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Antiquarian science books are original historical works (e.g., books or technical papers) concerning
science Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into twoor threemajor branches: the natural sciences, which stu ...
,
mathematics Mathematics is a field of study that discovers and organizes methods, Mathematical theory, theories and theorems that are developed and Mathematical proof, proved for the needs of empirical sciences and mathematics itself. There are many ar ...
and sometimes
engineering Engineering is the practice of using natural science, mathematics, and the engineering design process to Problem solving#Engineering, solve problems within technology, increase efficiency and productivity, and improve Systems engineering, s ...
. These books are important primary references for the study of the
history of science and technology The history of science and technology (HST) is a field of history that examines the development of the understanding of the natural world (science) and humans' ability to manipulate it (technology) at different points in time. This academic discip ...
, they can provide valuable insights into the historical development of the various fields of scientific inquiry (
History of science The history of science covers the development of science from ancient history, ancient times to the present. It encompasses all three major branches of science: natural science, natural, social science, social, and formal science, formal. Pr ...
,
History of mathematics The history of mathematics deals with the origin of discoveries in mathematics and the History of mathematical notation, mathematical methods and notation of the past. Before the modern age and the worldwide spread of knowledge, written examples ...
, etc.) The landmark are significant first (or early) editions typically worth hundreds or thousands of dollars (prices may vary widely based on condition, etc.). Reprints of these books are often available, for example from
Great Books of the Western World ''Great Books of the Western World'' is a series of books originally published in the United States in 1952, by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., to present the great books in 54 volumes. The original editors had three criteria for including a b ...
,
Dover Publications Dover Publications, also known as Dover Books, is an American book publisher founded in 1941 by Hayward and Blanche Cirker. It primarily reissues books that are out of print from their original publishers. These are often, but not always, book ...
or
Google Books Google Books (previously known as Google Book Search, Google Print, and by its code-name Project Ocean) is a service from Google that searches the full text of books and magazines that Google has scanned, converted to text using optical charac ...
.
Incunabula An incunable or incunabulum (: incunables or incunabula, respectively) is a book, pamphlet, or broadside (printing), broadside that was printed in the earliest stages of printing in Europe, up to the year 1500. The specific date is essentiall ...
are extremely rare and valuable, but as the
Scientific Revolution The Scientific Revolution was a series of events that marked the emergence of History of science, modern science during the early modern period, when developments in History of mathematics#Mathematics during the Scientific Revolution, mathemati ...
is only taken to have started around the 1540s, such works of Renaissance literature (including
alchemy Alchemy (from the Arabic word , ) is an ancient branch of natural philosophy, a philosophical and protoscientific tradition that was historically practised in China, India, the Muslim world, and Europe. In its Western form, alchemy is first ...
, Renaissance magic, etc.) are not usually included under the notion of "scientific" literature. Printed originals of the beginning Scientific Revolution thus date to the 1540s or later, notably beginning with the original publication of
Copernican heliocentrism Copernican heliocentrism is the astronomical scientific modeling, model developed by Nicolaus Copernicus and published in 1543. This model positioned the Sun at the center of the Universe, motionless, with Earth and the other planets orbiting arou ...
.
Nicolaus Copernicus Nicolaus Copernicus (19 February 1473 – 24 May 1543) was a Renaissance polymath who formulated a mathematical model, model of Celestial spheres#Renaissance, the universe that placed heliocentrism, the Sun rather than Earth at its cen ...
' ''
De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ''De revolutionibus orbium coelestium'' (English translation: ''On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres'') is the seminal work on the heliocentric theory of the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) of the Polish Renaissance. The book ...
'' of 1543 sold for more than US$2 million at auctions.


List of notable books


16th century

* Tartaglia, Niccolò. '' Nova Scientia (A New Science).''
Venice Venice ( ; ; , formerly ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 islands that are separated by expanses of open water and by canals; portions of the city are li ...
, 1537.
Ballistics Ballistics is the field of mechanics concerned with the launching, flight behaviour and impact effects of projectiles, especially weapon munitions such as bullets, unguided bombs, rockets and the like; the science or art of designing and acceler ...
. * Biringuccio, Vannoccio. '' De la pirotechnia.''
Venice Venice ( ; ; , formerly ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 islands that are separated by expanses of open water and by canals; portions of the city are li ...
, 1540.
Metallurgy Metallurgy is a domain of materials science and engineering that studies the physical and chemical behavior of metallic elements, their inter-metallic compounds, and their mixtures, which are known as alloys. Metallurgy encompasses both the ...
. * Fuchs, Leonhart. '' De Historia Stirpium Commentarii Insignes.''
Basel Basel ( ; ), also known as Basle ( ), ; ; ; . is a city in northwestern Switzerland on the river Rhine (at the transition from the High Rhine, High to the Upper Rhine). Basel is Switzerland's List of cities in Switzerland, third-most-populo ...
, 1542.
Botany Botany, also called plant science, is the branch of natural science and biology studying plants, especially Plant anatomy, their anatomy, Plant taxonomy, taxonomy, and Plant ecology, ecology. A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who s ...
. * Copernicus, Nicolaus. ''
De revolutionibus orbium coelestium ''De revolutionibus orbium coelestium'' (English translation: ''On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres'') is the seminal work on the heliocentric theory of the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus (1473–1543) of the Polish Renaissance. The book ...
.''
Wittenberg Wittenberg, officially Lutherstadt Wittenberg, is the fourth-largest town in the state of Saxony-Anhalt, in the Germany, Federal Republic of Germany. It is situated on the River Elbe, north of Leipzig and south-west of the reunified German ...
, 1543.
Copernican heliocentrism Copernican heliocentrism is the astronomical scientific modeling, model developed by Nicolaus Copernicus and published in 1543. This model positioned the Sun at the center of the Universe, motionless, with Earth and the other planets orbiting arou ...
. * Vesalius, Andreas. ''
De humani corporis fabrica ''De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem'' (Latin, "On the Fabric of the Human Body in Seven Books") is a set of books on human anatomy written by Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564) and published in 1543. It was a major advance in the history of a ...
