Istanbul asv2020-02 img05 Crowne Plaza Old City

The architecture of Turkey includes heritage from the ancient era of Anatolia to the present day. Significant remains from the Greco-Roman period are located throughout the country. The

Byzantine period The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived History of the Roman Empire, the events that caused the ...

produced, among other monuments, the celebrated

Hagia Sophia Hagia Sophia (; ; ; ; ), officially the Hagia Sophia Grand Mosque (; ), is a mosque and former Church (building), church serving as a major cultural and historical site in Istanbul, Turkey. The last of three church buildings to be successively ...

Constantinople Constantinople (#Names of Constantinople, see other names) was a historical city located on the Bosporus that served as the capital of the Roman Empire, Roman, Byzantine Empire, Byzantine, Latin Empire, Latin, and Ottoman Empire, Ottoman empire ...

(present-day

Istanbul Istanbul is the List of largest cities and towns in Turkey, largest city in Turkey, constituting the country's economic, cultural, and historical heart. With Demographics of Istanbul, a population over , it is home to 18% of the Demographics ...

). Following the arrival of the

Seljuk Turks The Seljuk dynasty, or Seljukids ( ; , ''Saljuqian'',) alternatively spelled as Saljuqids or Seljuk Turks, was an Oghuz Turks, Oghuz Turkic, Sunni Muslim dynasty that gradually became Persianate society, Persianate and contributed to Turco-Persi ...

in the 11th century, Seljuk architecture mixed

Islamic architecture Islamic architecture comprises the architectural styles of buildings associated with Islam. It encompasses both Secularity, secular and religious styles from the early history of Islam to the present day. The Muslim world, Islamic world encompasse ...

with other styles of local architecture in

Anatolia Anatolia (), also known as Asia Minor, is a peninsula in West Asia that makes up the majority of the land area of Turkey. It is the westernmost protrusion of Asia and is geographically bounded by the Mediterranean Sea to the south, the Aegean ...

. The

Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...

ushered in a centuries-long tradition of

Ottoman architecture Ottoman architecture is an architectural style or tradition that developed under the Ottoman Empire over a long period, undergoing some significant changes during its history. It first emerged in northwestern Anatolia in the late 13th century an ...

up until the early 20th century. In the first years of the Turkish republic (after 1923), Turkish architecture was influenced by earlier Seljuk and Ottoman architecture, in particular during the First National Architectural Movement (also called the Turkish Neoclassical architecture movement). However, starting from the 1930s, architectural styles began to differ from traditional architecture, also as a result of an increasing number of foreign architects being invited to work in the country, mostly from

Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...

and

Austria Austria, formally the Republic of Austria, is a landlocked country in Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine Federal states of Austria, states, of which the capital Vienna is the List of largest cities in Aust ...

. The Second World War was a period of isolation, during which the Second National Architectural Movement emerged. Similar to

Fascist architecture Fascist architecture encompasses various stylistic trends in architecture developed by architects of fascist states, primarily in the early 20th century. Fascist architectural styles gained popularity in the late 1920s with the ri ...

, the movement aimed to create a modern but nationalistic architecture. From the 1950s the nation became more internationally connected, which enabled Turkish architects to experiment with new styles and become increasingly inspired by their counterparts in the rest of the world. However, they were largely constrained by the lack of technological infrastructure or insufficient financial resources until the 1980s. Thereafter, the liberalization of the economy and the shift towards export-led growth paved the way for the private sector to become the leading influence on architecture in Turkey.

Pre-modern era

Greco-Roman era

The ancient Greeks founded many city-states along the Aegean shores in western Anatolia and beyond. During the Hellenistic period, the Kingdom of Pergamon was one of the most powerful and the site of the city of

Pergamon Pergamon or Pergamum ( or ; ), also referred to by its modern Greek form Pergamos (), was a rich and powerful ancient Greece, ancient Greek city in Aeolis. It is located from the modern coastline of the Aegean Sea on a promontory on the north s ...

is one of Turkey's UNESCO World Heritage Sites today. Anatolia continued to prosper in the Roman era and cities such as

Ephesus Ephesus (; ; ; may ultimately derive from ) was an Ancient Greece, ancient Greek city on the coast of Ionia, in present-day Selçuk in İzmir Province, Turkey. It was built in the 10th century BC on the site of Apasa, the former Arzawan capital ...

and

Sardis Sardis ( ) or Sardes ( ; Lydian language, Lydian: , romanized: ; ; ) was an ancient city best known as the capital of the Lydian Empire. After the fall of the Lydian Empire, it became the capital of the Achaemenid Empire, Persian Lydia (satrapy) ...

