HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

''Bordetella pertussis'' is a
Gram-negative Gram-negative bacteria are bacteria that, unlike gram-positive bacteria, do not retain the crystal violet stain used in the Gram staining method of bacterial differentiation. Their defining characteristic is that their cell envelope consists ...
, aerobic,
pathogenic In biology, a pathogen (, "suffering", "passion" and , "producer of"), in the oldest and broadest sense, is any organism or agent that can produce disease. A pathogen may also be referred to as an infectious agent, or simply a germ. The term ...
, encapsulated
coccobacillus Bacterial cellular morphologies are the shapes that are characteristic of various types of bacteria and often key to their identification. Their direct examination under a light microscope enables the classification of these bacteria (and archae ...
bacterium of the genus ''
Bordetella ''Bordetella'' () is a genus of small (0.2 – 0.7 Î¼m), Gram-negative, coccobacilli bacteria of the phylum Pseudomonadota. ''Bordetella'' species, with the exception of ''Bordetella petrii, B. petrii'', are obligate aerobes, as well as hig ...
'', and the causative agent of
pertussis Whooping cough ( or ), also known as pertussis or the 100-day cough, is a highly contagious, vaccine-preventable bacterial disease. Initial symptoms are usually similar to those of the common cold with a runny nose, fever, and mild cough, bu ...
or whooping cough. Its
virulence factor Virulence factors (preferably known as pathogenicity factors or effectors in botany) are cellular structures, molecules and regulatory systems that enable microbial pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi, and protozoa) to achieve the following: * c ...
s include
pertussis toxin Pertussis toxin (PT) is a protein-based AB5-type exotoxin produced by the bacterium '' Bordetella pertussis'', which causes whooping cough. PT is involved in the colonization of the respiratory tract and the establishment of infection. ...
, adenylate cyclase toxin, filamentous haemagglutinin, pertactin, fimbria, and tracheal cytotoxin. The bacteria are spread by airborne droplets and the disease's incubation period is 7–10 days on average (range 6–20 days). Humans are the only known reservoir for ''B. pertussis''. The complete ''B. pertussis''
genome A genome is all the genetic information of an organism. It consists of nucleotide sequences of DNA (or RNA in RNA viruses). The nuclear genome includes protein-coding genes and non-coding genes, other functional regions of the genome such as ...
of 4,086,186 base pairs was published in 2003. Compared to its closest relative ''B. bronchiseptica'', the genome size is greatly reduced. This is mainly due to the adaptation to one host species (human) and the loss of capability of survival outside a host body. Like '' B. bronchiseptica'', ''B. pertussis'' can express a
flagellum A flagellum (; : flagella) (Latin for 'whip' or 'scourge') is a hair-like appendage that protrudes from certain plant and animal sperm cells, from fungal spores ( zoospores), and from a wide range of microorganisms to provide motility. Many pr ...
-like structure, even though it has been historically categorized as a nonmotile bacterium.


Taxonomy

The genus ''
Bordetella ''Bordetella'' () is a genus of small (0.2 – 0.7 Î¼m), Gram-negative, coccobacilli bacteria of the phylum Pseudomonadota. ''Bordetella'' species, with the exception of ''Bordetella petrii, B. petrii'', are obligate aerobes, as well as hig ...
'' contains nine species: ''B. pertussis,'' ''B. parapertussis'', ''B. bronchiseptica'', ''B. avium'', ''B. hinzii'', ''B. holmesii'', ''B. trematum, B. ansorpii,'' and ''B. petrii.'' ''B. pertussis'', '' B. parapertussis'' and '' B. bronchiseptica'' form a closely related phylogenetical group. ''B. parapertussis'' causes a disease similar to whooping cough in humans, and ''B. bronchiseptica'' infects a range of mammal hosts, including humans, and causes a spectrum of respiratory disorders.


