Albanian Tribe
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The Albanian tribes () form a historical mode of social organization (''farefisní'') in
Albania Albania ( ; or ), officially the Republic of Albania (), is a country in Southeast Europe. It is located in the Balkans, on the Adriatic Sea, Adriatic and Ionian Seas within the Mediterranean Sea, and shares land borders with Montenegro to ...
and the southwestern
Balkans The Balkans ( , ), corresponding partially with the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throug ...
characterized by a common culture, often common patrilineal kinship ties and shared
social ties In social network analysis and mathematical sociology, interpersonal ties are defined as information-carrying connections between people. Interpersonal ties, generally, come in three varieties: ''strong'', ''weak'' or ''absent''. Weak social t ...
. The ''fis'' ( sq-definite, fisi; commonly translated as "tribe", also as "clan" or "kin" community) stands at the center of Albanian organization based on
kinship In anthropology, kinship is the web of social relationships that form an important part of the lives of all humans in all societies, although its exact meanings even within this discipline are often debated. Anthropologist Robin Fox says that ...
relations, a concept that can be found among southern Albanians also with the term ''farë'' ( sq-definite, fara). Inherited from ancient Illyrian social structures, Albanian tribal society emerged in the early Middle Ages as the dominant form of social organization among Albanians. The development of
feudalism Feudalism, also known as the feudal system, was a combination of legal, economic, military, cultural, and political customs that flourished in Middle Ages, medieval Europe from the 9th to 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a way of struc ...
came to both antagonize it, and slowly integrate aspects of it in Albanian feudal society, as most noble families themselves came from these
tribe The term tribe is used in many different contexts to refer to a category of human social group. The predominant worldwide use of the term in English is in the discipline of anthropology. The definition is contested, in part due to conflict ...
s and depended on their support. This process stopped after the Ottoman conquest of Albania and the Balkans in the late 15th century and was followed by a process of strengthening of the tribe (''fis'') as a means of organization against Ottoman centralization particularly in the mountains of northern Albania and adjacent areas of
Montenegro , image_flag = Flag of Montenegro.svg , image_coat = Coat of arms of Montenegro.svg , coa_size = 80 , national_motto = , national_anthem = () , image_map = Europe-Mont ...
. It also remained in a less developed system in
southern Albania Southern Albania () is one of the three NUTS-2 Regions of Albania. It consists of five counties: Berat, Fier, Gjirokastër, Korçë and Vlorë. Combined, they have a population of 700,000 as of the 2023 census. The southwestern part of the c ...
where large feudal estates and later trade and urban centres began to develop at the expense of tribal organization. One of the most particular elements of the Albanian tribal structure is its dependence on the '' Kanun'', a code of
Albanian Albanian may refer to: *Pertaining to Albania in Southeast Europe; in particular: **Albanians, an ethnic group native to the Balkans **Albanian language **Albanian culture **Demographics of Albania, includes other ethnic groups within the country ...
oral
customary law A legal custom is the established pattern of behavior within a particular social setting. A claim can be carried out in defense of "what has always been done and accepted by law". Customary law (also, consuetudinary or unofficial law) exists wher ...
s. Most tribes engaged in warfare against external forces like the Ottoman Empire. Some also engaged in limited inter-tribal struggle for the control of resources. Until the early years of the 20th century, Albanian tribal society remained largely intact until the rise to power of the
communist regime A communist state, also known as a Marxist–Leninist state, is a one-party state in which the totality of the power belongs to a party adhering to some form of Marxism–Leninism, a branch of the communist ideology. Marxism–Leninism was ...
in 1944, and is considered to be the only example of a tribal social system with tribal chiefs and councils,
blood feuds A feud , also known in more extreme cases as a blood feud, vendetta, faida, clan war, gang war, private war, or mob war, is a long-running argument or fight, often between social groups of people, especially families or clans. Feuds begin because ...
and oral customary laws to survive in
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until the middle of the 20th century.