, in addition to Pergamon, grew considerably during this time. Many of the Greco-Roman sites in the Aegean and

Mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea ( ) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the east by the Levant in West Asia, on the north by Anatolia in West Asia and Southern ...

regions of present-day Turkey thus preserve substantially, if not primarily, Roman constructions.

Byzantine era

The Byzantine era followed the division of the old

Roman Empire The Roman Empire ruled the Mediterranean and much of Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. The Roman people, Romans conquered most of this during the Roman Republic, Republic, and it was ruled by emperors following Octavian's assumption of ...

into eastern and western halves in the late 4th century. The Eastern Roman Empire, also known as the

Byzantine Empire The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived History of the Roman Empire, the events that caused the ...

, had its capital at

, present-day

Byzantine architecture Byzantine architecture is the architecture of the Byzantine Empire, or Eastern Roman Empire, usually dated from 330 AD, when Constantine the Great established a new Roman capital in Byzantium, which became Constantinople, until the Fall of Cons ...

started as a continuation of late Roman architecture but it further developed over the following millennium. The

, a massive domed church completed in 537 under

Justinian I Justinian I (, ; 48214 November 565), also known as Justinian the Great, was Roman emperor from 527 to 565. His reign was marked by the ambitious but only partly realized ''renovatio imperii'', or "restoration of the Empire". This ambition was ...

, is the greatest achievement of Byzantine architecture. It exercised significant influence on subsequent Byzantine church architecture and eventually on

. The Byzantine style is also known for its sophisticated mosaic art. A major example of this art in the late Byzantine period is the 14th-century

Chora Church The Chora Church or Kariye Mosque () is a Byzantine architecture, Byzantine church, now converted to a mosque (for the second time), in the Edirnekapı, Istanbul, Edirnekapı neighborhood of Fatih district, Istanbul, Turkey. It is famous for ...

(present-day Kariye Mosque) in Istanbul.

Seljuk and Beyliks era

Divrigi_Mosque_north_portal_DSCF2438_edit

Architecture under the Anatolian Seljuks incorporated an eclectic mix of influences, adopting local

Byzantine The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was the continuation of the Roman Empire centred on Constantinople during late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Having survived the events that caused the fall of the Western Roman E ...

Armenian Armenian may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to Armenia, a country in the South Caucasus region of Eurasia * Armenians, the national people of Armenia, or people of Armenian descent ** Armenian diaspora, Armenian communities around the ...

, and Georgian elements and combining them with designs from Islamic Syria, Iran, Iraq, and Central Asia. Their monuments were largely built in dressed stone, with brick used for minarets. Decoration was concentrated around certain elements like entrance portals and took the form of elaborate

stone carving Stone carving is an activity where pieces of rough natural stone are shaped by the controlled removal of stone. Owing to the permanence of the material, stone work has survived which was created during our prehistory or past time. Work carried ...

(e.g. the Ince Minareli Medrese and the Divriği complex), occasional '' ablaq'' stonework (e.g. Alâeddin Mosque in Konya), and large surfaces covered in tilework (e.g. Karatay Medrese). As Anatolia fragmented into Beyliks during the later 13th and 14th centuries, architecture became even more diverse, particularly in western Anatolia, where proximity to the Byzantine and Mediterranean worlds encouraged further experimentation and syncretism.

Ottoman era (14th to early 20th centuries)

The architecture of the early Ottomans experimented with different building types, including single-domed mosques, multi-domed buildings, and religious buildings with T-shaped floor plans. This eventually evolved into the Classical Ottoman style that was consolidated during the 16th and 17th centuries. This style, drawing strong influence from the Hagia Sophia, produced grand imperial mosques designed around a central dome and a varying number of semi-domes. This period is also associated with the most famous Ottoman architect,

Mimar Sinan Mimar Sinan (; , ; – 17 July 1588) also known as Koca Mi'mâr Sinân Âğâ, ("Sinan Agha (title), Agha the Grand Architect" or "Grand Sinan") was the chief Ottoman Empire, Ottoman architect, engineer and mathematician for sultans Suleiman ...

