
A boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE, ) is an
explosion
An explosion is a rapid expansion in volume of a given amount of matter associated with an extreme outward release of energy, usually with the generation of high temperatures and release of high-pressure gases. Explosions may also be generated ...
caused by the rupture of a
vessel containing a
pressurized liquid that has attained a
temperature
Temperature is a physical quantity that quantitatively expresses the attribute of hotness or coldness. Temperature is measurement, measured with a thermometer. It reflects the average kinetic energy of the vibrating and colliding atoms making ...
sufficiently higher than its
boiling point
The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into a vapor.
The boiling point of a liquid varies depending upon the surrounding envi ...
at atmospheric pressure.
Because the boiling point of a liquid rises with pressure, the contents of the pressurized vessel can remain a liquid as long as the vessel is intact. If the vessel's integrity is compromised, the loss of pressure drops the boiling point, which can cause a portion of the liquid to
boil and form a cloud of rapidly expanding vapor. BLEVEs are manifestations of
explosive boiling.
If the vapor is
flammable
A combustible material is a material that can burn (i.e., sustain a flame) in air under certain conditions. A material is flammable if it ignites easily at ambient temperatures. In other words, a combustible material ignites with some effort ...
(as is the case with compounds such as
hydrocarbon
In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting entirely of hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons are examples of group 14 hydrides. Hydrocarbons are generally colourless and Hydrophobe, hydrophobic; their odor is usually fain ...
s and
alcohol
Alcohol may refer to:
Common uses
* Alcohol (chemistry), a class of compounds
* Ethanol, one of several alcohols, commonly known as alcohol in everyday life
** Alcohol (drug), intoxicant found in alcoholic beverages
** Alcoholic beverage, an alco ...
s) and comes in contact with an ignition source, further damage can be caused by the ensuing explosion and fireball. However, BLEVEs do not necessarily involve fire.
Name
On 24 April 1957, a process reactor at a
Factory Mutual (FM) facility underwent a powerful explosion as a consequence of a rapid depressurization. It contained
formalin mixed with
phenol
Phenol (also known as carbolic acid, phenolic acid, or benzenol) is an aromatic organic compound with the molecular formula . It is a white crystalline solid that is volatile and can catch fire.
The molecule consists of a phenyl group () ...
. The burst damaged the plant. However, no fire developed, as the mixture was not flammable. In the wake of the accident, researchers James B. Smith, William S. Marsh, and Wilbur L. Walls, who were employed with FM, came up with the terms "boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion" and its acronym "BLEVE".
The expressions did not become of common use until the early 1970s, when the
National Fire Protection Association
The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) is a U.S.-based international nonprofit organization devoted to eliminating death, injury, property damage, and economic loss due to fire, electrical, and related hazards. , the NFPA claims to have 5 ...
's (NFPA) ''Fire Command'' and ''Fire Journal'' magazines started publishing articles using them.
Mechanism
There are three key elements in the formation of a BLEVE:
# A material in liquid form at a temperature sufficiently above its normal atmospheric pressure
boiling point
The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals the pressure surrounding the liquid and the liquid changes into a vapor.
The boiling point of a liquid varies depending upon the surrounding envi ...
.
# A containment vessel maintaining the pressure that keeps the substance in liquid form.
# A sudden loss of containment that rapidly drops the pressure.
Typically, a BLEVE starts with a vessel containing liquid held above its atmospheric-pressure boiling temperature. Many substances normally stored as liquids, such as
carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . It is made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalent bond, covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in a gas state at room temperature and at norma ...
,
propane
Propane () is a three-carbon chain alkane with the molecular formula . It is a gas at standard temperature and pressure, but becomes liquid when compressed for transportation and storage. A by-product of natural gas processing and petroleum ref ...
, and other
industrial gas
Industrial gases are the gaseous materials that are Manufacturing, manufactured for use in Industrial sector, industry. The principal gases provided are nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, argon, hydrogen, helium and acetylene, although many other ...
es have boiling temperatures below room temperature when at atmospheric pressure. In the case of
water
Water is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula . It is a transparent, tasteless, odorless, and Color of water, nearly colorless chemical substance. It is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known liv ...
, a BLEVE could occur if a
pressure vessel
A pressure vessel is a container designed to hold gases or liquids at a pressure substantially different from the ambient pressure.
Construction methods and materials may be chosen to suit the pressure application, and will depend on the size o ...
is heated beyond . That container, because the boiling water pressurizes it, must be capable of holding liquid water at very high temperatures.