Terminology

Fundamental terms that define Albanian tribal structure are shared by all regions. Some terms may be used interchangeably with the same semantic content and other terms have a different content depending on the region. No uniform or standard classification exists as societal structure showed variance even within the same general area. The term ''fis'' is the central concept of Albanian tribal structure. The ''fis'' is a community whose members are linked to each other as kin through the same patrilineal ancestry and live in the same territory. It has been translated in English as ''tribe'' or ''clan''. Thus, ''fis'' refers both to the kinship ties that bind the community and the territorialization of that community in a region exclusively used in a communal manner by the members of the ''fis''. In contrast, ''bashkësi'' (literally, ''association'') refers to a community of the same ancestry that has not been established territorially in a given area that is its traditional home region. It is further divided into ''fis i madh'' and ''fis i vogël''. ''Fis i madh'' refers to all members of the kin community that live in its traditional territory, while ''fis i vogël'' refers to the immediate family members and their cousins (''kushëri''). In this sense, it is sometimes used synonymously with ''vëllazëri'' or ''vllazni'' in Geg Albanian. This term refers to all families that trace their origin to the same patrilineal ancestor. Related families (''familje'') are referred to as of one ''bark''/pl. ''barqe'' (literally, ''belly''). As some tribes grew in number, a part of them settled in new territory and formed a new fis that may or may not have held the same name as the parental group. The concept of ''farefisni'' refers to the bonds between all communities that stem from the same ''fis''. ''Farë'' literally means ''seed''. Among southern Albanians, it is sometimes used as a synonym for ''fis'', which in turn is used in the meaning of ''fis i vogël''. The term ''
bajrak The ''bajrak'' (; pronounced or , meaning "banner" or "flag") was an Ottoman Empire, Ottoman Administrative division, territorial unit, consisting of villages in mountainous frontier regions of the Balkans, from which military recruitment was ba ...
'' refers to an Ottoman military institution of the 17th century. In international bibliography of the late 19th and early 20th centuries it was often mistakenly equated with the ''fis'' as both would sometimes cover the same geographical area. The result of this mistake was the portrayal of ''bajrak'' administrative divisions and other regions as ''fis'' in early anthropological accounts of Albania, although there were bajraks in which only a small part or none at all constituted a ''fis''.


Geography

The Malësors lived in three geographical regions within northern Albania.
Malësia e Madhe Malësia e Madhe ("Great Highlands"), known simply as Malësia (, ), is a historical and ethnographic region in northern Albania and eastern central Montenegro corresponding to the highlands of the geographical subdivision of the Malësi e Madhe ...
(great highlands) contained five large tribes, four of which ( Hoti,
Kelmendi Kelmendi is a historical Albanian tribes, Albanian tribe (''fis'') and region in Malësia (Kelmend (municipality), Kelmend municipality) and eastern Montenegro (parts of Gusinje Municipality). It is located in the upper valley of the Cem (river), ...
, Shkreli, Kastrati) having a Catholic majority and Muslim minority and with Gruda evenly split between both religions. Within Malësia e Madhe there were seven small additional tribes. During times of war and mobilisation of troops, the bajraktar (chieftain) of Hoti was recognised by the Ottoman government as leader of all forces of the Malësia e Madhe tribes, having collectively some 6,200 rifles. Malësia e Vogël (small highlands) contained seven Catholic tribes such as the
Shala Shala (Šala) was a Mesopotamian goddess of weather and grain and the wife of the weather god Adad. It is assumed that she originated in northern Mesopotamia and that her name might have Hurrian origin. She was worshiped especially in Karka ...
with four bajaraktars, Shoshi, Toplana, and
Nikaj The Nikaj are an historical Albanian tribe (''fis'') and region in the Highlands of Gjakova of north Albania. The Nikaj tribe is a traditional ''fis'' in the sense of being a community that claims paternal descent from one common ancestor, consis ...
containing some 1,250 households with a collective strength of 2,500 men that could be mobilised for war. Shoshi had a distinction in the region of possessing a legendary rock associated with
Lekë Dukagjini Lekë III Dukagjini (1410–1481), mostly known as Lekë Dukagjini, was a 15th-century member of the Albanian nobility, from the Dukagjini family. A contemporary of Skanderbeg, Dukagjini is known for the '' Kanuni i Lekë Dukagjinit'', a code of ...
. The
Mirdita Mirdita is a region of northern Albania whose territory is synonymous with the historic Albanian tribe of the same name. Etymology The name Mirdita derives from a legendary ancestor named Mir Diti from whom the tribe claims descent. Other a ...
region was also a large powerful devoutly Catholic tribe with 2,500 households and five bajraktars that could mobilize 5,000 irregular troops. A general assembly of the Mirdita often met in
Orosh Orosh (or ) is a small village in Mirditë within the county of Lezhë in the northwest of the Republic of Albania. Geographically, it is located inside the mountainous region of northern Albania in the Valley of Fan. The seat of the former muni ...
to deliberate on important issues relating to the tribe. The position of hereditary prince of the tribe with the title ''Prenk Pasha'' (Prince Lord) was held by the Gjonmarkaj family. Apart from this princely family, the
Franciscan The Franciscans are a group of related organizations in the Catholic Church, founded or inspired by the Italian saint Francis of Assisi. They include three independent Religious institute, religious orders for men (the Order of Friars Minor bei ...
Abbot held some influence among the Mirdita tribesmen. The government estimated the military strength of Malësors in İşkodra sanjak as numbering over 30,000 tribesmen and Ottoman officials were of the view that the highlanders could defeat Montenegro on their own with limited state assistance. In Western Kosovo, the Gjakovë highlands contained eight tribes that were mainly Muslim; in the
Luma Luma or LUMA may refer to: Arts and entertainment * LUMA Projection Arts Festival, an annual event in Binghamton, NY, US * Unified Theory (band), formerly called Luma * Luma (Mario), a fictional species from the video game ''Super Mario Galaxy'' ...
area near
Prizren Prizren ( sq-definite, Prizreni, ; sr-cyr, Призрен) is the second List of cities and towns in Kosovo, most populous city and Municipalities of Kosovo, municipality of Kosovo and seat of the eponymous municipality and District of Prizren, ...
there were five tribes, mostly Muslim. Other important tribal groupings further south include the highlanders of the Dibra region known as the "Tigers of Dibra". Among the many religiously mixed Catholic-Muslim tribes and one Muslim-Orthodox clan, Ottoman officials noted that tribal loyalties superseded religious affiliations. In Catholic households there were instances of Christians who possessed four wives, marrying the first spouse in a church and the other three in the presence of an imam, while among Muslim households the Islamic tradition of circumcision was ignored.