(d. 1588). Among his over 300 designs across the empire, his most important works include the Şehzade Mosque in Istanbul, the

Süleymaniye Mosque The Süleymaniye Mosque (, ) is an Ottoman imperial mosque located on the Seven hills of Istanbul, Third Hill of Istanbul, Turkey. The mosque was commissioned by Suleiman the Magnificent () and designed by the imperial architect Mimar Sinan. An ...

in Istanbul, and the Selimiye Mosque in Edirne. In decorative arts, Iznik tiles reached their artistic peak and were used in many buildings. After the 17th century, Ottoman architecture was increasingly open to outside influences. Shifts during the Tulip Period were followed by the appearance of the Ottoman Baroque style in the 1740s. In the 19th century, Western European influences increased and architects such as the Balyans produced eclectic works like the luxurious Dolmabaçe Palace. In the early 20th-century, a kind of Ottoman revivalism known as the First National Architectural Movement was led by architects like Mimar Kemaleddin and Vedat Tek.

1920s to early 1930s: First national architectural movement

The ''First National Architecture Movement'' ( Turkish: ''Birinci Ulusal Mimarlık Akımı'') was an architectural movement led by Turkish architects Vedat Tek (1873–1942) and Mimar Kemaleddin

Bey Bey, also spelled as Baig, Bayg, Beigh, Beig, Bek, Baeg, Begh, or Beg, is a Turkic title for a chieftain, and a royal, aristocratic title traditionally applied to people with special lineages to the leaders or rulers of variously sized areas in ...

(1870–1927). Followers of the movement wanted to create a new and "national" architecture, which was based on motifs from Seljuk and Ottoman architecture. The movement was also labelled ''Turkish Neoclassical'' architecture, or the ''National Architectural Renaissance''. Other prominent followers of this movement were

Arif Hikmet Koyunoğlu Arif Hikmet Koyunoğlu (1888 - 1982 in Selanik, Ottoman Empire) was a Turkish people, Turkish architect best known for his work on the State Art and Sculpture Museum in Ankara, Turkey. He died at the age of 94. Image gallery Ankara asv2021-10 i ...

(1888–1982) and Giulio Mongeri (1873–1953). Notable buildings from this era are the Istanbul Main Post Office (1905–1909), Tayyare Apartments (1919–1922), Istanbul 4th Vakıf Han (1911–1926), State Art and Sculpture Museum (1927–1930), Ethnography Museum of Ankara (1925–1928), Bebek Mosque, and Kamer Hatun Mosque. Italian architect Raimondo D'Aronco served as the chief palace architect to the Ottoman Sultan Abdülhamid II in

for 16 years. D'Aronco designed and built a large number of buildings of various types in Istanbul. The stylistic features of his works can be classified in three groups: Revivalism, reinterpretation of the Ottoman forms,

Art Nouveau Art Nouveau ( ; ; ), Jugendstil and Sezessionstil in German, is an international style of art, architecture, and applied art, especially the decorative arts. It was often inspired by natural forms such as the sinuous curves of plants and ...

and Vienna Secession. Art Nouveau was first introduced to Istanbul by D'Aronco, and his designs reveal that he drew freely on Byzantine and Ottoman decorations. D'Aronco also mixed Western and Oriental styles in his work, which was likewise a notable characteristic of the designs of Alexander Vallaury in the same period. File:Istanbul Grand Post Office.jpg, Istanbul Main Post Office in Sirkeci, designed by Vedat Tek (1905–1909). File:FatihBelediyeBinası.jpg, Old Fatih Municipality Building built by Yervant Terziyan File:4th Vakıf Han.jpg, Istanbul 4th Vakıf Han in Eminönü, designed by Mimar Kemaleddin Bey (1911–1926). File:Tayyare Apartments.jpg, Tayyare Apartments in Laleli,

, designed by Mimar Kemaleddin Bey (1919–1922). File:Ziraat Bankası 5.JPG, First Ziraat Bank Headquarters in

Ankara Ankara is the capital city of Turkey and List of national capitals by area, the largest capital by area in the world. Located in the Central Anatolia Region, central part of Anatolia, the city has a population of 5,290,822 in its urban center ( ...

, designed by Giulio Mongeri (1925–1929). File:Ankara asv2021-10 img64 Arts and Sculpture Museum.jpg, State Art and Sculpture Museum in

, designed by

(1927–1930). File:Ethnography Museum of Ankara.jpg, Ethnography Museum of Ankara was designed by architect

(1925-1928). File:Ankara Palas 1.JPG, Ankara Palas Hotel File:TR Denizli asv2020-02 img14 Gazi School.jpg, Denizli Gazi Mustafa Kemal Elementary School (1932)

1930s to 1950s: Modernism and foreign influence

The

Bauhaus The Staatliches Bauhaus (), commonly known as the , was a German art school operational from 1919 to 1933 that combined Decorative arts, crafts and the fine arts.Oxford Dictionary of Art and Artists (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 4th edn., ...

style

Florya Atatürk Marine Mansion Florya Atatürk Marine Mansion () is a historic presidential residence located offshore in the Sea of Marmara in the Florya neighborhood of the Bakırköy district in Istanbul, Turkey. It was built in 1935 by the municipality of Istanbul for Musta ...