(On the Structure of the Human Body).''
Basel Basel ( ; ), also known as Basle ( ), ; ; ; . is a city in northwestern Switzerland on the river Rhine (at the transition from the High Rhine, High to the Upper Rhine). Basel is Switzerland's List of cities in Switzerland, third-most-populo ...
, 1543.
Anatomy Anatomy () is the branch of morphology concerned with the study of the internal structure of organisms and their parts. Anatomy is a branch of natural science that deals with the structural organization of living things. It is an old scien ...
. * Cardano, Gerolamo. '' Artis magnae sive de regulis algebraicis (The Art of Solving Algebraic Equations).''
Nuremberg Nuremberg (, ; ; in the local East Franconian dialect: ''Nämberch'' ) is the Franconia#Towns and cities, largest city in Franconia, the List of cities in Bavaria by population, second-largest city in the States of Germany, German state of Bav ...
, 1545.
Algebra Algebra is a branch of mathematics that deals with abstract systems, known as algebraic structures, and the manipulation of expressions within those systems. It is a generalization of arithmetic that introduces variables and algebraic ope ...
. * Brunfels, Otto. ''Kreuterbüch'', 1546.
Botany Botany, also called plant science, is the branch of natural science and biology studying plants, especially Plant anatomy, their anatomy, Plant taxonomy, taxonomy, and Plant ecology, ecology. A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who s ...
. * Gessner, Conrad. '' Historia Animalium'' 1551-58.
Zoology Zoology ( , ) is the scientific study of animals. Its studies include the anatomy, structure, embryology, Biological classification, classification, Ethology, habits, and distribution of all animals, both living and extinction, extinct, and ...
* Bock, Hieronymus. ''Kreutterbuch.''
Strasbourg Strasbourg ( , ; ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture and largest city of the Grand Est Regions of France, region of Geography of France, eastern France, in the historic region of Alsace. It is the prefecture of the Bas-Rhin Departmen ...
, 1552.
Botany Botany, also called plant science, is the branch of natural science and biology studying plants, especially Plant anatomy, their anatomy, Plant taxonomy, taxonomy, and Plant ecology, ecology. A botanist or plant scientist is a scientist who s ...
. *
Paracelsus Paracelsus (; ; 1493 – 24 September 1541), born Theophrastus von Hohenheim (full name Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim), was a Swiss physician, alchemist, lay theologian, and philosopher of the German Renaissance. H ...
. ''Theil der grossen Wundartzney.''
Frankfurt Frankfurt am Main () is the most populous city in the States of Germany, German state of Hesse. Its 773,068 inhabitants as of 2022 make it the List of cities in Germany by population, fifth-most populous city in Germany. Located in the forela ...
, 1556.
Medicine Medicine is the science and Praxis (process), practice of caring for patients, managing the Medical diagnosis, diagnosis, prognosis, Preventive medicine, prevention, therapy, treatment, Palliative care, palliation of their injury or disease, ...
. * Agricola, Georgius. '' De re metallica.''
Basel Basel ( ; ), also known as Basle ( ), ; ; ; . is a city in northwestern Switzerland on the river Rhine (at the transition from the High Rhine, High to the Upper Rhine). Basel is Switzerland's List of cities in Switzerland, third-most-populo ...
, 1561.
Mineralogy Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of the chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including optical mineralogy, optical) properties of minerals and mineralized artifact (archaeology), artifacts. Specific s ...
. *
Regiomontanus Johannes Müller von Königsberg (6 June 1436 – 6 July 1476), better known as Regiomontanus (), was a mathematician, astrologer and astronomer of the German Renaissance, active in Vienna, Buda and Nuremberg. His contributions were instrument ...
. ''De triangulis planis et sphaericis libri quinque.''
Basel Basel ( ; ), also known as Basle ( ), ; ; ; . is a city in northwestern Switzerland on the river Rhine (at the transition from the High Rhine, High to the Upper Rhine). Basel is Switzerland's List of cities in Switzerland, third-most-populo ...
, 1561.
Trigonometry Trigonometry () is a branch of mathematics concerned with relationships between angles and side lengths of triangles. In particular, the trigonometric functions relate the angles of a right triangle with ratios of its side lengths. The fiel ...
. * Bombelli, Rafael. ''
Algebra Algebra is a branch of mathematics that deals with abstract systems, known as algebraic structures, and the manipulation of expressions within those systems. It is a generalization of arithmetic that introduces variables and algebraic ope ...
.'' 1569/1572. Imaginary numbers. * Cesalpino, Andrea. ''De plantis libri XVI.'' 1583.
Taxonomy image:Hierarchical clustering diagram.png, 280px, Generalized scheme of taxonomy Taxonomy is a practice and science concerned with classification or categorization. Typically, there are two parts to it: the development of an underlying scheme o ...
. * Bruno, Giordano. '' De l'infinito, universo e mondi.'' 1584
Cosmology Cosmology () is a branch of physics and metaphysics dealing with the nature of the universe, the cosmos. The term ''cosmology'' was first used in English in 1656 in Thomas Blount's ''Glossographia'', with the meaning of "a speaking of the wo ...
. * Stevin, Simon. '' De Thiende.'' 1585. Decimal numeral system. * Stevin, Simon. '' De Beghinselen der Weeghconst.'' 1586.
Statics Statics is the branch of classical mechanics that is concerned with the analysis of force and torque acting on a physical system that does not experience an acceleration, but rather is in mechanical equilibrium, equilibrium with its environment ...
. * Brahe, Tycho. ''Astronomiae Instauratae Progymnasmata.'' 1588.
Astronomy Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and the phenomena that occur in the cosmos. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and their overall evolution. Objects of interest includ ...
. * Viète, François. ''In artem analyticum isagoge (Introduction to the Analytical Art).''
Tours Tours ( ; ) is the largest city in the region of Centre-Val de Loire, France. It is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Departments of France, department of Indre-et-Loire. The Communes of France, commune of Tours had 136,463 inhabita ...
, 1591.