If the pressurized vessel ruptures, the pressure which prevents the liquid from boiling is lost. If the rupture is catastrophic, i.e., the vessel becomes suddenly no longer capable of holding any pressure, then the liquid will find itself at a temperature far above its boiling point. This causes a portion of the liquid to
instantaneously vaporize with extremely rapid expansion. Depending on temperatures, pressures and the material involved, the expansion may be so rapid that it can be classified as an
explosion
An explosion is a rapid expansion in volume of a given amount of matter associated with an extreme outward release of energy, usually with the generation of high temperatures and release of high-pressure gases. Explosions may also be generated ...
, fully capable of inflicting severe damage on its surroundings.
For example, a tank of pressurized liquid water held at might be pressurized to above atmospheric (or gauge) pressure. If the tank containing the water were to rupture, there would for a brief moment exist a volume of liquid water which would be at:
* Atmospheric pressure
* Temperature of .
At atmospheric pressure the boiling point of water is . Liquid water at atmospheric pressure does not exist at temperatures higher than . At that moment, the water would boil and turn to vapor explosively, and the liquid water turned to gas would take up significantly more volume (≈ 1,600-fold) than it did as liquid, causing a vapor explosion. Such explosions can happen when the superheated water of a
boiler
A boiler is a closed vessel in which fluid (generally water) is heated. The fluid does not necessarily boil. The heated or vaporized fluid exits the boiler for use in various processes or heating applications, including water heating, centra ...
escapes through a crack in a boiler, causing a
boiler explosion.
The vaporization of liquid resulting in a BLEVE typically occurs within 1 millisecond after a catastrophic loss of containment.
Superheat limit theory

For a BLEVE to occur, the boiling liquid must be sufficiently
superheated upon loss of containment. For example, at a pressure of approximately , water boils at . Superheated water released from a closed container at these conditions will not generate a BLEVE, as homogeneous
nucleation
In thermodynamics, nucleation is the first step in the formation of either a new Phase (matter), thermodynamic phase or Crystal structure, structure via self-assembly or self-organization within a substance or mixture. Nucleation is typically def ...
of vapor bubbles is not possible.
There is no consensus about the minimal temperature above which a BLEVE will occur. A formula proposed by
Robert Reid to predict it is:
where ''T''
C is the
critical temperature
Critical or Critically may refer to:
*Critical, or critical but stable, medical states
**Critical, or intensive care medicine
*Critical juncture, a discontinuous change studied in the social sciences.
*Critical Software, a company specializing in ...
of the fluid (expressed in
kelvin
The kelvin (symbol: K) is the base unit for temperature in the International System of Units (SI). The Kelvin scale is an absolute temperature scale that starts at the lowest possible temperature (absolute zero), taken to be 0 K. By de ...
). The minimum BLEVE temperatures of some fluids, based on this formula, are as follows:
According to Reid, BLEVE will occur, more in general, if the expansion crosses a "superheat-limit locus". In Reid's model, this curve is essentially the fluid's
spinodal curve as represented in a pressure–temperature diagram, and the BLEVE onset is a manifestation of
explosive boiling, where the spinodal is crossed "from above", i.e., via sudden depressurization. However, direct correspondence between the superheat limit and the spinodal has not been proven experimentally. In practical BLEVEs, the way the pressure vessel fails may influence decisively the way the expansion takes place, for example causing pressure waves and non-uniformities. Additionally, there may be stratification in the liquid, due to local temperature variations. Because of this, it is possible for BLEVEs to occur at temperatures less than those predicted with Reid's formula.
Physical BLEVEs
The term BLEVE is often associated to explosive fires from pressure vessels containing a
flammable
A combustible material is a material that can burn (i.e., sustain a flame) in air under certain conditions. A material is flammable if it ignites easily at ambient temperatures. In other words, a combustible material ignites with some effort ...
liquid. However, a BLEVE can occur even with a non-flammable substance such as water,
liquid nitrogen
Liquid nitrogen (LN2) is nitrogen in a liquid state at cryogenics, low temperature. Liquid nitrogen has a boiling point of about . It is produced industrially by fractional distillation of liquid air. It is a colorless, mobile liquid whose vis ...
