Book Of James

The Epistle of James is a general epistle and one of the 21 epistles (didactic letters) in the New Testament. It was written originally in Koine Greek. The epistle aims to reach a wide Jewish audience. It survives in manuscripts from the 3rd century onward and is dated between the mid-1st to mid-2nd century AD.

James 1:1 identifies the author as "James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ" who is writing to "the twelve tribes scattered abroad.” Traditionally, the epistle is attributed to James the brother of Jesus (James the Just). This has been widely debated, with some early church figures affirming the connection and modern scholars often viewing the letter as pseudonymous due to its sophisticated Greek, possible dependence on later texts, and the lack of evidence for James’ Greek education. During the last decades, the epistle of James has attracted increasing scholarly interest due to a surge in the quest for the historical James, his role in early Christianity, his beliefs, and his relationships and views. This James revival is also associated with an increasing level of awareness of the Jewish grounding of both the epistle and early Christianity.

The Epistle of James is a public letter modeled on Jewish diaspora epistles and wisdom literature, blending moral exhortation with possible influences from Jesus’ sayings and Greco-Roman philosophical and rhetorical traditions. The historical context of the Epistle of James is debated, with some viewing it as a response to Pauline theology while others see it as rooted in a Jewish-Christian milieu marked by tensions between rich and poor, emerging divisions between Jews and Christians, and ethical concerns for marginalized groups. The Epistle of James emphasizes perseverance in the face of trials and encourages readers to live in accordance with the teachings they have received. The letter addresses a range of moral and ethical concerns, including pride, hypocrisy, favoritism, and slander. It advocates for humility, the pursuit of wisdom aligned with spiritual values rather than worldly ones, and the practice of prayer in all circumstances.

The Epistle of James was disputed and sparsely cited in early Christianity, gained wider recognition only by the late 4th century, and was criticized by Martin Luther during the Reformation for its teachings on faith and works, though it remained part of the New Testament canon. It emphasizes that true faith must be demonstrated through works, teaching that faith without works is dead, and highlighting care for the poor, ethical living, and communal practices like anointing the sick.

Authorship

The author is identified as "James, a servant of God and of the Lord Jesus Christ" (James 1:1). James (Jacob, , ) was an extremely common name in antiquity, and a number of early Christian figures are named James, including: James the son of Zebedee, James the Less, James the son of Alphaeus, and James the brother of Jesus (reported to also be the son of Alphaeus). Of these, James the brother of Jesus has the most prominent role in the early church, and is often understood as either the author of the epistle, or the implied author.

The earliest recorded references to the Epistle of James highlight the contentious nature of the epistle's authorship. Origen may be the first person to link the epistle to "James the brother of Lord", though this is only preserved in Rufinus's Latin translation of Origen. Eusebius writes that "James, who is said to be the author of the first of the so-called catholic epistles. But it is to be observed that it is disputed". Jerome reported that the Epistle of James "is claimed by some to have been published by some one else under his name, and gradually, as time went on, to have gained authority".

Traditional authorship

The link between James the brother of Jesus and the epistle continued to strengthen, and is now considered the traditional view on the authorship of the work. The traditional view can be divided into at least three further positions that relate also to the date of the epistle:

# The historical James wrote the letter prior to the Galatians controversy (Galatians 2:11–14), and prior to the Jerusalem council (Acts 15);
# The historical James wrote the letter in response to Paulinism of some sort;
# The historical James wrote his letter after the events recorded in Galatians and Acts, but is not in dialogue with Paul or Paulinism.

Many who affirm traditional authorship think James had a sufficient proficiency in Greek education to write the letter himself. Some argue that James the brother of Jesus made use of an amanuensis, which explains the quality of Greek in the letter. Dan McCartney notes this position has garnered little support. Others have advocated for a two-stage composition theory, in which many sayings in the epistle originate with James the brother of Jesus. They were collected by James' disciples and redacted into the current form of the letter.

John Calvin and others suggested that the author was the James, son of Alphaeus, who is referred to as James the Less (often identified as James the "brother" of Jesus). Martin Luther denied it was the work of an apostle and termed it an "epistle of straw", placing it in a second tier of canonical New Testament books.

The Holy Tradition of the Eastern Orthodox Church teaches that the Book of James was "written not by either of the apostles, but by the 'brother of the Lord' who was the first bishop of the Church in Jerusalem.""Letters of Saint James."
''Orthodox Church in America'', OCA, (n.d.). Accessed 11 Dec. 2018.