(1935) and the

Art Deco Art Deco, short for the French (), is a style of visual arts, architecture, and product design that first Art Deco in Paris, appeared in Paris in the 1910s just before World War I and flourished in the United States and Europe during the 1920 ...

style Ankara Central Station (1937) are among the notable examples of this era. As there were not enough architects in Turkey until the 1950s, various architects were invited by the government from

Switzerland Switzerland, officially the Swiss Confederation, is a landlocked country located in west-central Europe. It is bordered by Italy to the south, France to the west, Germany to the north, and Austria and Liechtenstein to the east. Switzerland ...

and

France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...

, in order to manage the rapid construction of the new capital

. About 40 architects and urban planners designed and oversaw various projects (mostly in Ankara, and to a lesser extent in Istanbul and İzmir) between 1924 and 1942. Among them were Gudrun Baudisch, Rudolf Belling, Paul Bonatz, Ernst Arnold Egli, Martin Elsaesser, Anton Hanak, Franz Hillinger,

Clemens Holzmeister Clemens Holzmeister (27 March 1886 – 12 June 1983) was a prominent Austrian architect and stage designer of the early twentieth century. The Academy of Fine Arts Vienna, Austrian Academy of Fine Arts listed his life's work as containing 673 pro ...

, Henri Prost, Paolo Vietti-Violi, Werner Issel, Hermann Jansen, Theodor Jost, Heinrich Krippel, Carl Christoph Lörcher, Robert Oerley, Bernhard Pfau, Bruno Taut and Josef Thorak. Selected examples of buildings from this era are the

style

(1935) designed by Seyfi Arkan; the

style Ankara railway station (1937) designed by Şekip Akalın; the

Court of Cassation A court of cassation is a high-instance court that exists in some judicial systems. Courts of cassation do not re-examine the facts of a case; they only interpret the relevant law. In this, they are appellate courts of the highest instance. In ...

building (1933–35) designed by

; the Faculty of Languages, History and Geography building (1937) of

Ankara University Ankara University () is a public university, public research university in Ankara, the capital of Turkey. It was the first higher education institution founded in Turkey after the History of the Republic of Turkey, formation of the Turkish republ ...

Grand National Assembly of Turkey The Grand National Assembly of Turkey ( ), usually referred to simply as the GNAT or TBMM, also referred to as , in Turkish, is the Unicameralism, unicameral Turkey, Turkish legislature. It is the sole body given the legislative prerogatives by ...

building (1938–63) designed by

. File:Florya001.jpg, Designed by Seyfi Arkan,

(1935) is a notable

style building in Istanbul. File:Atatürk Boulevard, Exhibition House (Sergi Evi), 1934 (16826593236).jpg, Ankara Opera House, designed by Şevki Balmumcu (1933–34) and renovated by Paul Bonatz (1946–47). File:Ankara Train Station.JPG, Designed by Şekip Akalın, Ankara Central Station (1937) is a notable

design of its era. File:Dil ve Tarih Coğrafya Fakültesi Binası, Ankara.jpg, The Faculty of Languages, History and Geography building (1937) of

was designed by Bruno Taut.

Second national architectural movement

The

Stripped Classicism Stripped Classicism (also referred to as Starved Classicism or Grecian Moderne) Jstor is primarily a 20th-century classicist architectural style stripped of most or all ornamentation, frequently employed by governments while designing officia ...

movement of the late 1930s and early 1940s in Europe and North America sought a modern interpretation of

Neoclassical architecture Neoclassical architecture, sometimes referred to as Classical Revival architecture, is an architectural style produced by the Neoclassicism, Neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century in Italy, France and Germany. It became one of t ...

. The movement had a particularly notable impact on

Italy Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe, Western Europe. It consists of Italian Peninsula, a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea, with the Alps on its northern land b ...

and

Nazi architecture Nazi architecture is the architecture promoted by Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Germany, Nazi regime from 1933 until its fall in 1945, connected with urban planning in Nazi Germany. It is characterized by three forms: a Stripped Classicism, stripp ...