,
liquid helium or other
refrigerant
A refrigerant is a working fluid used in the cooling, heating, or reverse cooling/heating cycles of air conditioning systems and heat pumps, where they undergo a repeated phase transition from a liquid to a gas and back again. Refrigerants are ...
s or
cryogenics. Such materials can go through purely physical BLEVEs, not entailing flames or other chemical reactions. In the case of unignited BLEVEs of liquefied gases, rapid cooling due to the absorption of the
enthalpy of vaporization
In thermodynamics, the enthalpy of vaporization (symbol ), also known as the (latent) heat of vaporization or heat of evaporation, is the amount of energy (enthalpy) that must be added to a liquid substance to transform a quantity of that sub ...
is a hazard that can cause
frostbite.
Asphyxiation
Asphyxia or asphyxiation is a condition of deficient supply of oxygen to the body which arises from abnormal breathing. Asphyxia causes generalized hypoxia, which affects all the tissues and organs, some more rapidly than others. There are ...
from the expanding vapors is also possible, if the vapor cloud is not rapidly dispersed, as can be the case inside a building, or in a trough in the case of heavier-than-air gasses. The vapors can also be
toxic
Toxicity is the degree to which a chemical substance or a particular mixture of substances can damage an organism. Toxicity can refer to the effect on a whole organism, such as an animal, bacterium, or plant, as well as the effect on a subst ...
, in which case harm and possibly death can occur at relatively low concentrations and, therefore, even far from the source.
BLEVE–fireball
If a flammable substance, however, is subject to a BLEVE, it can ignite upon release, either due to friction, mechanical spark or other point sources, or from a pre-existing fire that had engulfed the pressure vessel and caused it to fail in the first place. In such a case, the burning vapors will further expand, adding to the force of the explosion. Furthermore, a very significant amount of the escaped fluid will burn in a matter of seconds in a raising fireball, which will generate extremely high levels of
thermal radiation
Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation emitted by the thermal motion of particles in matter. All matter with a temperature greater than absolute zero emits thermal radiation. The emission of energy arises from a combination of electro ...
. While the blast effects can be devastating, a flammable substance BLEVE typically causes more damage due to the fireball thermal radiation than the
blast overpressure.
Effect of impinging fires
BLEVEs are often caused by an external fire near the storage vessel causing heating of the contents and pressure build-up. While tanks are often designed to withstand great pressure, constant heating can cause the metal to weaken and eventually fail. If the tank is being heated in an area where there is no liquid (such as near its top), it may rupture faster because the boiling liquid does not afford cooling in that area. Pressure vessels are usually equipped with
relief valves that vent off excess pressure, but the tank can still fail if the pressure is not released quickly enough.
A pressure vessel is designed to withstand the set pressure of its relief valves, but only if its mechanical integrity is not weakened as it can be in the case of an impinging fire. In an impinging fire scenario, flammable vapors released in the BLEVE will ignite upon release, forming a fireball. The origin of the impinging fire may be from a release of flammable fluid from the vessel itself, or from an external source, including releases from nearby tanks and equipment. For example, rail
tank car
A tank car (International Union of Railways (UIC): tank wagon) or tanker is a type of railroad car (UIC: railway car) or rolling stock designed to transport liquid and gaseous commodity, commodities. History
Timeline
The following major event ...
s have BLEVEd under the effect of a
jet fire from the open relief valve of another
derailed tank car.
Hazards
The main damaging effects of a BLEVE are three: the
blast wave from the explosion; the
projection of fragments, or missiles, from the pressure vessel; and the
thermal radiation
Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation emitted by the thermal motion of particles in matter. All matter with a temperature greater than absolute zero emits thermal radiation. The emission of energy arises from a combination of electro ...
from the fireball, where one occurs.
Horizontal cylindrical ("bullet") tanks tend to rupture longitudinally. This causes the failed tank and its fragments to get propelled like rockets and travel long distances. At
Feyzin, three of the propelled fragments weighed in excess of 100 tons and were thrown from the source of the explosion. One bullet tank at
San Juanico travelled in the air before landing, possibly the farthest ever for a BLEVE missile. Fragments can impact on other tanks or equipment, which may result in a
domino effect
A domino effect is the cumulative effect produced when one event sets off a series of similar or related events, a form of chain reaction. The term is an analogy to a falling row of dominoes. It typically refers to a linked sequence of events ...
propagation of the accidental sequence.
Fireballs can rise to significant heights above ground. They are spheroidal when developed and rise from the ground in a
mushroom shape.