Evolution

The disease pertussis was first described by French physician Guillaume de Baillou after the epidemic of 1578. The disease may have been described earlier in a Korean medical textbook. The causative agent of pertussis was identified and isolated by Jules Bordet and Octave Gengou in 1906. It is believed that the genus ''
Bordetella ''Bordetella'' () is a genus of small (0.2 – 0.7 Î¼m), Gram-negative, coccobacilli bacteria of the phylum Pseudomonadota. ''Bordetella'' species, with the exception of ''Bordetella petrii, B. petrii'', are obligate aerobes, as well as hig ...
'' may have evolved from ancestors that could survive in the soil according to
16S rRNA 16S ribosomal RNA (or 16Svedberg, S rRNA) is the RNA component of the 30S subunit of a prokaryotic ribosome (SSU rRNA). It binds to the Shine-Dalgarno sequence and provides most of the SSU structure. The genes coding for it are referred to as ...
gene sequencing data. 16S rRNA is a component of all bacteria that allows for the comparison of phyla within a sample. The expansion of human development into the agricultural field caused there to be an influx of human to soil contact. This increase not only created more advantageous environments for the ancestors of ''Bordetella'' not only to thrive in, but to spread to humans as well. Over time, ''
Bordetella ''Bordetella'' () is a genus of small (0.2 – 0.7 Î¼m), Gram-negative, coccobacilli bacteria of the phylum Pseudomonadota. ''Bordetella'' species, with the exception of ''Bordetella petrii, B. petrii'', are obligate aerobes, as well as hig ...
'', like ''B. pertussis'', has adapted to specifically infect humans and they are still able to multiply and thrive in soil conditions. It was initially determined that ''B. pertussis'' is a monomorphic pathogen in which the majority of strains found had the same two types of alleles: ptxA1 or ptxA2. Modern developments in genome sequencing have allowed ''B. pertussis'' to be studied more allowing for the discovery of the ptxP region. Through studying the gene, there has been evidence of mutations within the gene that show missing genomes present on the DNA strand. A study by Bart et al. revealed that 25% of the genes on the Tohama I reference strain of the ''B. pertussis'' sequence were missing in comparison to the ancestral strains. These mutations were noted to be caused by an increase in intragenomic recombination with loss of DNA. Genes controlled by the BvgAS system have transformed ''B. pertussis'' into a much more contagious pathogen. In particular, strains with the ptxP3 allele, that developed through mutations in recent years, have an increased expression of toxins. Ultimately, this leads to higher acuteness of the disease when contracted.   This has causes an upwards trend of most cases of ''B. pertussis'' being the ptxP3 strain, especially in developing countries. Since the 1990s, most cases in developed countries such as the United States have ptxP3 isolates rather than the ptxA1 causing it to become the more dominant strain.


Growth requirements

''Bordetella pertussis'' prefers aerobic conditions in pH range of 7.0–7.5, optimal to thrive in the human body. The max pH level for their growth was at a pH level of 8.0. The minimum pH range for minimal growth was at pH 6.0-6.5. The bacteria are not able to reproduce at pH levels lower than 5.0. In addition, ''Bordetella pertussis'' favors a temperature range of 35 Â°C to 37 Â°C. It is a strict aerobe as mentioned previously and its nutritional requirements are meticulous in its requirement for
nicotinamide Nicotinamide (International nonproprietary name, INN, British Approved Name, BAN ) or niacinamide (United States Adopted Name, USAN ) is a form of vitamin B3, vitamin B3 found in food and used as a dietary supplement and medication. As a suppl ...
supplement. It has been identified that the growth of the bacteria is hindered in the presence of fatty acids, peroxide media, metal ions, and sulfides. As a strict aerobe, the bacterium requires oxygen to grow and sustain. Such aerobes undergo cellular respiration to metabolize substances using oxygen. In such respiration, the terminal electron acceptor for the
electron transport chain An electron transport chain (ETC) is a series of protein complexes and other molecules which transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox reactions (both reduction and oxidation occurring simultaneously) and couples th ...
is oxygen. The organism is oxidase positive, but
urease Ureases (), functionally, belong to the superfamily of amidohydrolases and phosphotriesterases. Ureases are found in numerous Bacteria, Archaea, fungi, algae, plants, and some invertebrates. Ureases are nickel-containing metalloenzymes of high ...
,
nitrate reductase Nitrate reductases are molybdoenzymes that reduce nitrate () to nitrite (). This reaction is critical for the production of protein in most crop plants, as nitrate is the predominant source of nitrogen in fertilized soils. Types Euka ...
, and
citrate Citric acid is an organic compound with the formula . It is a colorless weak organic acid. It occurs naturally in citrus fruits. In biochemistry Biochemistry, or biological chemistry, is the study of chemical processes within and relati ...
negative.