, which aimed to develop the modern versions of the architecture of the Roman (Italy) and Holy Roman (Germany) empires, according to their ideologies. In the same period, there was a trend towards creating a new national architecture in Turkey, which was called the ''Second National Architectural Movement'' ( Turkish: ''İkinci Ulusal Mimarlık Akımı''). The foreign architects employed in Turkey in this period (especially from

and

) played an important role in the introduction of this architectural movement and its style. The pioneers of the movement in Turkey were Sedad Hakkı Eldem, Ekrem Hakkı Ayverdi and Emin Halid Onat. To lead this movement, Professor Sedad Hakkı Eldem held National Architecture seminars at

Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University (, or MSGSÜ) is a public art university in Istanbul, Turkey. The university's campus is located in the Fındıklı, Beyoğlu. The university was established in 1882 under the leadership of Osman Hamdi Bey. Hi ...

, focusing on traditional Turkish house styles. Like their contemporary equivalents in Europe and North America, the government buildings of this style in Ankara and Istanbul typically had large proportions (high ceilings, high windows, etc.) to give the impression of a strong state authority. Some of them also had monumental facade designs reminiscent of

; but with more modern and plain rectangular shapes, symmetry, simplicity, and a general lack of ornateness. Some of the buildings in this style are the Ankara Opera House, designed by Şevki Balmumcu (1933–34) and renovated by Paul Bonatz (1946–47); the TCDD General Headquarters Building designed by Bedri Uçar in 1938;

Istanbul University Istanbul University, also known as University of Istanbul (), is a Public university, public research university located in Istanbul, Turkey. Founded by Mehmed II on May 30, 1453, a day after Fall of Constantinople, the conquest of Constantinop ...

Faculty of Science and Faculty of Literature buildings (1944–52); Anıtkabir (1944–53); Istanbul Radio Headquarters (1945–49); Şişli Mosque (1945–49); and the

Çanakkale Martyrs' Memorial The Çanakkale Martyrs' Memorial () is a war memorial commemorating the service of about 253,000 Turkish soldiers who participated at the Battle of Gallipoli, which took place from April 1915 to December 1915 during the First World War. It is loc ...

(1954–60). The movement was particularly influential between 1935 and 1950. From the 1950s, the influence of this style diminished due to the next wave, especially

International Style The International Style is a major architectural style and movement that began in western Europe in the 1920s and dominated modern architecture until the 1970s. It is defined by strict adherence to Functionalism (architecture), functional and Fo ...

and

Rationalism In philosophy, rationalism is the Epistemology, epistemological view that "regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge" or "the position that reason has precedence over other ways of acquiring knowledge", often in contrast to ot ...

. File:Ankara-Hukuk-Fakültesi.jpg, The Faculty of Law building (1937) of

. File:Süleyman Demirel Funeral 1.jpg, The

building (1938–63) in Ankara was designed by

. File:Ankara asv2021-10 img22 TCDD building.jpg, TCDD General Headquarters Building, designed by Bedri Uçar (1939–41). File:Mersin Halkevi.jpg, The

Halkevi Halkevleri (Turkish: ''Halkevi'' literally meaning "people's houses", also translatable as "community centres") is a Turkish community enlightenment project. They were founded in 1932 and entirely abolished in 1951. Background The Turkish Repub ...

Mersin Mersin () is a large city and port on the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean coast of Mediterranean Region, Turkey, southern Turkey. It is the provincial capital of the Mersin Province (formerly İçel). It is made up of four district governorates ...

, designed by Ertuğrul Menteşe (1944–46). File:Istanbul UniversityFaculty of Science and Faculty of Literature Buildings2.jpg,

Faculty of Science and Faculty of Literature Buildings, designed by Sedad Hakkı Eldem and Emin Halid Onat (1944–52). File:Ankara asv2021-10 img04 Anıtkabir.jpg, Anıtkabir in

, designed by Emin Halid Onat and Ahmet Orhan Arda (1944–53). File:İstanbul radio1.JPG, Istanbul Radio Hall, designed by Doğan Erginbaş, Ömer Güney and İsmail Utkular (1945). File:Çanakkale Martyrs Memorial - panoramio.jpg,

, designed by Feridun Kip, Doğan Erginbaş and İsmail Utkular (1954–60).