Organisation


Northern Albanian

Among
Gheg Gheg or Geg (Gheg Albanian: ''gegnisht'', Standard ) is one of the two major varieties of Albanian, the other being Tosk. The geographic dividing line between the two varieties is the Shkumbin River, which winds its way through central Alba ...
Malësors of the highlands, the ' is headed by the oldest male (') and forms the basic unit of tribal society. The governing councils consist of elders (', singular: '). The idea of law administration is so closely related to "old age", that "to arbitrate" (') and (') means both "seniority" and "arbitration". The ''fis'' is divided into a group of several closely related houses (') and a main house ('). The head of ' is the ' (lit. "head", pl. or ), while the head of the house is the ' ("the lord of the house"). A house may be composed of two or three other houses with property in common under one '. A political and territorial unit consisting of several
clan A clan is a group of people united by actual or perceived kinship and descent. Even if lineage details are unknown, a clan may claim descent from a founding member or apical ancestor who serves as a symbol of the clan's unity. Many societie ...
s was the ' (standard or banner). The leader of a , whose position was hereditary, was referred to as ''bajraktar'' (standard bearer). Several bajraks composed a tribe, which was led by a man from a notable family, while major issues were decided by the tribe assembly whose members of the tribe were male. The Ottomans implemented the ''bayraktar'' system within northern Albanian tribes, and granted some privileges to the ''bayraktars'' (banner chieftains) in exchange for their obligation to mobilize local fighters to support military actions of the Ottoman forces. Those privileges entitled Albanian tribesmen to pay no taxes and to be excluded from military conscription in return for commitment to military service as irregular troops; however few served in that capacity. Malisors viewed Ottoman officials as a threat to their tribal way of living and left it to their bajraktars to deal with the Ottoman political system. Officials of the
Late Ottoman period The Late Ottoman period (c. 1750 - 1918) is the archaeologically and historically defined periodisation of areas under the control of the Ottoman Empire and its dependencies, primarily in the Middle East, North Africa, the Caucasus and the Balkans ...
noted that Malisors preferred that their children learn the use of a weapon and refused to send them to government schools that taught Turkish, which was viewed as a form of state control. Most Albanian Malisors were illiterate.