Algebra Algebra is a branch of mathematics that deals with abstract systems, known as algebraic structures, and the manipulation of expressions within those systems. It is a generalization of arithmetic that introduces variables and algebraic ope ...
. * Ruini, Carlo. ''Anatomia del Cavallo.''
Venice Venice ( ; ; , formerly ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 islands that are separated by expanses of open water and by canals; portions of the city are li ...
, 1598.
Veterinary medicine Veterinary medicine is the branch of medicine that deals with the prevention, management, medical diagnosis, diagnosis, and treatment of disease, disorder, and injury in non-human animals. The scope of veterinary medicine is wide, covering all a ...
.


17th century

* Gilbert, William. '' De Magnete.'' London, 1600
Magnetism Magnetism is the class of physical attributes that occur through a magnetic field, which allows objects to attract or repel each other. Because both electric currents and magnetic moments of elementary particles give rise to a magnetic field, ...
* Galilei, Galileo. '' Sidereus Nuncius (The Starry Messenger).''
Frankfurt Frankfurt am Main () is the most populous city in the States of Germany, German state of Hesse. Its 773,068 inhabitants as of 2022 make it the List of cities in Germany by population, fifth-most populous city in Germany. Located in the forela ...
, 1610.
Astronomy Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and the phenomena that occur in the cosmos. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and their overall evolution. Objects of interest includ ...
* Napier, John. ''
Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio ''Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio'' (Description of the Wonderful Canon of Logarithms, 1614) and ''Mirifici Logarithmorum Canonis Constructio'' (Construction of the Wonderful Canon of Logarithms, 1619) are two books in Latin by John N ...
'', 1614.
Logarithms In mathematics, the logarithm of a number is the exponent by which another fixed value, the base, must be raised to produce that number. For example, the logarithm of to base is , because is to the rd power: . More generally, if , the ...
* Kepler, Johannes. ''
Harmonices Mundi ''Harmonice Mundi'' (Latin: ''The Harmony of the World'', 1619) is a book by Johannes Kepler. In the work, written entirely in Latin, Kepler discusses harmony and congruence in geometrical forms and physical phenomena. The final section of t ...
.''
Linz Linz (Pronunciation: , ; ) is the capital of Upper Austria and List of cities and towns in Austria, third-largest city in Austria. Located on the river Danube, the city is in the far north of Austria, south of the border with the Czech Repub ...
, 1619.
Celestial mechanics Celestial mechanics is the branch of astronomy that deals with the motions of objects in outer space. Historically, celestial mechanics applies principles of physics (classical mechanics) to astronomical objects, such as stars and planets, to ...
* Bacon, Francis. ''
Novum Organum The ''Novum Organum'', fully ''Novum Organum, sive Indicia Vera de Interpretatione Naturae'' ("New organon, or true directions concerning the interpretation of nature") or ''Instaurationis Magnae, Pars II'' ("Part II of The Great Instauratio ...
.'' London, 1620.
Experimentation An experiment is a procedure carried out to support or refute a hypothesis, or determine the efficacy or likelihood of something previously untried. Experiments provide insight into cause-and-effect by demonstrating what outcome occurs whe ...
* Galilei, Galileo. '' Dialogo sopra i due massimi sistemi del mondo Tolemaico, e Coperniciano''.
Florence Florence ( ; ) is the capital city of the Italy, Italian region of Tuscany. It is also the most populated city in Tuscany, with 362,353 inhabitants, and 989,460 in Metropolitan City of Florence, its metropolitan province as of 2025. Florence ...
, 1632.
Heliocentrism Heliocentrism (also known as the heliocentric model) is a superseded astronomical model in which the Earth and planets orbit around the Sun at the center of the universe. Historically, heliocentrism was opposed to geocentrism, which placed t ...
* Descartes, René. '' Discours de la Methode / La Geometrie''.
Leiden Leiden ( ; ; in English language, English and Archaism, archaic Dutch language, Dutch also Leyden) is a List of cities in the Netherlands by province, city and List of municipalities of the Netherlands, municipality in the Provinces of the Nethe ...
, 1637 Analytical geometry * Fermat, Pierre de. ''Methodus ad disquirendam maximam et minimam'', 1638.
Calculus Calculus is the mathematics, mathematical study of continuous change, in the same way that geometry is the study of shape, and algebra is the study of generalizations of arithmetic operations. Originally called infinitesimal calculus or "the ...
* Galilei, Galileo. '' Discorsi e dimostrazioni matematiche, intorno a due nuove scienze''.
Leiden Leiden ( ; ; in English language, English and Archaism, archaic Dutch language, Dutch also Leyden) is a List of cities in the Netherlands by province, city and List of municipalities of the Netherlands, municipality in the Provinces of the Nethe ...
, 1638. Classical dynamics * Desargues, Gérard. ''Brouillon-project d'une atteinte aux evenemens des rencontres du cone avec un plan'', 1639.
Projective geometry In mathematics, projective geometry is the study of geometric properties that are invariant with respect to projective transformations. This means that, compared to elementary Euclidean geometry, projective geometry has a different setting (''p ...
. * Harvey, William. '' Exercitatio Anatomica de Motu Cordis et Sanguinis in Animalibus (Anatomical Exercises, Concerning the Heart and Blood)'' London, 1653.
Circulatory system In vertebrates, the circulatory system is a system of organs that includes the heart, blood vessels, and blood which is circulated throughout the body. It includes the cardiovascular system, or vascular system, that consists of the heart ...
* Wallis, John. ''Arithmetica infinitorum'', 1655.
Calculus Calculus is the mathematics, mathematical study of continuous change, in the same way that geometry is the study of shape, and algebra is the study of generalizations of arithmetic operations. Originally called infinitesimal calculus or "the ...
* Boyle, Robert. ''
The Sceptical Chymist ''The Sceptical Chymist: or Chymico-Physical Doubts & Paradoxes'' is the title of a book by Robert Boyle, published in London in 1661. In the form of a dialogue, the ''Sceptical Chymist'' presented Boyle's hypothesis that matter consisted of cor ...