1950s and more Western influence

At the beginning of the 1950s, a new generation of architects such as Nevzat Erol, Turgut Cansever, Abdurrahman Hancı, Cengiz Bektaş, Hayati Tabanlıoğlu, Enver Tokay, İlhan Tayman and Yılmaz Sanlı became more influential in the architectural arena. These were architects who either studied in Europe or had information of the modernist architecture of the time. Their quest for modernist architecture was in line with the

and

. However, the development of the Turkish economy was an important factor as well. Even though Turkish architects were able to follow up on the modern design of important architects of the time, they were constrained by the lack of technological infrastructure or insufficient financial resources. Selected examples of buildings from this era are the Anadolu Club Hotel (1951–1957) in Büyükada designed by Turgut Cansever and Abdurrahman Hancı; Hilton Istanbul Bosphorus (1952–1955) designed by

Skidmore, Owings & Merrill SOM, an initialism of its original name Skidmore, Owings & Merrill LLP, is a Chicago-based architectural, urban planning, and engineering firm. It was founded in 1936 by Louis Skidmore and Nathaniel Owings. In 1939, they were joined by engineer ...

and Sedad Hakkı Eldem; Istanbul Municipality Headquarters (1953–1960) designed by Nevzat Erol; Emek Business Center (1959–1965) in Ankara designed by Enver Tokay and İlhan Tayman; and Tekel Headquarters (1958–1960) in Istanbul designed by Yılmaz Sanlı and İlhan Tayman. One of the most important developments of this period was the establishment of the ''Chamber of Architects of Turkey'' in 1954. Various professional organizations for architects had existed beforehand, but there were no laws for the architectural profession until 1954.

Brutalist architecture Brutalist architecture is an architectural style that emerged during the 1950s in the United Kingdom, among the reconstruction projects of the post-war era. Brutalist buildings are characterised by Minimalism (art), minimalist constructions th ...

become popular during 1950s, the work of Behruz Çinici in

Middle East Technical University Middle East Technical University (commonly referred to as METU; in Turkish language, Turkish, ''Orta Doğu Teknik Üniversitesi'', ODTÜ) is a prestigious public university, public Institute of technology, technical university located in Ankara, ...

is the best example of this era. File:Vraagteken vlucht Lockheed Electra naar Istanbul Hilton Hotel, Bestanddeelnr 910-7821.jpg, Hilton Istanbul Bosphorus was designed in 1952 by SOM and Sedad Hakkı Eldem. File:İstanbul 5882.jpg, Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality City Hall was designed in 1953 by Nevzat Erol. File:Gezi Park from the Marmara hotel.jpg, InterContinental Hotel, formerly Sheraton Istanbul, was designed in 1959 by

AHE Ahe, Ahemaru or Omaru, is a coral atoll in the northern Tuamotus, Tuamotu Archipelago, 14 km to the west of Manihi, in French Polynesia. Its ring shape is broken by only a single small passage into the lagoon. It has a land area of approxi ...

and Rolf Gutbrod. File:METU, Faculty of Architecture (14826812816).jpg,

Faculty of Architecture File:Rıza Derviş House (14483169380).jpg, Rıza Derviş House, also known as Derviş Manizade Mansion, built 1956–1957, is one of two buildings designed by Sedad Hakkı Eldem that was realized on Büyükada

1960s and 1970s

Following the 1960 coup d'état, Turkey endured various kinds of political and

economic crises A financial crisis is any of a broad variety of situations in which some financial assets suddenly lose a large part of their nominal value. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, many financial crises were associated with banking panics, and ma ...

which affected the construction industry as well as the architectural sector. Despite these hardships, architects were able to design some important buildings. Abandoning

, Turkish architects tried to design their buildings in more flexible and fragmented forms. Important works from this period are the Vakıflar Hotel in Istanbul (1968, today the ''Ceylan Intercontinental Hotel''), Middle East Technical University Campuses (1961) in Ankara, Istanbul Manufacturers' Market (1959), Turkish Historical Society Building (1967), Grand Ankara Hotel (1960, today the Rixos Grand Ankara Hotel) and Atatürk Cultural Center (1969) in Istanbul. As a result of economic and social turbulence, architecture in Turkey suffered also in the 1970s. There were no significant breakthroughs during this period. Some important designs from the 1970s are the Turkish Language Association Building (1972), Atatürk Library (1973) and Abdi İpekçi Arena (1979). File:Radisson Blu Hotel.JPG, Radisson Blu Hotel in Ankara, originally built as Stad Oteli (1970), was designed in 1964 by Doğan Tekeli, Sami Sisa and Metin Hepgüler. File:AtaturkCulturalCenterIstanbul.jpg, Atatürk Cultural Center (1969) on Taksim Square in Istanbul, designed by Hayati Tabanlıoğlu. File:The Bosphorus Bridge (8425286568).jpg, The Bosphorus Bridge (1973) in Istanbul was designed in 1968–1970 by Gilbert Roberts and William Brown. File:The Marmara Istanbul 2.jpg, The Marmara Hotel (1976) at Taksim Square was designed in 1972 by Fatin Uran. File:A view of the BDDK building, Atatürk Avenue in Ankara.jpg, BDDK Building (1975) in Ankara, originally the Türkiye İş Bankası headquarters, designed by Ayhan Böke and Yılmaz Sargın.

