous state in Australia. It is bordered by the Northern Territory, South Austr ...

* Pacific Islands, where it has been included in the list of plant threats to Pacific ecosystems as a high-risk species *

Tanzania Tanzania, officially the United Republic of Tanzania, is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It is bordered by Uganda to the northwest; Kenya to the northeast; the Indian Ocean to the east; Mozambique and Malawi to t ...

, where although it was included in a list of 41 'problem' plants in the Serengeti-Mara ecosystem, it has been assessed to be naturalised in tourist areas, but not invasive (using roadside surveys) *

Ghana Ghana, officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It is situated along the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, and shares borders with Côte d’Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, and Togo to t ...

, where it was noted to compete with and invade natural shrub and tree woodland vegetation in the Boabeng-Fiema Monkey Sanctuary and

Kakum National Park Kakum National Park, located in the coastal environs of the Central Region, Ghana, Central Region of Ghana, covers an area of . Established in 1931 as a reserve, it was gazetted as a national park only in 1992 after an initial survey of avifauna ...

Cultivation

''Canna indica'' (achira) has been cultivated by indigenous peoples of the Americas in tropical America for thousands of years. The place of the first domestication may have been the northern

Andes The Andes ( ), Andes Mountains or Andean Mountain Range (; ) are the List of longest mountain chains on Earth, longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range ...

, as may be true of other similar root crops such as '' Calathea allouia'' and ''M. arundinacea''. The

Cauca river The Cauca River () is a river in Colombia that lies between the Occidental and Central cordilleras. From its headwaters in southwestern Colombia near the city of Popayán, it joins the Magdalena River near Magangué in Bolívar Department, an ...

valley of Colombia was a center of early domestication. Archaeological evidence has been found of the cultivation of achira in 3000 BCE by people of the

Las Vegas culture Las Vegas, colloquially referred to as Vegas, is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Nevada and the county seat of Clark County. The Las Vegas Valley metropolitan area is the largest within the greater Mojave Desert, and second-large ...

of coastal Ecuador. As the Las Vegas region is arid and semiarid, achira was not likely a native plant, but imported from more humid climates. Achira was also being cultivated by 2000 BCE by the people of the Casma/Sechin culture in the extremely arid region of coastal

Peru Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the south and west by the Pac ...

, also an area in which achira was probably not native.

Field and climate requirements

To cultivate ''Canna indica'', the substrate should be rich, humiferous, and light. The optimal substrate consists of a deep, rich and well-drained soil in a sunny place with a pH between 5.5 and 7.5. The rhizomes should be planted at 10 cm deep, after the last frost. Although it can tolerate dry periods, occasional irrigation will be beneficial for the yield. ''C. indica'' is a plant that can withstand low temperatures (down to -10 °C in regions with a mild climate). Nevertheless, the foliage can already be affected at 0 °C.

Propagation

''Canna indica'' is usually propagated by putting either the rhizome tips or the whole rhizomes in the ground.National Research Council. (1989). Lost crops of the Incas: little-known plants of the Andes with promise for worldwide cultivation. National Academies Press. Because the rhizomes are quickly perishable, storing them properly between the harvest and the next planting time is essential.Gade, D. W. (1966). Achira, the edible canna, its cultivation and use in the Peruvian Andes. Economic Botany, 20(4), 407-415. The large rhizomes can be divided in spring before the new shoots appear. Additionally, ''Canna indica'' can also be propagated by seeds. Seedlings growing early in spring are able to flower the same year they are sown.

Sowing

The amount of rhizomes used for sowing is normally about 3,000–4,500 kg/ha, and the planting density should not exceed 22,500 plants/ha. When putting the rhizomes in the ground, the sprouts should point upwards. The ideal spacing between plants in a row is 60–70 cm, and the spacing between rows is 70–80 cm. Because ''Canna indica'' grows quite tall, it should be cultivated at locations with relatively low wind speed to prevent bending over.

Germination Germination is the process by which an organism grows from a seed or spore. The term is applied to the sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or gymnosperm, the growth of a sporeling from a spore, such as the spores of fungi, ...

begins when the soil temperature is above 16 °C, while the optimal temperature is 20–25 °C. 20–30 days after sowing, seedlings emerge.