.'' London, 1661.
Chemistry Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a physical science within the natural sciences that studies the chemical elements that make up matter and chemical compound, compounds made of atoms, molecules a ...
* Pascal, Blaise. ''Traitez de l'Equilibre des Liqueurs, et de la Pesanteur de la Masse de l'Air.'' Paris, 1663.
Fluid statics In physics, a fluid is a liquid, gas, or other material that may continuously move and deform (''flow'') under an applied shear stress, or external force. They have zero shear modulus, or, in simpler terms, are substances which cannot r ...
* Gregory, James. ''Optica Promota'', 1663.
Optics Optics is the branch of physics that studies the behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of optical instruments, instruments that use or Photodetector, detect it. Optics usually describes t ...
* Hooke, Robert. ''
Micrographia ''Micrographia: or Some Physiological Descriptions of Minute Bodies Made by Magnifying Glasses. With Observations and Inquiries Thereupon'' is a historically significant book by Robert Hooke about his observations through various lenses. It wa ...
.'' London, 1665.
Microscopy Microscopy is the technical field of using microscopes to view subjects too small to be seen with the naked eye (objects that are not within the resolution range of the normal eye). There are three well-known branches of microscopy: optical mic ...
* Steno, Nicolas. ''De Solido intra Solidum Naturaliter Contento Dissertationis Prodromus.''
Florence Florence ( ; ) is the capital city of the Italy, Italian region of Tuscany. It is also the most populated city in Tuscany, with 362,353 inhabitants, and 989,460 in Metropolitan City of Florence, its metropolitan province as of 2025. Florence ...
, 1669.
Stratigraphy Stratigraphy is a branch of geology concerned with the study of rock layers (strata) and layering (stratification). It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks. Stratigraphy has three related subfields: lithost ...
* Barrow, Isaac. ''Lectiones geometricae'', 1670.
Calculus Calculus is the mathematics, mathematical study of continuous change, in the same way that geometry is the study of shape, and algebra is the study of generalizations of arithmetic operations. Originally called infinitesimal calculus or "the ...
* von Guericke, Otto. ''Experimenta Nova (ut vocantur) Magdeburgica de Vacuo Spatio''. Magdeburger Halbkugeln, 1672.
Experimental physics Experimental physics is the category of disciplines and sub-disciplines in the field of physics that are concerned with the observation of physical phenomena and experiments. Methods vary from discipline to discipline, from simple experiments and o ...
* Huygens, Christiaan. ''
Horologium Oscillatorium (English language, English: ''The Pendulum Clock: or Geometrical Demonstrations Concerning the Motion of Pendula as Applied to Clocks'') is a book published by Dutch mathematician and physicist Christiaan Huygens in 1673 and his major work on p ...
.''
Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...
, 1673. Pendulus. * Fermat, Pierre de. ''Ad locus planos et solidos isagoge'', 1679.
Analytic geometry In mathematics, analytic geometry, also known as coordinate geometry or Cartesian geometry, is the study of geometry using a coordinate system. This contrasts with synthetic geometry. Analytic geometry is used in physics and engineering, and als ...
* Leibniz, Gottfried. '' Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis'', 1684.
Calculus Calculus is the mathematics, mathematical study of continuous change, in the same way that geometry is the study of shape, and algebra is the study of generalizations of arithmetic operations. Originally called infinitesimal calculus or "the ...
* Newton, Isaac. ''
Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (English: ''The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy''), often referred to as simply the (), is a book by Isaac Newton that expounds Newton's laws of motion and his law of universal gravitation. The ''Principia'' is written in Lati ...
.'' London, 3 Vol, 1687.
Classical mechanics Classical mechanics is a Theoretical physics, physical theory describing the motion of objects such as projectiles, parts of Machine (mechanical), machinery, spacecraft, planets, stars, and galaxies. The development of classical mechanics inv ...
* Huygens, Christiaan. '' Traité de la Lumière.''
Leiden Leiden ( ; ; in English language, English and Archaism, archaic Dutch language, Dutch also Leyden) is a List of cities in the Netherlands by province, city and List of municipalities of the Netherlands, municipality in the Provinces of the Nethe ...
, 1690.
Optics Optics is the branch of physics that studies the behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of optical instruments, instruments that use or Photodetector, detect it. Optics usually describes t ...
* Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. ''Specimen Dynamicum.''
Vienna Vienna ( ; ; ) is the capital city, capital, List of largest cities in Austria, most populous city, and one of Federal states of Austria, nine federal states of Austria. It is Austria's primate city, with just over two million inhabitants. ...
, 1695.
Classical mechanics Classical mechanics is a Theoretical physics, physical theory describing the motion of objects such as projectiles, parts of Machine (mechanical), machinery, spacecraft, planets, stars, and galaxies. The development of classical mechanics inv ...
* van Leeuwenhoek, Antonie. ''Arcana Naturae, Ope & Beneficio Exquisitissimorum Microscopiorum.''
Leiden Leiden ( ; ; in English language, English and Archaism, archaic Dutch language, Dutch also Leyden) is a List of cities in the Netherlands by province, city and List of municipalities of the Netherlands, municipality in the Provinces of the Nethe ...
, 1696.
Microbiology Microbiology () is the branches of science, scientific study of microorganisms, those being of unicellular organism, unicellular (single-celled), multicellular organism, multicellular (consisting of complex cells), or non-cellular life, acellula ...
* l'Hôpital, Guillaume de. '' Analyse des infiniment petits.'' Paris, 1696.
Calculus Calculus is the mathematics, mathematical study of continuous change, in the same way that geometry is the study of shape, and algebra is the study of generalizations of arithmetic operations. Originally called infinitesimal calculus or "the ...


18th century

* Newton, Isaac (England). ''
Opticks ''Opticks: or, A Treatise of the Reflexions, Refractions, Inflexions and Colours of Light'' is a collection of three books by Isaac Newton that was published in English language, English in 1704 (a scholarly Latin translation appeared in 1706). ...
.'' London, 1704.