The diameter of fireballs at San Juanico was estimated at , with a duration of around 20 seconds. Such massive fires can injure people at distances of hundreds of meters (e.g., at Feyzin and at San Juanico).
An additional hazard from BLEVE-fireball events is the formation of secondary fires, by direct exposure to the fireball thermal radiation, as pool fires from fuel that does not get combusted in the fireball, or from the scattering of blazing tank fragments.
Another secondary effect of importance is the dispersion of a toxic gas cloud, if the vapors involved are toxic and do not catch fire upon release.
Chlorine
Chlorine is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Cl and atomic number 17. The second-lightest of the halogens, it appears between fluorine and bromine in the periodic table and its properties are mostly intermediate between ...
,
ammonia
Ammonia is an inorganic chemical compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the chemical formula, formula . A Binary compounds of hydrogen, stable binary hydride and the simplest pnictogen hydride, ammonia is a colourless gas with a distinctive pu ...
and
phosgene
Phosgene is an organic chemical compound with the formula . It is a toxic, colorless gas; in low concentrations, its musty odor resembles that of freshly cut hay or grass. It can be thought of chemically as the double acyl chloride analog of ...
are example of toxic gases that underwent BLEVE in past accidents and produced toxic clouds as a consequence.
Safety measures
* Maintenance of pressure tanks to avoid damage or corrosion
*
Emergency depressurization
*
Pressure relief valves
*
Passive fire protection
Passive fire protection (PFP) is components or systems of a building or structure that slows or impedes the spread of the effects of fire or smoke without system activation, and usually without movement. Examples of passive systems include floor- ...
* Water spray cooling
Notable accidents
Notable BLEVE accidents include:
* 13 December 1926,
Saint-Auban, France – A 25-ton
chlorine
Chlorine is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol Cl and atomic number 17. The second-lightest of the halogens, it appears between fluorine and bromine in the periodic table and its properties are mostly intermediate between ...
BLEVE killed 19 in the first accident recognized as a boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion.
* 24 December 1939,
Zărnești, Romania – A rail
tank car
A tank car (International Union of Railways (UIC): tank wagon) or tanker is a type of railroad car (UIC: railway car) or rolling stock designed to transport liquid and gaseous commodity, commodities. History
Timeline
The following major event ...
containing a
butadiene (80%) and
butene (20%) mixture BLEVEd and caused a fireball. It killed 60 people.
* 29 July 1943,
Ludwigshafen
Ludwigshafen, officially Ludwigshafen am Rhein (; meaning "Ludwig I of Bavaria, Ludwig's Port upon the Rhine"; Palatine German dialects, Palatine German: ''Ludwichshafe''), is a List of cities and towns in Germany, city in the German state of Rh ...
, Germany – A chlorine tank car exploded at a
BASF
BASF SE (), an initialism of its original name , is a European Multinational corporation, multinational company and the List of largest chemical producers, largest chemical producer in the world. Its headquarters are located in Ludwigshafen, Ge ...
plant, killing 57.
* 28 July 1948, Ludwigshafen, Germany – Another tank car in the same plant, this time containing
diethyl ether
Diethyl ether, or simply ether, is an organic compound with the chemical formula , sometimes abbreviated as . It is a colourless, highly Volatility (chemistry), volatile, sweet-smelling ("ethereal odour"), extremely flammable liquid. It belongs ...
, exploded killing 209.
* 7 July 1951,
Newark, New Jersey, U.S. – Seventy tanks of liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), for a total of 2600 tons, exploded at
Port Newark. There were no fatalities.
* 8 January 1957,
Montreal
Montreal is the List of towns in Quebec, largest city in the Provinces and territories of Canada, province of Quebec, the List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population, second-largest in Canada, and the List of North American cit ...
, Quebec, Canada – At a
Shell
Shell may refer to:
Architecture and design
* Shell (structure), a thin structure
** Concrete shell, a thin shell of concrete, usually with no interior columns or exterior buttresses
Science Biology
* Seashell, a hard outer layer of a marine ani ...
refinery, 5100 tons of LPG stored in several tanks exploded, causing one fatality.
* 28 March 1960,
Glasgow
Glasgow is the Cities of Scotland, most populous city in Scotland, located on the banks of the River Clyde in Strathclyde, west central Scotland. It is the List of cities in the United Kingdom, third-most-populous city in the United Kingdom ...