Metabolism

''B. pertussis'' presents unique challenges and opportunities for metabolic modeling, especially given its reemergence as a pathogen. Elevated glutamate levels were found to slow growth due to oxidative stress, revealing a complex relationship. This effect is compounded by observations suggesting that a small starting population could amplify oxidative stress through quorum sensing, a phenomenon deserving further investigation. When ''B. pertussis'' is in a balanced medium of lactate and glutamate that does not accumulate ammonium, a partially faulty citric acid cycle in ''B. pertussis'' and its ability to synthesize and break down β-hydroxybutyrate is observed. Cultivating ''B. pertussis'' in this medium resulted in some production of
polyhydroxybutyrate Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is a Polyhydroxyalkanoates, polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), a polymer belonging to the polyesters class that are of interest as bio-derived and biodegradable plastics. The poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (P3HB) form of PHB is probabl ...
but no excretion of β-hydroxybutyrate, indicating a more efficient conversion of carbon into biomass compared to existing media formulations. In biofilm conditions, ''B. pertussis'' cells exhibited increased toxin levels alongside reduced expression of certain proteins, indicating a metabolic shift towards utilizing the full tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle over the glyoxylate shunt. These changes correlated with heightened polyhydroxybutyrate accumulation and superoxide dismutase activity, potentially contributing to prolonged survival in biofilms. The interplay between protein expression and metabolic responses highlights the intricate mechanisms influencing B. pertussis growth and adaptation. Despite a less negative energy profile compared to host tissues like the human respiratory system, B. pertussis efficiently couples biosynthesis with catabolism, sustaining robust growth even after extended incubation periods.


Host species

Humans are the only host species of ''B. pertussis''. Outbreaks of whooping cough have been observed among chimpanzees in a zoo, and wild gorillas; in both cases, it is considered likely that the infection was acquired as a result of close contact with humans. Several zoos have a long-standing custom of vaccinating their primates against whooping cough. Research shows that some primate species are highly sensitive to ''B. pertussis'', and developed a clinical whooping cough in high incidence when exposed to low inoculation doses. Whether the bacteria spread naturally in wild animal populations has not been confirmed satisfactorily by laboratory diagnosis. In research settings,
baboon Baboons are primates comprising the biology, genus ''Papio'', one of the 23 genera of Old World monkeys, in the family Cercopithecidae. There are six species of baboon: the hamadryas baboon, the Guinea baboon, the olive baboon, the yellow ba ...
s have been used as a model of the infection although it is not known whether the pathology in baboons is the same as in humans.