Optics Optics is the branch of physics that studies the behaviour and properties of light, including its interactions with matter and the construction of optical instruments, instruments that use or Photodetector, detect it. Optics usually describes t ...
* Taylor, Brook (England). ''Methodus Incrementorum Directa et Inversa'', 1715.
Taylor series In mathematics, the Taylor series or Taylor expansion of a function is an infinite sum of terms that are expressed in terms of the function's derivatives at a single point. For most common functions, the function and the sum of its Taylor ser ...
* Linnaeus, Carl (Sweden). ''
Systema Naturae ' (originally in Latin written ' with the Orthographic ligature, ligature æ) is one of the major works of the Sweden, Swedish botanist, zoologist and physician Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778) and introduced the Linnaean taxonomy. Although the syste ...
.'' Netherlands, 1735.
Linnaean taxonomy Linnaean taxonomy can mean either of two related concepts: # The particular form of biological classification (taxonomy) set up by Carl Linnaeus, as set forth in his ''Systema Naturae'' (1735) and subsequent works. In the taxonomy of Linnaeus th ...
* Bernoulli, Daniel (Netherlands). ''
Hydrodynamica ''Hydrodynamica, sive de Viribus et Motibus Fluidorum Commentarii'' (Latin for ''Hydrodynamics, or commentaries on the forces and motions of fluids'') is a book published by Daniel Bernoulli in 1738. The title of this book eventually christened ...
.''
Strasbourg Strasbourg ( , ; ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture and largest city of the Grand Est Regions of France, region of Geography of France, eastern France, in the historic region of Alsace. It is the prefecture of the Bas-Rhin Departmen ...
, 1738,
Fluid dynamics In physics, physical chemistry and engineering, fluid dynamics is a subdiscipline of fluid mechanics that describes the flow of fluids – liquids and gases. It has several subdisciplines, including (the study of air and other gases in motion ...
* d'Alembert, Jean le Rond (France). ''Réflexions sur la cause générale des vents'', 1747.
Complex numbers In mathematics, a complex number is an element of a number system that extends the real numbers with a specific element denoted , called the imaginary unit and satisfying the equation i^= -1; every complex number can be expressed in the form a ...
* Euler, Leonhard (Switzerland). ''
Introductio in analysin infinitorum ''Introductio in analysin infinitorum'' (Latin: ''Introduction to the Analysis of the Infinite'') is a two-volume work by Leonhard Euler which lays the foundations of mathematical analysis. Written in Latin and published in 1748, the ''Introducti ...
.''
Lausanne Lausanne ( , ; ; ) is the capital and largest List of towns in Switzerland, city of the Swiss French-speaking Cantons of Switzerland, canton of Vaud, in Switzerland. It is a hilly city situated on the shores of Lake Geneva, about halfway bet ...
, 1748.
Mathematical analysis Analysis is the branch of mathematics dealing with continuous functions, limit (mathematics), limits, and related theories, such as Derivative, differentiation, Integral, integration, measure (mathematics), measure, infinite sequences, series ( ...
* Franklin, Benjamin (America). '' Experiments and Observations on Electricity.'' London/
Philadelphia Philadelphia ( ), colloquially referred to as Philly, is the List of municipalities in Pennsylvania, most populous city in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania and the List of United States cities by population, sixth-most populous city in the Unit ...
, 1751.
Electricity Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and motion of matter possessing an electric charge. Electricity is related to magnetism, both being part of the phenomenon of electromagnetism, as described by Maxwel ...
* Bayes, Thomas (England). ''
An Essay Towards Solving a Problem in the Doctrine of Chances "An Essay Towards Solving a Problem in the Doctrine of Chances" is a work on the mathematical theory of probability by Thomas Bayes, published in 1763, two years after its author's death, and containing multiple amendments and additions due to his ...
.''
London London is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in the United Kingdom, largest city of both England and the United Kingdom, with a population of in . London metropolitan area, Its wider metropolitan area is the largest in Wester ...
, 1763.
Inverse probability In probability theory, inverse probability is an old term for the probability distribution of an unobserved variable. Today, the problem of determining an unobserved variable (by whatever method) is called inferential statistics. The method of i ...
* Volta, Alessandro (Italy). ''De vi attractiva ignis electrici, ac phaenomenis inde pendentibus'', 1769.
Electricity Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and motion of matter possessing an electric charge. Electricity is related to magnetism, both being part of the phenomenon of electromagnetism, as described by Maxwel ...
* Smith, Adam (Scotland). '' An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations.'' London, 2 Vol, 1776.
Capitalism Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their use for the purpose of obtaining profit. This socioeconomic system has developed historically through several stages and is defined by ...
* Monge, Gaspard (France). ''Sur la théorie des déblais et des remblais'', 1781.
Descriptive geometry Descriptive geometry is the branch of geometry which allows the representation of three-dimensional objects in two dimensions by using a specific set of procedures. The resulting techniques are important for engineering, architecture, design an ...
. * Lagrange, Joseph (Italy). ''
Mécanique analytique ''Mécanique analytique'' (1788–89) is a two volume French treatise on analytical mechanics, written by Joseph-Louis Lagrange, and published 101 years after Isaac Newton's ''Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica''. Treatise It consolida ...
.'' Paris, 1788. Dynamics * Hutton, James (Scotland). '' Theory of the Earth.''
Edinburgh Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 Council areas of Scotland, council areas. The city is located in southeast Scotland and is bounded to the north by the Firth of Forth and to the south by the Pentland Hills. Edinburgh ...
, 1788. Geology *Antoine Lavoisier, Lavoisier, Antoine (France). ''Traité Élémentaire de Chimie (Elements of Chemistry).'' Paris, 2 Vol, 1789.
Chemistry Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a physical science within the natural sciences that studies the chemical elements that make up matter and chemical compound, compounds made of atoms, molecules a ...
*Luigi Galvani, Galvani, Luigi (Italy). ''De viribus electricitatis in motu musculari commentarius'' Bologna, 1791.
Electricity Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and motion of matter possessing an electric charge. Electricity is related to magnetism, both being part of the phenomenon of electromagnetism, as described by Maxwel ...