1980s and 1990s

In January 1980, the government of Prime Minister

Süleyman Demirel Sami Süleyman Gündoğdu Demirel (; 1 November 1924 – 17 June 2015) was a Turkish people, Turkish politician, engineer, and statesman who served as the List of Presidents of Turkey, 9th President of Turkey from 1993 to 2000. He previously serv ...

began implementing a far-reaching reform program designed by then Undersecretary of the Prime Ministry Turgut Özal to shift Turkey's economy toward export-led growth. These reforms had a positive effect on the construction industry and architecture. New methods such as

prefabrication Prefabrication is the practice of assembling components of a structure in a factory or other manufacturing site, and transporting complete assemblies or sub-assemblies to the construction site where the structure is to be located. Some research ...

and curtain wall systems were introduced to Turkish architects and contractors in the 1980s. In addition, steel, aluminum, plastic and glass production increased, which allowed architects to free themselves from rigid forms. Istanbul panorama and skyline

Until the 1980s, the government sector was the leading client when it came to architecture and construction. However, the liberalization of the economy paved the way for the private sector to become the leading influence. Notable architects from this period include Behruz Çinici, Merih Karaaslan, Sevinç Hadi, Şandor Hadi, Ersen Gürsel, Mehmet Çubuk, Doğan Tekeli, Sami Sisa, Emre Arolat, Murat Tabanlıoğlu, Melkan Tabanlıoğlu, Hüsrev Tayla, Doğan Hasol, Atilla Yücel, Sema Soygeniş, Murat Soygeniş and

Kaya Arıkoğlu Kaya Arıkoğlu (born November 8, 1949) is an architect and urban designer. Early life and education After completing his bachelor's degree in architecture at the University of Maryland, College Park, he was a student of Colin Rowe at Cornell ...

, among others.

21st century

When architects and

structural engineer Structural engineers analyze, design, plan, and research List of structural elements, structural components and structural systems to achieve design goals and ensure the safety and comfort of users or occupants. Their work takes account mainly of ...

s collaborate they can design buildings which are more sustainable. File:QNB Finansbank Kristal Kule.jpg, Finansbank Tower and Istanbul Sapphire on Büyükdere Avenue File:Avrupa-office-atasehir.jpg, Avrupa Office in Ataşehir File:Kanyon Mall Istanbul 14.jpg, Kanyon Shopping Mall File:Ish Bank Buildings 0733.jpg, Türkiye İş Bankası Tower 1 (1995–2000) in Levent,

File:Sapphire building 9010.jpg, Istanbul Sapphire in Levent (2006–2011) is currently the tallest building in

and

Turkey Turkey, officially the Republic of Türkiye, is a country mainly located in Anatolia in West Asia, with a relatively small part called East Thrace in Southeast Europe. It borders the Black Sea to the north; Georgia (country), Georgia, Armen ...

, and the 4th tallest in

Europe Europe is a continent located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east ...

. File:Hudavendigar Park in Bursa Turkey.jpg, Skyline of

Bursa Bursa () is a city in northwestern Turkey and the administrative center of Bursa Province. The fourth-most populous city in Turkey and second-most populous in the Marmara Region, Bursa is one of the industrial centers of the country. Most of ...

File:EAA MINICITY.jpg, Minicity Theme Park, Antalya (2004) File:EAA Raif Dinçkök Yalova Cultural Center.jpg, Raif Dinçkök Yalova Cultural Center, Yalova (2011) File:EAA Maslak No.1 Office Building.jpg, Maslak No.1 Office Building, Istanbul (2014) File:EAA Zorlu Center.jpg, Zorlu Center, Istanbul (2013) File:EAA St.Regis Intanbul.jpg, St.Regis Istanbul, Istanbul (2015) File:YalikavakPalmarina.jpg, Yalikavak Palmarina, Bodrum (2014) File:Sakirin mihrap.jpg, Sakirin Mosque, The mosque's architect is believed to be the first woman to design a mosque. (2009) File:Ahmet Hamdi Akseki Camii 01.jpg, Ahmed Hamdi Akseki Mosque File:Folkart 2021.jpg,

İzmir İzmir is the List of largest cities and towns in Turkey, third most populous city in Turkey, after Istanbul and Ankara. It is on the Aegean Sea, Aegean coast of Anatolia, and is the capital of İzmir Province. In 2024, the city of İzmir had ...