Pertussis

Pertussis is an infection of the
respiratory system The respiratory system (also respiratory apparatus, ventilatory system) is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for gas exchange in animals and plants. The anatomy and physiology that make this happen varies grea ...
characterized by a "whooping" sound when the person breathes in. ''B. pertussis'' infects its host by colonizing lung epithelial cells. The bacterium contains a surface protein, filamentous haemagglutinin adhesin, which binds to the sulfatides found on cilia of epithelial cells. Other adhesins are fimbriae and petractin. Once anchored, the bacterium produces tracheal cytotoxin, which stops the cilia from beating. This prevents the cilia from clearing debris from the lungs, so the body responds by sending the host into a coughing fit. ''B. pertussis'' can inhibit the function of the host's immune system. The toxin, known as
pertussis toxin Pertussis toxin (PT) is a protein-based AB5-type exotoxin produced by the bacterium '' Bordetella pertussis'', which causes whooping cough. PT is involved in the colonization of the respiratory tract and the establishment of infection. ...
, inhibits
G protein G proteins, also known as guanine nucleotide-binding proteins, are a Protein family, family of proteins that act as molecular switches inside cells, and are involved in transmitting signals from a variety of stimuli outside a cell (biology), ...
coupling that regulates an
adenylate cyclase Adenylate cyclase (EC 4.6.1.1, also commonly known as adenyl cyclase and adenylyl cyclase, abbreviated AC) is an enzyme with systematic name ATP diphosphate-lyase (cyclizing; 3′,5′-cyclic-AMP-forming). It catalyzes the following reaction: :A ...
-mediated conversion of ATP to
cyclic adenosine monophosphate Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP, cyclic AMP, or 3',5'-cyclic adenosine monophosphate) is a second messenger, or cellular signal occurring within cells, that is important in many biological processes. cAMP is a derivative of adenosine tri ...
. The result is that
phagocyte Phagocytes are cells that protect the body by ingesting harmful foreign particles, bacteria, and dead or dying cells. Their name comes from the Greek ', "to eat" or "devour", and "-cyte", the suffix in biology denoting "cell", from the Greek ...
s convert too much
adenosine triphosphate Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleoside triphosphate that provides energy to drive and support many processes in living cell (biology), cells, such as muscle contraction, nerve impulse propagation, and chemical synthesis. Found in all known ...
to cyclic adenosine monophosphate, causing disturbances in cellular signaling mechanisms, and preventing phagocytes from correctly responding to the infection. Pertussis toxin, formerly known as lymphocytosis-promoting factor, causes a decrease in the entry of lymphocytes into lymph nodes, which can lead to a condition known as lymphocytosis, with a complete
lymphocyte A lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell (leukocyte) in the immune system of most vertebrates. Lymphocytes include T cells (for cell-mediated and cytotoxic adaptive immunity), B cells (for humoral, antibody-driven adaptive immunity), an ...
count of over 4000/μl in adults or over 8000/μl in children. Besides targeting lymphocytes, it limits neutrophil migration to the lungs. It also decreases the function of tissue-resident macrophages, which are responsible for some bacterial clearance. The infection of ''B. pertussis'' occurs mostly in children under the age of one since this is when they are unimmunized, or children with faded
immunity Immunity may refer to: Medicine * Immunity (medical), resistance of an organism to infection or disease * ''Immunity'' (journal), a scientific journal published by Cell Press Biology * Immune system Engineering * Radiofrequence immunity ...
, normally around the ages 11 through 18. The signs and symptoms are similar to a
common cold The common cold, or the cold, is a virus, viral infectious disease of the upper respiratory tract that primarily affects the Respiratory epithelium, respiratory mucosa of the human nose, nose, throat, Paranasal sinuses, sinuses, and larynx. ...
: runny nose,
sneezing A sneeze (also known as sternutation) is a semi-autonomous, convulsive expulsion of air from the lungs through the nose and mouth, usually caused by foreign particles irritating the nasal mucosa. A sneeze expels air forcibly from the mouth a ...
, mild
cough A cough is a sudden expulsion of air through the large breathing passages which can help clear them of fluids, irritants, foreign particles and Microorganism, microbes. As a protective reflex, coughing can be repetitive with the cough reflex fol ...
, and low-grade
fever Fever or pyrexia in humans is a symptom of an anti-infection defense mechanism that appears with Human body temperature, body temperature exceeding the normal range caused by an increase in the body's temperature Human body temperature#Fever, s ...
. The patient becomes most contagious during the catarrhal stage of infection, normally two weeks after the coughing begins. It may become airborne when the person coughs, sneezes, or laughs. The
paroxysmal Paroxysmal attacks or paroxysms are a sudden recurrence or intensification of symptoms, such as a spasm or seizure. These short, frequent symptoms can be observed in various clinical conditions. They are usually associated with multiple scleros ...
cough precedes a crowing inspiratory sound characteristic of pertussis. After a spell, the patient might make a "whooping" sound when breathing in or may vomit. Transmission rates are expected to rise as the host experiences their most contagious stage when the total viable count of ''B. pertussis'' is at its highest. After the host coughs, the bacteria in their respiratory airways will be exposed to the air by way of aerosolized droplets, threatening nearby humans. A human host can exhibit a range of physical reactions as a result of the  ''B. pertussis'' pathogen, depending on how well their body is equipped to fight infection. Adults have milder symptoms, such as prolonged coughing without the "whoop". Infants less than six months also may not have the typical whoop. A coughing spell may last a minute or more, producing
cyanosis Cyanosis is the change of Tissue (biology), tissue color to a bluish-purple hue, as a result of decrease in the amount of oxygen bound to the hemoglobin in the red blood cells of the capillary bed. Cyanosis is apparent usually in the Tissue (bi ...
,
apnea Apnea (also spelled apnoea in British English) is the temporary cessation of breathing. During apnea, there is no movement of the muscles of inhalation, and the volume of the lungs initially remains unchanged. Depending on how blocked the ...
, and
seizures A seizure is a sudden, brief disruption of brain activity caused by abnormal, excessive, or synchronous neuronal firing. Depending on the regions of the brain involved, seizures can lead to changes in movement, sensation, behavior, awareness, o ...
.