, Scotland, United Kingdom – The
Cheapside Street whisky bond fire: A warehouse storing 3900 tons of
whisky
Whisky or whiskey is a type of liquor made from Fermentation in food processing, fermented grain mashing, mash. Various grains (which may be Malting, malted) are used for different varieties, including barley, Maize, corn, rye, and wheat. Whisky ...
experienced a fire in which several casks underwent BLEVEs. There were 19 fatalities.
* 4 January 1966,
Feyzin, France – The
Feyzin disaster: 1000 tons of LPG exploded at an
Elf
An elf (: elves) is a type of humanoid supernatural being in Germanic peoples, Germanic folklore. Elves appear especially in Norse mythology, North Germanic mythology, being mentioned in the Icelandic ''Poetic Edda'' and the ''Prose Edda'' ...
refinery, causing 18 fatalities.
* 30 March 1972,
Rio de Janeiro
Rio de Janeiro, or simply Rio, is the capital of the Rio de Janeiro (state), state of Rio de Janeiro. It is the List of cities in Brazil by population, second-most-populous city in Brazil (after São Paulo) and the Largest cities in the America ...
, Brazil – : 1000 tons of LPG exploded at a refinery, killing 28.
* 5 July 1973,
Kingman, Arizona, U.S. – The
Kingman explosion: An LPG-laden tank car BLEVEd, causing 13 fatalities.
* 8 December 1977,
Cartagena, Colombia – A process reactor burst in an
ammonia
Ammonia is an inorganic chemical compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the chemical formula, formula . A Binary compounds of hydrogen, stable binary hydride and the simplest pnictogen hydride, ammonia is a colourless gas with a distinctive pu ...
BLEVE that killed 30.
* 23 February 1978,
Waverly, Tennessee, U.S. – The
Waverly tank car explosion: An LPG tank car exploded, killing 16.
* 11 July 1978,
Alcanar, Spain – The
Los Alfaques disaster: In the worst ever
tank truck
A tank truck, gas truck, fuel truck, or tanker truck (American English) or tanker (British English) is a motor vehicle designed to carry liquids or gases on roads. The largest such vehicles are similar to railroad tank cars, which are also desi ...
BLEVE and road accident involving hazardous materials, a vehicle laden with 25 tons of
propylene
Propylene, also known as propene, is an unsaturated organic compound with the chemical formula . It has one double bond, and is the second simplest member of the alkene class of hydrocarbons. It is a colorless gas with a faint petroleum-like o ...
suffered a mechanical failure next to a crowded camping site. The BLEVE killed 216 people.
* 30 May 1978,
Texas City, Texas, U.S. – Multiple storage tanks holding 1500 tons of LPG exploded, killing seven people.
* 30 August 1972,
Good Hope, Louisiana, U.S. – A BLEVE developed after a ship collision between MV ''Inca Tupac Yupanqui'' and
butane
Butane () is an alkane with the formula C4H10. Butane exists as two isomers, ''n''-butane with connectivity and iso-butane with the formula . Both isomers are highly flammable, colorless, easily liquefied gases that quickly vaporize at ro ...
-laden barge TB ''Panama City''. There were 12 fatalities.
* 1 August 1981,
Cerritos, San Luis Potosí, Mexico – A rail tank car carrying chlorine exploded, causing 29 fatalities.
* 23 July 1984,
Romeoville, Illinois, U.S. – The
Romeoville petroleum refinery disaster killed 15 people.
* 19 November 1984,
San Juan Ixhuatepec, Mexico – The
San Juanico disaster: In the worst ever BLEVE accident, as well as one of the
deadliest industrial disasters ever occurred, more than 500 people died when a series of BLEVEs hit a
Pemex
Pemex (a portmanteau of Petróleos Mexicanos, which translates to ''Mexican Petroleum'' in English; ) is the Mexico, Mexican State ownership, state-owned Petroleum industry, petroleum corporation managed and operated by the government of Mexico, ...
LPG storage terminal.
* 28 January 1986, above
Merritt Island, Florida, U.S. – The
Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' disaster: The disintegration of the spacecraft was caused by the BLEVE of the
liquid hydrogen
Liquid hydrogen () is the liquid state of the element hydrogen. Hydrogen is found naturally in the molecule, molecular H2 form.
To exist as a liquid, H2 must be cooled below its critical point (thermodynamics), critical point of 33 Kelvins, ...
and
oxygen
Oxygen is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol O and atomic number 8. It is a member of the chalcogen group (periodic table), group in the periodic table, a highly reactivity (chemistry), reactive nonmetal (chemistry), non ...
external tank compartments.