*Adrien-Marie Legendre, Legendre, Adrien-Marie (France). ''Essai sur la théorie des nombres''. Paris, 1798. Number theory *Edward Jenner, Jenner, Edward (England). ''An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variolæ Vaccinæ.'' 1798. Immunology *Caspar Wessel, Wessel, Caspar (Norway). ''Om directionens analytiske betegning.'' Copenhagen, 1799. Imaginary numbers *Paolo Ruffini (mathematician), Ruffini, Paolo (Italy). ''Teoria generale dele equazioni, in cui si dimostra impossibile. La soluzione algebraica delle equazioni generali di grado superiore al quatro.'' Bologna, 1799.
Algebra Algebra is a branch of mathematics that deals with abstract systems, known as algebraic structures, and the manipulation of expressions within those systems. It is a generalization of arithmetic that introduces variables and algebraic ope ...


19th century

*Carl Friedrich Gauss, Gauss, Carl Friedrich (Germany). ''Disquisitiones Arithmeticae.'' Leipzig, 1801. Number theory *Thomas Young (scientist), Young, Thomas (England). ''Experiments and Calculations Relative to Physical Optics'', 1803. Light *Jean-Robert Argand, Argand, Jean-Robert (Switzerland). ''Essai sur une maniere de representer les quantities imaginaries dans les constructions geometriques'', 1806. Imaginary numbers. *John Dalton, Dalton, John (England). ''A New System of Chemical Philosophy.'' London, 1808. Atomic theory *Jöns Jacob Berzelius, Berzelius, Jöns Jacob (Sweden). ''Läroboken i kemien'', 1808.
Chemistry Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a physical science within the natural sciences that studies the chemical elements that make up matter and chemical compound, compounds made of atoms, molecules a ...
*George Cayley, Cayley, George (England). ''On Aerial Navigation.'' Brompton, Scarborough, Brompton, 3 Vol, 1809. Aeronautics. *Hans Christian Ørsted, Ørsted, Hans Christian (Denmark). ''Experimenta circa effectum conflictus electrici in acum magneticam.'' Copenhagen, 1820. Electromagnetism. *Joseph Fourier, Fourier, Joseph (France). ''Joseph Fourier#The Analytic Theory of Heat, Théorie Analytique de la Chaleur.'' Paris, 1822. Fourier series. *Augustin-Jean Fresnel, Fresnel, Augustin-Jean (France). ''Mémoire Sur Un Nouveau Système D'Éclairage Des Phares Lu À L'Académie Des Sciences.'' Paris, 1822. Wave optics *Charles Babbage, Babbage, Charles (England). ''Mr. Babbage's invention: Application of machinery to the purpose of calculating and printing mathematical tables.'' London, 1823. Computing *Nikolai Lobachevsky, Lobachevsky, Nikolai (Russia). ''Geometriya.'' 1823. Non-Euclidean geometry *Augustin-Louis Cauchy, Cauchy, Augustin-Louis (France). ''Le calcul infinitesimal.'' Paris, 1823.
Mathematical analysis Analysis is the branch of mathematics dealing with continuous functions, limit (mathematics), limits, and related theories, such as Derivative, differentiation, Integral, integration, measure (mathematics), measure, infinite sequences, series ( ...
*Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot, Carnot, Sadi (France). ''Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire, Réflexions sur la Puissance Motrice du Feu et sur les machines propres à déveloper cette puissance.'' Paris, 1824. Thermodynamics *André-Marie Ampère, Ampère, André-Marie (France). ''Mémoire sur la théorie mathématique des phénomènes électrodynamiques'', 1827. Electromagnetism *Pierre-Simon Laplace, Laplace, Pierre-Simon (France). ''Traité de mécanique céleste, Traité de Mécanique Céleste.'' Paris, 1827.
Classical mechanics Classical mechanics is a Theoretical physics, physical theory describing the motion of objects such as projectiles, parts of Machine (mechanical), machinery, spacecraft, planets, stars, and galaxies. The development of classical mechanics inv ...
*Georg Ohm, Ohm, Georg (Germany). ''Die Galvanische Kette mathematisch bearbeitet.'' Berlin, 1827.
Electricity Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and motion of matter possessing an electric charge. Electricity is related to magnetism, both being part of the phenomenon of electromagnetism, as described by Maxwel ...
*Charles Lyell, Lyell, Charles (Scotland). ''Principles of Geology.'' London, 1830. Geology *Siméon Denis Poisson, Poisson, Siméon Denis (France). ''Théorie Mathématique de la Chaleur.'' Paris, 1835. Heat transfer *Michael Faraday, Faraday, Michael (England). ''Experimental Researches in Electricity.'' London, 1839-55.
Electricity Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and motion of matter possessing an electric charge. Electricity is related to magnetism, both being part of the phenomenon of electromagnetism, as described by Maxwel ...
. *Charles Babbage, Babbage, Charles & Ada Lovelace, Lovelace, Ada (England). ''Sketch of the Analytical Engine invented by Charles Babbage (with additional notes by Augusta Ada, Countess of Lovelace)'', 1843. Computing *James Prescott Joule, Joule, James P. (England). ''On the Calorific Effects of Magneto-Electricity, and on the Mechanical Value of Heat.'' London, 1843. Conservation of energy *William Rowan Hamilton, Hamilton, William Rowan (Ireland). ''On Quaternions.'' London/Edinburgh/Dublin, 1844. Quaternions. *Hermann von Helmholtz, von Helmholtz, Hermann (Germany). ''Über die Erhaltung der Kraft'' (On the Conservation of Force). 1847. Conservation of energy *Rudolf Clausius, Clausius, Rudolf (Germany). ''Ueber die bewegende Kraft der Wärme'' (On the Moving Force of Heat and the Laws of Heat which may be Deduced Therefrom). Leipzig, 1850. Laws of thermodynamics *Lord Kelvin, Thomson, William (1st Baron Kelvin) (Scotland/Ireland). ''On the dynamical theory of heat, with numerical results deduced from Mr Joule's equivalent of a thermal unit and M. Regnault's observations on steam''.