Transmission and infection

''B. pertussis'' is a highly contagious infection of the respiratory tract. However, for ''B. pertussis'' to persist in a population the bacterium needs an uninterrupted chain of transmission as there are no animal reservoirs and the bacteria do not survive in the environment. ''B. pertussis'' primarily spreads through respiratory droplets, requiring direct contact between individuals due to its short survival time outside the body. It was noted that between 1991 and 2008, there were 258 deaths for infants 8 months old and younger.


Progression of disease

Pertussis manifests in three distinct stages. The dynamic progression of pertussis, characterized by its distinct phases from incubation to paroxysmal coughing, underscores the complexity of the disease's clinical manifestations and highlights the potential significance of toxin release in driving symptoms. Following exposure, an incubation period of 5–7 days ensues before symptoms appear. The catarrhal phase follows, characterized by cold-like symptoms lasting about a week, with a high isolation rate of the organism. This phase transitions into the paroxysmal phase, where the dry cough evolves into a severe, paroxysmal cough with mucous secretion and vomiting. The coughing fits, characterized by efforts to expel respiratory secretions, may result in a distinctive whooping sound. Recovery of the organism diminishes significantly during this phase. Although the organism is seldom detected in the blood, it is theorized that the clinical symptoms primarily stem from toxin release. The paroxysmal phase typically persists for a minimum of 2 weeks.