Fertilization

''Canna indica'' is reliant on fertilizer to achieve a good yield. In the early stages, seedling fertilizer should be applied during the first tillage and spread according to seedling conditions. Up to 750 kg/ha of ternary compound fertilizer (N, P, K) can be applied. When applying fertilizer, direct contact with the base and leaves should be avoided. Before flowering, the second tillage can be combined with the second fertilizer application to promote the growth of underground stems and roots. Applying fertilizer evenly on both sides of the roots helps them to absorb water and grow uniformly. n Mandarin/ref>

Weed control

Fast growing weeds can have a negative impact on ''C. indica'', especially before the fourth leaf appears. Two

weed control Weed control is a type of pest control, which attempts to stop or reduce growth of weeds, especially noxious weeds, with the aim of reducing their competition with desired flora and fauna including domesticated plants and livestock, and in natu ...

methods are usually practiced: firstly, applying

herbicides Herbicides (, ), also commonly known as weed killers, are substances used to control undesired plants, also known as weeds.EPA. February 201Pesticides Industry. Sales and Usage 2006 and 2007: Market Estimates. Summary in press releasMain page f ...

to eradicate weeds and secondly, carrying out mechanical operations depending on the weed growth.

Harvest

About six months after planting, the crop can be harvested. At this time, the rhizomes are tender and succulent. However, the rhizomes are mainly harvested later, after 8–10 months, when they reach their maximum size. ''C. indica'' is suitable as an emergency crop in case of shortfalls due to its long durability in the ground. It can be harvested during times when the cultivation of other crops is not successful. Harvesting is done manually by pulling out the crop with a

shovel A shovel is a tool used for digging, lifting, and moving bulk materials, such as soil, coal, gravel, snow, sand, or ore. Most shovels are hand tools consisting of a broad blade fixed to a medium-length handle. Shovel blades are usually made ...

or another digging tool, shaking off the soil, and then cutting the stems to separate the rhizomes.Caicedo Díaz, G. E., Rozo Wilches, L. S., & Rengifo Benítez, G. (2003). La achira: alternativa agroindustrial para áreas de economía campesina.

n Spanish N, or n, is the fourteenth letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages, and others worldwide. Its name in English is ''en'' (pronounced ), plural ''ens''. History ...

/ref>

Yield

The yield varies depending on the region of cultivation and its climate and soil conditions.Kay, D. E. (1973). Root crops (No. 2). London: Tropical Products Institute. In certain locations, the yield of ''Canna indica'' can be higher than other starchy crops like

cassava ''Manihot esculenta'', common name, commonly called cassava, manioc, or yuca (among numerous regional names), is a woody shrub of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, native to South America, from Brazil, Paraguay and parts of the Andes. Although ...

and

arrowroot Arrowroot is a starch obtained from the rhizomes (rootstock) of several tropical plants, traditionally ''Maranta arundinacea'', but also Florida arrowroot from ''Zamia integrifolia'', and tapioca from cassava (''Manihot esculenta''), which is of ...

. The average

yield is believed to be around 22–50 tons per hectare, whereas the starch yield is about 2–5 tons per hectare and can reach up to 10 tons per ha. Observations show that the highest yield in rhizomes does not necessarily correspond to the highest yield in starch.

Uses

Culinary

The edible rhizomes consist of 73% water. In addition to 24% starch, they still contain 1% protein, 0.6% crude fiber and 1.4% minerals. They can be eaten raw, but are usually baked. Cooked, the rhizomes become translucent, mucilaginous, and sweet. Starch is produced by grinding or pounding the roots and soaking them in water, separating the starch granules from fibers in the roots. The starch granules of ''C. indica'' are also translucent and the largest known from any plant. The starch is occasionally marketed commercially as "arrowroot", a name also applied to the starch of other similar roots crops such as ''

Maranta arundinacea ''Maranta arundinacea'', also known as arrowroot, maranta, West Indian arrowroot, obedience plant or Bermuda arrowroot is a large, perennial plant, perennial herb found in rainforest habitats of the Americas, but cultivated in tropical regio ...