Edinburgh Edinburgh is the capital city of Scotland and one of its 32 Council areas of Scotland, council areas. The city is located in southeast Scotland and is bounded to the north by the Firth of Forth and to the south by the Pentland Hills. Edinburgh ...
, 1851. Thermodynamics *George Boole, Boole, George (England). ''The Laws of Thought, An Investigation of the Laws of Thought.'' London, 1854. Boolean algebra (logic), Boolean algebra *Matthew Fontaine Maury, Maury, Matthew Fontaine (America). ''The Physical Geography of the Sea.'' New York, 1855. Oceanography *Rudolf Virchow, Virchow, Rudolf (Germany). ''Die Cellularpathologie in ihrer Begründung auf physiologische und pathologische Gewebelehre.'' 1858. Cellular pathology *Charles Darwin, Darwin, Charles (England). ''On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection.'' London, 1859. Evolutionary biology *Louis Pasteur, Pasteur, Louis (France). ''Memoire sur les corpuscules organises qui existent dans l'atmosphere.'' Paris, 1861.
Microbiology Microbiology () is the branches of science, scientific study of microorganisms, those being of unicellular organism, unicellular (single-celled), multicellular organism, multicellular (consisting of complex cells), or non-cellular life, acellula ...
. *Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet, Lejeune Dirichlet, P. G. (Germany). ''Vorlesungen über Zahlentheorie.'' Braunschweig, 1863, Number theory. *Claude Bernard, Bernard, Claude (France). ''Claude Bernard#Introduction to the Study of Experimental Medicine, Introduction à l'étude de la médecine expérimentale.''
Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...
, 1865. Physiology *Gregor Mendel, Mendel, Gregor (Czech Republic/Austria). ''Experiments on Plant Hybridization, Versuche über Pflanzen-Hybriden (Experiments on Plant Hybridization).'' Brno, 1866. Genetics *Bernhard Riemann, Riemann, Bernhard (Germany). ''Ueber die Hypothesen, welche der Geometrie zu Grunde liegen.'' Göttingen, 1868. Riemannian geometry *Eugenio Beltrami, Beltrami, Eugenio (Italy). ''Saggio di interpretazione della geometria non-euclidea (Essay on an interpretation of non-Euclidean geometry)'', 1868. Hyperbolic geometry *Francis Galton, Galton, Francis (England). ''Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry into Its Laws and Consequences.'' London, 1869, Statistics *Ferdinand Cohn, Cohn, Ferdinand (Poland). ''Untersuchungen ueber Bacterien.'' Breslau, 3 Vol, 1870. Bacteriology. *Charles Darwin, Darwin, Charles (England). ''The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex.'' London, 1871. Evolutionary biology. *Karl Marx, Marx, Karl (Germany). ''Das Kapital.'' St. Petersburg, 1872. Economics. *James Clerk Maxwell, Maxwell, James Clerk (Scotland). ''A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism.'' Oxford, 2 Vol, 1873. Classical electromagnetism. *Robert Koch, Koch, Robert (Germany). ''Untersuchungen uber die aetiologie der wundinfectionskrankheiter.'' Leipzig, 1878. Bacteriology. *Josiah Willard Gibbs, Gibbs, Willard (America). ''On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances.'' New Haven, Connecticut, New Haven, 1878. Physical chemistry *Albert A. Michelson, Michelson, Albert A. (America). ''Experimental Determination of the Velocity of Light.'' Annapolis, 1880. Speed of light. *Niels Henrik Abel, Abel, Niels Henrik (Norway). ''Oeuvres complètes'', 1881.
Mathematical analysis Analysis is the branch of mathematics dealing with continuous functions, limit (mathematics), limits, and related theories, such as Derivative, differentiation, Integral, integration, measure (mathematics), measure, infinite sequences, series ( ...
. *Nikolay Yegorovich Zhukovsky, Zhukovsky, Nikolai (Russia). ''O protchnosti dvizheniya (The Durability of Motion).'' Moscow, 1882. Aeronautics. *Georg Cantor, Cantor, Georg (Russia/Germany). ''Grundlagen einer allgemeinen Mannigfaltigkeitslehre.'' Leipzig, 1883. Set theory. *William James, James, William (America). ''The Principles of Psychology.'' New York, 1890. Psychology *Dmitri Mendeleev, Mendeleev, Dmitri (Russia). ''Principles of Chemistry.'' London, 1891.
Chemistry Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a physical science within the natural sciences that studies the chemical elements that make up matter and chemical compound, compounds made of atoms, molecules a ...
*Simon Newcomb, Newcomb, Simon (America). ''Astronomical Papers Prepared for the Use of the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac.'' Washington, D.C., 1891.
Astronomy Astronomy is a natural science that studies celestial objects and the phenomena that occur in the cosmos. It uses mathematics, physics, and chemistry in order to explain their origin and their overall evolution. Objects of interest includ ...
*Henri Poincaré, Poincare, Henri (France). ''Les méthodes nouvelles de la mécanique céleste.'' Paris, 1892.
Celestial mechanics Celestial mechanics is the branch of astronomy that deals with the motions of objects in outer space. Historically, celestial mechanics applies principles of physics (classical mechanics) to astronomical objects, such as stars and planets, to ...
*Nikola Tesla, Tesla, Nikola (Croatia/America). ''The Inventions, Researches, and Writings of Nikola Tesla#Experiments with Alternate Currents of High Potential and HF, Experiments with Alternate Currents of High Potential and High Frequency.'' New York, 1892.
Electricity Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and motion of matter possessing an electric charge. Electricity is related to magnetism, both being part of the phenomenon of electromagnetism, as described by Maxwel ...