Pseudonymous authorship

A prevalent view within scholarship considers the Epistle of James to be pseudonymous. The real author chose to write under the name James, intending that the audience perceive James the brother of Jesus as the author. Scholars who maintain pseudonymous authorship differ on whether this was a deceitful or pious practice.

The following arguments are often cited in support of pseudepigraphy:

# The Greek in the Epistle of James is rather accomplished, leading many scholars to believe that it could not have been written by Jesus' brother. While it has been noted that James's hometown of Galilee was sufficiently Hellenised by the first century CE to produce figures such as the rhetorician Theodorus and the poet Meleager, there is no evidence (outside the Epistle of James) to suggest that James attained a Greek education.
# The Epistle of James appears to borrow from 1 Peter, and if this is the case, James must be dated after 1 Peter (often dated between 70 and 100 CE).
# If the Epistle envisages a conflict with later Paulinism, this would likewise presuppose a time after the death of James.

Dating and surviving manuscripts

The original manuscript of the Epistle of James is lost. The earliest extant manuscripts of James date to the mid-to-late 3rd century.

According to Josephus, James the brother of Jesus was killed in 62 CE, during the high priesthood of Ananus, although Clement of Alexandria and Hegesippus provide a different account of James' death, c. 69 CE.

Those who maintain that the epistle is pseudonymous generally date the epistle later, from the late first to mid-second century. This is based on a number of considerations, including the epistle's potential dependence on 1 Peter, potential response to Paul's writings or Paul's later followers, late attestation in the historical record, and the 3rd and 4th century disputes concerning the epistle's authorship.

The historiographic debate currently seems to be leaning to the side of those in favor of early dating, although not through irrefutable evidence but through indications and probabilities.

Some of the oldest surviving manuscripts that contain some or all of this letter include:

* Papyrus 20 (early 3rd century)
* Papyrus 23 (c. 250 CE)
* Papyrus 100 (late 3rd century)
*Codex Vaticanus (325–350)
*Codex Sinaiticus (330–360)
*Codex Alexandrinus (400–440)
*Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus ()
* Papyrus 54 (5th century)
* Papyrus 74 (7th century)

An ancient manuscript containing this chapter in the Coptic language is Papyrus 6 (c. 350 CE). In Latin, the epistle is preserved in the León palimpsest (7th century).Bruce M. Metzger, ''The Early Versions of the New Testament'', Oxford University Press, 1977, p. 316.

Genre

The Epistle of James is a public letter (epistle), and includes an epistolary prescript that identifies the sender ("James") and the recipients ("to the twelve tribes in the diaspora") and provides a greeting (James 1:1). The epistle resembles the form of a Diaspora letter, written to encourage Jewish-Christian communities living outside of Israel amid the hardships of diaspora life. James stands in the tradition of the Jewish genre of "Letters to the Diaspora", including the letters of the members of the family of Gamaliel, the one preserved in 2 Maccabees 1:1–9, or some copied by Josephus, all of which are characterised by a double opening and an abrupt ending.

Many consider James to have affinities to Jewish wisdom literature: "like Proverbs and Sirach, it consists largely of moral exhortations and precepts of a traditional and eclectic nature." The epistle also has affinities with many of the sayings of Jesus which are found in the gospels of Luke and Matthew (i.e., those attributed to the hypothetical Q source, in the two-source hypothesis). Some scholars have argued that the author of James is familiar with a version of Q rather than Luke or Matthew.

Other scholars have noted the epistle's affinities with Greco-Roman philosophical literature. The author's use and transformation of Q materials resembles the Hellenistic practice of , in which the author must "rival and vie [] with the original in the expression of the same thoughts". Other studies have analysed sections of James in light of Greco-Roman rhetorical conventions.

Structure

Some view the epistle as having no overarching outline: "James may have simply grouped together small 'thematic essays' without having more linear, Greco-Roman structures in mind." That view is generally supported by those who believe that the epistle may not be a true piece of correspondence between specific parties but an example of wisdom literature, formulated as a letter for circulation. The ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' says, "the subjects treated of in the Epistle are many and various; moreover, St. James not infrequently, whilst elucidating a certain point, passes abruptly to another, and presently resumes once more his former argument."