* 23 December 1988,
Memphis, Tennessee, U.S. – The
Memphis LPG tank truck disaster killed nine people.
* 19 April 1993,
Waco, Texas, U.S. – A contributor to the aftermath of the
Waco siege
The Waco siege, also known as the Waco massacre, was the siege by US federal government and Texas state law enforcement officials of a compound belonging to the religious cult known as the Branch Davidians, between February 28 and April 19, 1993 ...
was the BLEVE of an LPG cylinder caused by the intervention of the
FBI
The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) is the domestic Intelligence agency, intelligence and Security agency, security service of the United States and Federal law enforcement in the United States, its principal federal law enforcement ag ...
.
* 4 March 1994,
Weyauwega, Wisconsin, U.S. – The
Weyauwega derailment, no fatalities.
* 22 June 2002,
Tivissa, Spain – In the first ever reported
liquefied natural gas
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is natural gas (predominantly methane, CH4, with some mixture of ethane, C2H6) that has been cooled to liquid form for ease and safety of non-pressurized storage or transport. It takes up about 1/600th the volume o ...
(LNG) BLEVE, a tank truck exploded. Only the driver perished.
* 10 August 2008,
Toronto
Toronto ( , locally pronounced or ) is the List of the largest municipalities in Canada by population, most populous city in Canada. It is the capital city of the Provinces and territories of Canada, Canadian province of Ontario. With a p ...
, Ontario, Canada – The
Toronto propane explosion at the Sunrise Propane Industrial Gases killed two people.
* 27 August 2012,
Chala, India – The
Chala LPG tank truck disaster: An LPG tank truck road accident in the state of
Kerala
Kerala ( , ) is a States and union territories of India, state on the Malabar Coast of India. It was formed on 1 November 1956, following the passage of the States Reorganisation Act, by combining Malayalam-speaking regions of the erstwhile ...
caused 20 fatalities among the bystanders.
* 13 June 2013,
Geismar, Louisiana, U.S. – The
Williams Olefins explosion killed two plant operators when a propane heat exchanger burst open.
* 21 July 2014,
Lice, Turkey – An LPG tank truck explosion caused the death of 34 people.
* 6 August 2018,
Bologna
Bologna ( , , ; ; ) is the capital and largest city of the Emilia-Romagna region in northern Italy. It is the List of cities in Italy, seventh most populous city in Italy, with about 400,000 inhabitants and 150 different nationalities. Its M ...
, Italy – Two people perished in the
Borgo Panigale explosion, an LPG tank truck blast caused by a road accident.
* 21 June 2019,
Philadelphia
Philadelphia ( ), colloquially referred to as Philly, is the List of municipalities in Pennsylvania, most populous city in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania and the List of United States cities by population, sixth-most populous city in the Unit ...
, Pennsylvania, U.S. – The
2019 Philadelphia refinery explosion: Following a fire, a process vessel containing a
butene,
isobutane and
''n''-butane suffered a massive BLEVE.
* 24 December 2022,
Boksburg, South Africa – The
Boksburg explosion, an LPG tank truck BLEVE that killed 41.
See also
*
Boiler explosion
*
Steam explosion
A steam explosion is an explosion caused by violent boiling or flashing of water or ice into steam, occurring when water or ice is either superheated, rapidly heated by fine hot debris produced within it, or heated by the interaction of molten ...
*
Deflagration
Deflagration (Lat: ''de + flagrare'', 'to burn down') is subsonic combustion in which a pre-mixed flame propagates through an explosive or a mixture of fuel and oxidizer. Deflagrations in high and low explosives or fuel–oxidizer mixtures ma ...
*
Explosive boiling
*
Rapid phase transition
References
Sources
*
*
Further reading
External links
Exploding Propane Tanks– Description of circumstances required to cause a propane tank BLEVE.
* – Controlled BLEVE demo
* – Video of propane and isobutane BLEVEs from a train derailment at
Murdock, Illinois (3 September 1983)
* – BLEVEs of dozens of LPG canisters after a road accident in Moscow
* – BLEVE from the
Toronto propane depot fire
Training video for emergency response personnel (archived)by
Transport Canada
Transport Canada () is the Ministry (government department), department within the Government of Canada responsible for developing regulations, Policy, policies and Public services, services of road, rail, marine and air Transport in Canada, tra ...
.
{{Fire protection
Explosions
Fire
Types of fire
Process safety