''. It was an ingredient in mid-19th-century recipes such as cakes and was called tous-les-mois. The starch is easily digestible and therefore well suited as a health and baby food. The starch is also suitable for baking. In South America, the leaves are used to wrap

pastries Pastry refers to a variety of doughs (often enriched with fat or eggs), as well as the sweet and savoury baked goods made from them. The dough may be accordingly called pastry dough for clarity. Sweetened pastries are often described as '' bak ...

(

tamales A tamale, in Spanish , is a traditional Mesoamerican dish made of ''masa'', a dough made from nixtamalized corn, which is steamed in a corn husk or banana leaves. The wrapping can either be discarded prior to eating or used as a plate. Tam ...

, humitas, quimbolitos, juanes, etc.), similar to banana leaves or

maize Maize (; ''Zea mays''), also known as corn in North American English, is a tall stout grass that produces cereal grain. It was domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago from wild teosinte. Native American ...

leaves.

History

The

Spanish Spanish might refer to: * Items from or related to Spain: **Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain **Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many countries in the Americas **Spanish cuisine **Spanish history **Spanish culture ...

took notice of achira in 1549 when it was mentioned as one of four root crops being grown for food by the people of the Chuquimayo valley ( Jaén province) of Peru. The other three were sweet potato (''

Ipomoea batatas The sweet potato or sweetpotato (''Ipomoea batatas'') is a dicotyledonous plant in the morning glory family, Convolvulaceae. Its sizeable, starchy, sweet-tasting tuberous roots are used as a root vegetable, which is a staple food in parts of the ...

''), cassava (''

Manihot esculenta ''Manihot esculenta'', commonly called cassava, manioc, or yuca (among numerous regional names), is a woody shrub of the spurge family, Euphorbiaceae, native to South America, from Brazil, Paraguay and parts of the Andes. Although a perennia ...

''), and racacha ('' Arracacia xanthorrhiza''). In 1609, achira was described by a Spanish visitor to Cusco, Peru. In modern times, achira is rarely grown for food, although in the 1960s it was still an important crop in Paruro Province on the upper Apurimac River near Cusco. There, at elevations of up to , achira is cultivated and harvested, especially to be eaten during the Festival of Corpus Christi in May or June. The rhizomes are wrapped with achira leaves and placed in a pit with heated rocks. The pit is then filled with dirt and the achira is slowly baked underground. In the 1950s, ''C. indica'' was introduced to

China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...

as a perennial ornamental crop. It was mainly planted in parks and home gardens in

Guizhou ) , image_skyline = , image_caption = , image_map = Guizhou in China (+all claims hatched).svg , mapsize = 275px , map_alt = Map showing the location of Guizhou Province , map_caption = Map s ...

for ornamental purposes. From the late 1950s to the early 1960s, China suffered from a severe food shortage. During this time, weeds, tree roots, tubers, etc., became important sources of

famine food A famine food or poverty food is any inexpensive or ready available food used to nourish people in times of hunger and starvation, whether caused by extreme poverty, such as during economic depression or war, or by natural disasters such as dro ...

, which included ''C. indica'' and let to its use as a food crop. Today, the rhizomes are processed into starch,

vermicelli Vermicelli (, ; , literally "little worms"), is a traditional type of pasta round in section similar to spaghetti. In Anglosphere, English-speaking regions it is usually thinner than spaghetti, while in Italy it is thicker. It is typically made ...

white wine White wine is a wine that is Fermentation in winemaking, fermented without undergoing the process of Maceration (wine), maceration, which involves prolonged contact between the juice with the grape skins, seeds, and pulp. The wine color, colou ...

, and

ethanol Ethanol (also called ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol, drinking alcohol, or simply alcohol) is an organic compound with the chemical formula . It is an Alcohol (chemistry), alcohol, with its formula also written as , or EtOH, where Et is the ps ...

. Due to its relatively low disease and pest pressure, it has become a characteristic crop for large-scale cultivation in China. The research in China mainly focuses on processing methods, and additionally, there are few studies on varieties and cultivation techniques.

Starch production

Rhizomes for starch extraction should be processed within days after the harvest due to their perishability.García, H., Arias, R., & Camacho, J. (1998). Almidón de achira: Producción y uso industrial. CORPOICA, Programa Nacional de Maquinaria Agrícola y Postcosecha, Tibaitatá.