Others view the letter as having only broad topical or thematic structure. They generally organize James under three (in the views of Ralph Martin) to seven (in the views of Luke Johnson) general key themes or segments.

A third group believes that James was more purposeful in structuring his letter, linking each paragraph theologically and thematically:

The third view of the structuring of James is a historical approach that is supported by scholars who are not content with leaving the book as "New Testament wisdom literature, like a small book of proverbs" or "like a loose collection of random pearls dropped in no particular order onto a piece of string."

A fourth group uses modern discourse analysis or Greco-Roman rhetorical structures to describe the structure of James.

The United Bible Societies' ''Greek New Testament'' divides the letter into the following sections:

Historical context

The exact historical circumstances that occasioned the epistle are unknown. Those who understand James 2 as a polemic against Paul or Paul's followers suggest an occasion for the letter aimed at opposing Pauline justification. Others have argued that James' discussion on faith and works does not have Pauline categories in view.

Some scholars have suggested that the epistle was written to both Christian and non-Christian Jews, who continued to worship together before the parting of the ways between Christianity and Judaism. The warning against cursing people (James 3:9–10) has been read in light of this historical reconstruction, and Dale Allison has argued that "James reflects an environment in which some Jews, unhappy with Jewish Christians, were beginning to use the or something very much like it" to curse Christians.

Poverty and wealth are key concerns throughout the epistle, and these issues are likely to reflect the epistle's historical context. The author shows concern for vulnerable and marginalised groups, such as "orphans and widows" (James 1:27), believers who are "poorly clothed and lacking in daily food" (James 2:15), and the oppressed waged-worker (James 5:4). He writes strongly against the rich (James 1:10; 5:1–6) and those who show partiality towards them (James 2:1–7).

Doctrine

Justification

The epistle contains the following famous passage concerning salvation and justification:

This passage has been contrasted with the teachings of Paul the Apostle on justification. Some scholars even believe that the passage is a response to Paul. One issue in the debate is the meaning of the Greek word (''dikaiόō''), 'render righteous or such as he ought to be'), with some among the participants taking the view that James is responding to a misunderstanding of Paul.Martin, D. 2009
New Testament History & Literature: 18. Arguing with Paul
Yale University.

Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy have historically argued that the passage disproves simplistic versions of the doctrine of justification by faith alone ().

The early Protestants resolved the apparent conflict between James and Paul regarding faith and works in alternate ways from the Catholics and Orthodox. One modern American Protestant explanation pre-supposes that James taught :

According to Ben Witherington III, differences exist between the Apostle Paul and James, but both used the law of Moses, the teachings of Jesus and other Jewish and non-Jewish sources, and "Paul was not anti-law any more than James was a legalist".Shanks, Hershel and Witherington III, Ben. (2004). ''The Brother of Jesus: The Dramatic Story & Meaning of the First Archaeological Link to Jesus & His Family''.
HarperSanFrancisco, CA. Retrieved September 18, 2019. . A more recent article suggests that the current confusion regarding the Epistle of James about faith and works resulted from Augustine of Hippo's anti-Donatist polemic in the early fifth century. This approach reconciles the views of Paul and James on faith and works.

Anointing of the sick

The epistle is also the chief biblical text for the anointing of the sick. James wrote:

G. A. Wells suggested that the passage was evidence of late authorship of the epistle, on the grounds that the healing of the sick being done through an official body of presbyters ( elders) indicated a considerable development of ecclesiastical organisation "whereas in Paul's day to heal and work miracles pertained to believers indiscriminately (I Corinthians, XII:9)."

Works, deeds and care for the poor

James and the M Source material in Matthew are unique in the canon in their stand against the rejection of works and deeds. According to Sanders, traditional Christian theology wrongly divested the term "works" of its ethical grounding, part of the effort to characterize Judaism as legalistic. However, for James and for all Jews, faith is alive only through Torah observance. In other words, belief demonstrates itself through practice and manifestation. For James, claims about belief are empty, unless they are alive in action, works and deeds.