*Heinrich Hertz, Hertz, Heinrich (Germany). ''Untersuchungen über die Ausbreitung der elektrischen Kraft'' (Electric Waves). 1893. Electromagnetic radiation *Wilhelm Röntgen, Röntgen, Wilhelm (Germany). ''Ueber eine neue Art von Strahlen'' (On A New Kind Of Rays). 1895. X-rays *János Bolyai, Bolyai, János (Hungary). ''The Science of Absolute Space.'' 1896. Non-Euclidean geometry *Évariste Galois, Galois, Évariste (France). ''Oeuvres Mathematiques d'Évariste Galois.'' Paris, 1897. Group theory *Marie Curie, Curie, Marie (Poland/France) & Pierre Curie, Curie, Pierre (France). ''Sur une nouvelle substance fortement radio-active, contenue dans la pechblende '' (Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l'Académie des Sciences). Paris, 1898. Radioactivity *David Hilbert, Hilbert, David (Germany). ''Grundlagen der Geometrie (The Foundations of Geometry)''. 1899. Mathematics *Santiago Ramón y Cajal, Ramón y Cajal, Santiago (Spain). ''Textura del sistema nervioso del hombre y los vertebrados'' 1899-1904. Neuroscience


20th century (pre-Cold War)

*Max Planck, Planck, Max (Germany). ''Zur Theorie des Gesetzes der Energieverteilung im Normalspectrum.'' Leipzig, 1900. Quantum mechanics *Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky, Tsiolkovsky, Konstantin Eduardovich (Russia). ''The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices.'' Kaluga, 1903. Rockets *Ernest Rutherford, Rutherford, Ernest (New Zealand). ''Radio-activity.'' Cambridge, 1904. Nuclear physics *Hendrik Lorentz, Lorentz, Hendrik (Netherlands). ''Electromagnetic phenomena in a system moving with any velocity smaller than that of light.'' Amsterdam, 1904. Special relativity *Albert Einstein, Einstein, Albert (Germany). ''Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper ("On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies")'' Leipzig, 1905. Special relativity *Albert Einstein, Einstein, Albert (Germany). ''Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?'' Leipzig, 1905. Physics *Lewis Fry Richardson, Richardson, Lewis (England). ''The Approximate Arithmetical Solution by Finite Differences of Physical Problems Involving Differential Equations, with an Application to the Stresses in a Masonry Dam.'' London, 1910. Computational mechanics *Franz Boas, Boas, Franz (Germany/America). ''The Mind of Primitive Man''. New York, 1911. Anthropology *Niels Bohr, Bohr, Niels (Denmark). ''On the Constitution of Atoms and Molecules.'' London, 1913. Quantum mechanics *Albert Einstein, Einstein, Albert (Germany). ''Die Grundlage Der Allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie (Foundations of the General Theory of Relativity).'' Leipzig, 1916. Physics. *Robert H. Goddard, Goddard, Robert Hutchings (America). ''Robert H. Goddard#A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes, A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes.'' Washington, D.C, 1919. Rockets *Louis de Broglie, de Broglie, Louis (France). ''Recherches sur la théorie des quanta (Research on Quantum Theory)'', 1924. Wave–particle duality *Alfred North Whitehead, Whitehead, Alfred North (England) and Bertrand Russell, Russell, Bertrand (England). ''Principia Mathematica.'' Cambridge, 1925. Mathematics *Werner Heisenberg, Heisenberg, Werner (Germany). ''Über quantentheoretische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen, Über quantentheorestische Umdeutung kinematischer und mechanischer Beziehungen.'' Berlin, 1925. Quantum mechanics *Erwin Schrödinger, Schrödinger, Erwin (Austria). ''Quantisierung als Eigenwertproblem.'' Leipzig, 1926. Quantum mechanics *Werner Heisenberg, Heisenberg, Werner (Germany). ''Über den anschaulichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen Kinematik und Mechanik'' Berlin, 1927. Quantum mechanics *Ivan Pavlov, Pavlov, Ivan (Russia). ''Conditioned Reflexes.'' New York, 1928. Classical conditioning *Hermann Oberth, Oberth, Hermann (Romania). ''Wege zur Raumschiffahrt (Ways to Spaceflight).'' Munich/Berlin, 1929. Rockets *Edwin Hubble, Hubble, Edwin (America). ''A Relation between Distance and Radial Velocity among Extra-Galactic Nebulae.'' Washington, D.C., 1929. Astrophysics *Paul Dirac, Dirac, Paul (England). ''The Principles of Quantum Mechanics.'' Oxford, 1930. Quantum mechanics. *Kurt Gödel, Gödel, Kurt (Czech Republic/America). ''On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems, On formally undecidable propositions of Principia Mathematica and related systems.'' Leipzig, 1931. Mathematical logic. *John von Neumann, von Neumann, John (Hungary/America). ''Mathematical Foundations of Quantum Mechanics, Mathematische Grundlagen der Quantenmechanik.'' 1932. Quantum mechanics *Robert H. Goddard, Goddard, Robert Hutchings (America). ''Liquid Propellant Rocket Development.'' Washington, D.C., 1936. Rockets *John Maynard Keynes, Keynes, John Maynard (England). ''The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money.'' London, 1936. Economics *Alonzo Church, Church, Alonzo (America). ''A Note on the Entscheidungsproblem.'' Ann Arbor, Michigan, Ann Arbor, 1936. Computer science. *Alan Turing, Turing, Alan (England). ''Turing's proof, On Computable Numbers, with an Application to the Entscheidungsproblem.'' Cambridge, 1937. Computing *Theodosius Dobzhansky, Dobzhansky, Theodosius (Ukraine/America). ''Genetics and the Origin of Species''. 1937. Evolutionary biology *Claude Shannon, Shannon, Claude E. (America). ''A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits'' (Master's thesis, MIT). 1937. Computing *Linus Pauling, Pauling, Linus (America). ''The Nature of the Chemical Bond.'' Ithaca, New York, Ithaca, 1939.
Chemistry Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a physical science within the natural sciences that studies the chemical elements that make up matter and chemical compound, compounds made of atoms, molecules a ...
. *John von Neumann, von Neumann, John (Hungary/America) & Oskar Morgenstern, Morgenstern, Oskar (Germany/America). ''Theory of Games and Economic Behavior.'' Princeton University Press, Princeton, 1944. Game theory


References


External links


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