/ref> The process is dependent on a significant supply of fresh water. In rural

Colombia Colombia, officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country primarily located in South America with Insular region of Colombia, insular regions in North America. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the north, Venezuel ...

, the recently harvested rhizomes are packed up in sacks and transported to the processing site, where they are washed in tanks. The rhizomes are then mechanically grated to disrupt the cell walls to release the starch. They are then manually or mechanically passed through a sieve with water. The starch granules sink to the bottom of a tank. Then, the starch is washed multiple times with clean water. The starch by dried in the sun, readying it for storage or transportation.

Other uses

In some areas, the leaves are fed to

livestock Livestock are the Domestication, domesticated animals that are raised in an Agriculture, agricultural setting to provide labour and produce diversified products for consumption such as meat, Egg as food, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. The t ...

. The seeds are widely used for jewellery, being pierced in some areas and used as pearls. They are also used as a filling of rattles, such as the kayamb, a

musical instrument A musical instrument is a device created or adapted to make Music, musical sounds. In principle, any object that produces sound can be considered a musical instrument—it is through purpose that the object becomes a musical instrument. A person ...

from

Réunion Réunion (; ; ; known as before 1848) is an island in the Indian Ocean that is an overseas departments and regions of France, overseas department and region of France. Part of the Mascarene Islands, it is located approximately east of the isl ...

, as well as the hosho, a

gourd Gourds include the fruits of some flowering plant species in the family Cucurbitaceae, particularly '' Cucurbita'' and '' Lagenaria''. The term refers to a number of species and subspecies, many with hard shells, and some without. Many gourds ha ...

rattle from

Zimbabwe file:Zimbabwe, relief map.jpg, upright=1.22, Zimbabwe, relief map Zimbabwe, officially the Republic of Zimbabwe, is a landlocked country in Southeast Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers, bordered by South Africa to the south, Bots ...

, where the seeds are known as ''"hota"'' seeds. From the Indians, the seeds were previously used as gold weights, similar to the seeds of

carob The carob ( ; ''Ceratonia siliqua'') is a flowering evergreen tree or shrub in the Caesalpinioideae sub-family of the legume family, Fabaceae. It is widely cultivated for its edible fruit, which takes the form of seed pods, and as an ornam ...

(''Ceratonia siliqua''), as they have a constant weight. According to the

BBC The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is a British public service broadcaster headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, England. Originally established in 1922 as the British Broadcasting Company, it evolved into its current sta ...

, "during the

Indian Mutiny The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major uprising in India in 1857–58 against the rule of the British East India Company, which functioned as a sovereign power on behalf of the British Crown. The rebellion began on 10 May 1857 in the form ...

of the 19th century, soldiers used the seeds of a ''Canna indica'' when they ran out of bullets." ''Canna indica'' sps. can be used for the treatment of industrial waste waters through constructed wetlands. It is effective for the removal of high organic load, colour and chlorinated organic compounds from paper mill wastewater. In

, the starch and

polyethylene Polyethylene or polythene (abbreviated PE; IUPAC name polyethene or poly(methylene)) is the most commonly produced plastic. It is a polymer, primarily used for packaging (plastic bags, plastic films, geomembranes and containers including bott ...

are used as raw materials to produce

biodegradable plastics Biodegradable plastics are plastics that can be decomposed by the action of living organisms, usually microbes, into water, carbon dioxide, and biomass. Biodegradable plastics are commonly produced with renewable raw materials, micro-organisms, ...

. This type of plastics is affordable and can degrade completely into fertilizer for crop production in just a few months. The method for producing ''C. indica'' plastics consists of fusing 60–80% of ''C. indica'' starch and 20–40% of polyethylene uniformly at 240 °C. n Mandarin/ref>

References

External links

* {{Taxonbar, from=Q163559 indica Plants described in 1753 Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus Flora of Northern America Flora of Southern America Garden plants Edible plants Crops originating from South America Plants that can bloom all year round

Description

Flowers

Distribution and habitat

Ecology

Diseases

Pests

As an invasive species

Cultivation

Field and climate requirements

Propagation

Sowing

Fertilization

Weed control

Harvest

Yield

Uses

Culinary

History

Starch production

Other uses

See also

References

External links