The epistle emphasizes the importance of acts of charity or works to go along with having the Christian faith by means the following three verses in chapter 2:

Torah observance

James is unique in the canon by its explicit and wholehearted support of Torah observance ( the Law). According to Bibliowicz, not only is this text a unique view into the milieu of the Jewish founders – its inclusion in the canon signals that as canonization began (fourth century onward) Torah observance among believers in Jesus was still authoritative. According to modern scholarship James, Q, Matthew, the Didache, and the pseudo-Clementine literature reflect a similar ethos, ethical perspective, and stand on, or assume, Torah observance. James call to Torah observance (James 1:22-27) ensures salvation (James 2:12–13, 14–26). Hartin is supportive of the focus on Torah observance and concludes that these texts support faith through action and sees them as reflecting the milieu of the Jewish followers of Jesus. Hub van de Sandt sees Matthew's and James' Torah observance reflected in a similar use of the Jewish Two Ways theme which is detectable in the Didache too (Didache 3:1–6). McKnight thinks that Torah observance is at the heart of James's ethics. A strong message against those advocating the rejection of Torah observance characterizes, and emanates from, this tradition: "Some have attempted while I am still alive, to transform my words by certain various interpretations, in order to teach the dissolution of the law; as though I myself were of such a mind, but did not freely proclaim it, which God forbid! For such a thing were to act in opposition to the law of God which was spoken by Moses, and was borne witness to by our Lord in respect of its eternal continuance; for thus he spoke: 'The heavens and the earth shall pass away, but one jot or one tittle shall in no wise pass away from the law.

James seem to propose a more radical and demanding interpretation of the law than mainstream Judaism. According to Painter, there is nothing in James to suggest any relaxation of the demands of the law. "No doubt James takes for granted his readers' observance of the whole law, while focusing his attention on its moral demands."

Latter Day Saint history

James 1:5 has particular importance in the Latter Day Saint tradition. Joseph Smith claims that the reading and contemplation of this verse inspired him to ask God for wisdom, leading to his First Vision, and thus what his followers consider to be the Restoration—the creation of the LDS church.

Canonicity

The first explicit references to the Epistle of James are found in the writings of Origen of Alexandria (e.g. ''Comm. on John.,'' 19.23) in the third century. Scholars have generally rejected the possible second-century allusions to James in the Apostolic Fathers and Irenaeus of Lyons' ''Against Heresies''. Neither is James mentioned by Tertullian (c. 155–220 CE) or Cyprian (c. 210–258 CE), and its authenticity of the epistle doubted by Theodore of Mopsuestia (c. 350–428 CE). In '' Historia ecclesiae'' 2.23.25, Eusebius classes James among the Antilegomena or disputed works, stating, "it is to be observed that it is disputed; at least, not many of the ancients have mentioned it, as is the case likewise with the epistle that bears the name of Jude, which is also one of the seven so-called catholic epistles. Nevertheless we know that these also, with the rest, have been read publicly in very many churches."

Its late recognition in the Church, especially in the West, was a consequence primarily of its sparse attestation by earlier Christian authors and its disputed authorship. Jerome reported that the Epistle of James "is claimed by some to have been published by some one else under his name, and gradually, as time went on, to have gained authority" ('' De viris illustribus'' 2).

The Epistle of James is missing from the Muratorian fragment (poss. 2nd to 4th century), the Cheltenham list (c. 360 CE), but was listed with the twenty-seven New Testament books by Athanasius of Alexandria in his ''Thirty-Ninth Festal Epistle'' (367 CE), and subsequently affirmed by the Councils of Laodicea (c. 363 CE), of Rome (382 CE) and of Carthage (397 and 419).

During the Reformation era, Martin Luther took issue with the epistle on theological grounds, finding James' description of faith and works incompatible with his understanding of justification. Reportedly, he once went as far as to assert "I almost feel like throwing Jimmy into the stove", a metaphor for his being tempted to remove the Epistle of James from the Bible. Luther nonetheless chose to include James in his German translation, though he moved it (along with Hebrews, Jude, and Revelation) to the end of the Bible.

See also

* Abrogation of Old Covenant laws
* Gospel of James
* Jacob (name)
* Pauline Christianity
* Textual variants in the Epistle of James

Notes

References

Bibliography

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External links

Multiple bible versions at ''Bible Gateway''
(NKJV, NIV, NRSV etc.)
English Translation with Parallel Latin Vulgate

''Online Bible'' at GospelHall.org
(ESV, KJV, Darby, American Standard Version, Bible in Basic English)
* Various versions

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Antilegomena
James
James, brother of Jesus
James