Folkart Towers File:TV tower, Istanbul ( 1100239).jpg, Küçük Çamlıca TV Radio Tower File:Skyland Istanbul.jpg, Skyland İstanbul File:Le Méridien Istanbul Etiler Hotel 4.jpg, Le Méridien in Etiler, Istanbul File:Mistral and Ege Perla.jpg, Mistral Office Tower in İzmir File:Yavuz sultan selim köprüsü (cropped).jpg,

Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge The Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge (), also known as the Third Bosphorus Bridge'','' is a vehicular bridge over the Bosphorus strait, to the north of Istanbul's two older suspension bridges, the 15 July Martyrs Bridge being the First Bosphorus Bridge ...

(2016)

Earthquakes

In earthquake-prone areas, all buildings built t
20th century standards
may be dangerous, but shortly after the 1999 İzmit earthquake, which killed over 17 thousand people, a new seismic code was brought into force to protect against earthquakes in Turkey. Also following that earthquake a so-called earthquake tax was raised during the government of

Bülent Ecevit Mustafa Bülent Ecevit (; 28 May 1925 – 5 November 2006) was a Turkish politician, statesman, poet, writer, scholar, and journalist. He served as the Prime Minister of Turkey four times between 1974 and 2002. He served as prime minister in 197 ...

. Initially thought as a temporary tax, it became permanent. In 2007 the seismic code was strengthened. However, it is alleged that builders often ignored the rules due to

corruption Corruption is a form of dishonesty or a criminal offense that is undertaken by a person or an organization that is entrusted in a position of authority to acquire illicit benefits or abuse power for one's gain. Corruption may involve activities ...

. After the 2011 Van earthquakes Prime Minister

Recep Tayyip Erdoğan Recep Tayyip Erdoğan (born 26 February 1954) is a Turkish politician who is the 12th and current president of Turkey since 2014. He previously served as the 25th prime minister of Turkey, prime minister from 2003 to 2014 as part of the Jus ...

said: "Municipalities, constructors and supervisors should now see that their negligence amounts to murder." In 2018, a

zoning In urban planning, zoning is a method in which a municipality or other tier of government divides land into land-use "zones", each of which has a set of regulations for new development that differs from other zones. Zones may be defined for ...

law gave amnesties to some unlicensed buildings and some with unlicensed floors. Further resilience over the 2007 code was mandated in the 2018 Turkish Seismic Code, which took effect on 1 January 2019. Improvements included design supervision and site specific hazard definitions, and for new buildings in vulnerable regions required

rebar Rebar (short for reinforcement bar or reinforcing bar), known when massed as reinforcing steel or steel reinforcement, is a tension device added to concrete to form ''reinforced concrete'' and reinforced masonry structures to strengthen and aid ...

in high quality concrete. Beams and columns in those buildings must be in the right place to properly absorb shaking. The code is said by foreign experts to be very modern and similar to US codes. However, these 21st century building codes were not very well enforced. In a bid to shore up support going into the 2018 Turkish presidential election, the government offered amnesties for violations of the building code, allowing non-compliance to continue with the payment of a fee. This poor enforcement of seismic codes was a contributing factor to the devastation of the

2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes On 6 February 2023, at 04:17 Time in Turkey, TRT (01:17 Coordinated Universal Time, UTC), a 7.8 earthquake struck southern and central Turkey and northern and western Ba'athist Syria, Syria. The epicenter was west–northwest ...

in which over 42,000 people died in Turkey. There were high incidences of support column failure leading to pancake collapses, which complicated rescue efforts. Experts lamented the practice would turn cities into graveyards. The 2023 Turkey–Syria earthquakes collapsed many older buildings and some recent ones: the Environment and Urbanization Ministry is assessing the damage. Unreinforced

masonry Masonry is the craft of building a structure with brick, stone, or similar material, including mortar plastering which are often laid in, bound, and pasted together by mortar (masonry), mortar. The term ''masonry'' can also refer to the buildin ...

buildings are vulnerable. Many older buildings in Istanbul are vulnerable to pancake collapses.

Retrofitting Retrofitting is the addition of new technology or features to older systems. Retrofits can happen for a number of reasons, for example with big capital expenditures like naval vessels, military equipment or manufacturing plants, businesses or go ...

old buildings is possible but expensive. Although over 3 million housing units nationwide were strengthened in the 2 decades before 2023, as of that year many apartment blocks do not meet 21st century standards. Building with wood has been suggested.

Climate change

References

Citations

Bibliography

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External links

"Turkish Architecture in the Republican Period" (English)"Cumhuriyet dönemi mimarlığından bir panorama" (Turkish)
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