Diagnosis

A
nasopharyngeal The pharynx (: pharynges) is the part of the throat behind the mouth and nasal cavity, and above the esophagus and trachea (the tubes going down to the stomach and the lungs respectively). It is found in vertebrates and invertebrates, though its ...
swab or aspirate can be sent to the
bacteriology Bacteriology is the branch and specialty of biology that studies the Morphology (biology), morphology, ecology, genetics and biochemistry of bacteria as well as many other aspects related to them. This subdivision of microbiology involves the iden ...
laboratory for
Gram stain Gram stain (Gram staining or Gram's method), is a method of staining used to classify bacterial species into two large groups: gram-positive bacteria and gram-negative bacteria. It may also be used to diagnose a fungal infection. The name comes ...
(Gram-negative, coccobacilli, diplococci arrangement), with growth on Bordet–Gengou agar or buffered charcoal yeast extract agar with added
cephalosporin The cephalosporins (sg. ) are a class of β-lactam antibiotics originally derived from the fungus '' Acremonium'', which was previously known as ''Cephalosporium''. Together with cephamycins, they constitute a subgroup of β-lactam antibio ...
to select for the organism, which shows mercury drop-like colonies. Endotracheal tube aspirates or
bronchoalveolar lavage Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL), also known as bronchoalveolar washing, is a diagnostic method of the lower respiratory system in which a bronchoscope is passed through the mouth or nose into an appropriate airway in the lungs, with a measured amou ...
fluids are preferred for laboratory diagnostics due to their direct contact with the ciliated epithelial cells and higher isolation rates of the pathogen. Laboratory diagnostic methods used to identify ''B. pertussis:'' #
Serology Serology is the scientific study of Serum (blood), serum and other body fluids. In practice, the term usually refers to the medical diagnosis, diagnostic identification of Antibody, antibodies in the serum. Such antibodies are typically formed in r ...
## Identification of specific agglutinating antibodies in the patient's blood serum with a high sensitivity and specificity rate. ## Able to detect the level of virulence and measure the immune response to the pathogen. ## Recommend those corresponding to the catarrhal phase of the illness. Not used in infants due to delay of positive results, often indicating the disease has progressed. ## Sparked the development of ELISA kits. # Microbiological culture ## Known for high specificity, the ability to subtype the colonies presented, and limited sensitivity. Ideal for antimicrobial-resistant monitoring. Specificity results can be affected by age, immunization status, duration of symptoms, and even specimen handling. ## It is very difficult to cultivate separate pathogens and only high bacterial loads can lead to a positive culture. The ideal stage for isolation is the catarrhal stage or the beginning of the paroxysmal stage. Vaccinated persons also have a lower rate of isolation. ## Plates are incubated at 36 Â°C under high humidity for 7–10 days before obtaining results. # Classical PCR assay ## Being the test of choice, this procedure is known for its quick and high sensitivity, however; often inaccurate when identifying between ''Bordetella'' species. ## The primers used for PCR usually target the transposable elements IS481 and IS1001. ## Recommend to be performed on infants and those corresponding to the catarrhal phase of the illness. It can detect the pathogens in atypical manifestations and vaccinated patients for longer periods, compared to the culture. ## Target genes within ''B. pertussis'' are IS481, IS1002, ptxS1, Ptx-Pr, and BP3385, however, ''B. bronchiseptica''and ''B. holmesii'' contain similar gene expression, leaving it difficult to differentiate between the bacterium in the laboratory. The most effective technique to differentiate between the two bacteria is by human and animal isolates. Singleplex PCR identifies the target gene ptxS1. # Direct Fluorescent Antibody Testing (DFA) ## Inexpensive and direct results of ''Bordetella'' detection with poor sensitivity and specificity. This test stains the nasopharyngeal secretions with a fluorescent modified antibody that binds directly to the ''B. pertussis'' or ''B. parapertussis'' bacteria. If positive, the binding antibody would glow under the microscope. Because of the low specificity, it is common to receive false positives with
polyclonal antibodies Polyclonal antibodies (pAbs) are antibodies that are secreted by different B cell lineages within the body (whereas monoclonal antibodies come from a single cell lineage). They are a collection of immunoglobulin molecules that react against a s ...
occurring. Several diagnostic tests are available, particularly the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
ELISA The enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (, ) is a commonly used analytical biochemistry assay, first described by Eva Engvall and Peter Perlmann in 1971. The assay is a solid-phase type of enzyme immunoassay (EIA) to detect the presence of ...
kits. These are designed to detect filamentous hemagglutinin (FHA) and/or anti-pertussis-toxin antibodies of IgG, IgA, or IgM. Some kits use a combination of antigens which leads to a higher sensitivity, but might also make the interpretation of the results harder since one cannot know which antibody has been detected. Misdiagnosis is common due to diagnostic techniques, misidentification between species in laboratories, and clinician error.  The misdiagnoses between ''Bordetella'' species further increase the likelihood of antibiotic resistance. These factors highlight the need for a procedure to target all species through specific and fast methods.


Treatment and prevention


Treatment

Whooping cough is treated by
macrolide Macrolides are a class of mostly natural products with a large macrocyclic lactone ring to which one or more deoxy sugars, usually cladinose and desosamine, may be attached. Macrolides belong to the polyketide class of natural products. ...
s, for example
erythromycin Erythromycin is an antibiotic used for the treatment of a number of bacterial infections. This includes respiratory tract infections, skin infections, chlamydia infections, pelvic inflammatory disease, and syphilis. It may also be used ...
. The therapy is most effective when started during the incubation period or the catarrhal period. It is ideal for treatment should be within 1–2 weeks from onset of symptoms. When applied during the paroxysmal cough phase, the time of convalescence is not affected, only further transmission is reduced to 5–10 days after infection.


Prevention

Pertussis vaccine Pertussis vaccine is a vaccine that protects against whooping cough (pertussis). There are two main types: whole-cell vaccines and acellular vaccines. The whole-cell vaccine is about 78% effective while the acellular vaccine is 71–85% effect ...
has been widely used since the second half of the 20th century. The first vaccines were whole-cell vaccines (wP), composed of chemically inactivated bacteria and given intramuscularly. When given, the inactive bacteria and antigens trigger the immune response and mimic natural infection. Due to the frequent reports of reactions at the injection site, scientists started to replace whole-cell vaccines with acellular pertussis (aP) vaccines which have, recently, shown a decreased time of immunity and level of protection against colonization. These acellular vaccines are also intramuscular and are composed of purified surface antigens, mainly fimbriae, filamentous
hemagglutinin The term hemagglutinin (alternatively spelt ''haemagglutinin'', from the Greek , 'blood' + Latin , 'glue') refers to any protein that can cause red blood cells (erythrocytes) to clump together (" agglutinate") ''in vitro''. They do this by bindin ...
, pertactin and pertussis toxin. Both vaccines are still used today, with the aP vaccine predominantly used in developed countries. The aP vaccine is also a part of the
diphtheria Diphtheria is an infection caused by the bacteria, bacterium ''Corynebacterium diphtheriae''. Most infections are asymptomatic or have a mild Course (medicine), clinical course, but in some outbreaks, the mortality rate approaches 10%. Signs a ...
,
tetanus Tetanus (), also known as lockjaw, is a bacterial infection caused by ''Clostridium tetani'' and characterized by muscle spasms. In the most common type, the spasms begin in the jaw and then progress to the rest of the body. Each spasm usually l ...
, and acellular pertussis (DTaP) immunization. Those being administered these vaccines are recommended to receive boosters as they only afford protection for about 4–12 years; while natural infection offers 7–20 years. Cases in infants are common and often have serious impacts as they are more susceptible to ''Bordetella pertussis'' than adolescents and healthy adults. Therefore, to decrease the likelihood of contracting and spreading this disease, parents are recommended to receive the preventative vaccine.'''' With the resurgence of ''pertussis'' cases, there are concerns regarding the level of protection provided by the current vaccine. This vaccine does not offer protection against other species of ''Bordetella'' such as ''B. holmesii'' and ''B. bronchiseptica'' and further highlights the need for a revamped vaccine''.'' Research is currently developing a novel vaccine such as th
BPZE1
which is a live attenuated vaccine against ''B. pertussis'' and challenges the other pathogens in the 'Classical Bordetellae.'' This new vaccine inactivates the gene encoding 3 major toxins with only a single intranasal dose. It is currently being studied for safety in immunocompromised patients and pregnant women. Other promising vaccines are under study and in trial periods for accuracy, efficacy, and safety.


References


Further reading

*


External links


Type strain of ''Bordetella pertussis'' at Bac''Dive''—the Bacterial Diversity Metadatabase
{{DEFAULTSORT:Bordetella Pertussis Burkholderiales Whooping cough Bacteria described in 1952 Pathogenic bacteria