Southern Albanian

In southern Albania, the social system is based on the house (' or ') and the ', which consists of a patrilineal kinship group and an
exogamous Exogamy is the social norm of mating or marrying outside one's social group. The group defines the scope and extent of exogamy, and the rules and enforcement mechanisms that ensure its continuity. One form of exogamy is dual exogamy, in which tw ...
unit composed of members with some property in common. The patrilineal kinship ties are defined by the concept of "blood" (') including moral and physical characteristics that are shared by all the members of a '. The ' generally consists of three or four generations sharing a common ancestor, while the tribe, ' or ', is much smaller than a northern Albanian '. The members of a ' have a common ancestor who is the eponymos founder of the village. The political organization is communal; every neighbourhood sends a representing elder (') to the governing council of the village ('), who elect the head of the village ('). The Albanian term ' ( definite form: ') means "seed" and "progeny". In northern Albania it had no legal use, whereas in southern Albania, ''fara'' was used legally instead of the term ' of the northerners until the beginning of the 19th century, to mean a politically autonomous tribe and a 'brotherhood' ( Gheg Alb. '; Tosk Alb. '; or Alb. ''bark'', "belly"). Attestations of these forms of social organization among southern Albanians are reported by Leake and Pouqueville when describing the traditional organization of
Suli Suli or Sulli can refer to: * Souli, region in Epirus, Greece, and home of the Souliotes * Abu Bakr bin Yahya al-Suli (c. 880 – 946), poet and scholar at the Abbasid court * Suliformes, proposed order of seabirds * Suli Lake in China * ''Suli'' ...
(between 1660 and 1803),
Epirus Epirus () is a Region#Geographical regions, geographical and historical region, historical region in southeastern Europe, now shared between Greece and Albania. It lies between the Pindus Mountains and the Ionian Sea, stretching from the Bay ...
, and of southern Albania in general (until the beginning of the 19th century). Pouqueville in particular reported that each village (Alb. ') and each town was some kind of autonomous republic composed of ' brotherhoods. In other accounts he mentioned the 'great '' tribes, each having their
polemarch A polemarch (, from , ''polémarchos'') was a senior military title in various ancient Greek city states ('' poleis''). The title is derived from the words '' polemos'' ('war') and ''archon'' ('ruler, leader') and translates as 'warleader' or 'wa ...
s. These chiefs had
boluk-bashi Boluk-bashi () was an Ottoman officer rank equivalent to captain (see Military of the Ottoman Empire). The holder was in command of a ''bölük'', a sub-division of a regiment. It was higher than ''oda-bashi'' (lieutenant). __NOTOC__ Royal Corps of ...
s (platoon commanders), analogus to the northern ', the ' and the ' (chieftains) of the ', respectively. Unlike the northern Albanian tribes, the lineage groups of southern Albanians did not inhabit a closed region, but constituted ethnographic islands located on mountains surrounded by a
farming Agriculture encompasses crop and livestock production, aquaculture, and forestry for food and non-food products. Agriculture was a key factor in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created ...
environment. One of the centres of these lineage societies was based in
Labëria Labëria is a historic region that is roughly situated in southwestern Albania. Its inhabitants are known as Labs (referred to as , pl. ''Lebër'', also dial. sing. ''Lap'') and its boundaries reach from Vlorë to Himara in the south, to the Gr ...
in the central mountains of southern Albania. A second centre was based in Himara in southwest Albania. A third centre was based in the Suli region, located far south in the middle of a Greek population. The tendency to build segmentary lineage organizations of these mountain communities increased with the degree of their isolation, causing the loss of the tribal organization of the Albanian highlanders in southern Albania and northern Greece since the 15th century, during the period of the Ottoman dominion. Afterwards, these lineage segments increasingly became the basic political, economic, religious, and predatory units of social organization. According to Pouqueville these forms of social organizations disappeared with the dominion of the Ottoman Albanian ruler Ali Pasha, and definitely ended in 1813. In the
Pashalik of Yanina The Pashalik of Yanina, sometimes referred to as the Pashalik of Ioannina or Pashalik of Janina, was an autonomous pashalik within the Ottoman Empire between 1787 and 1822 covering large areas of Albania, Greece, and North Macedonia. Under the ...
, in addition to the
Sharia Sharia, Sharī'ah, Shari'a, or Shariah () is a body of religious law that forms a part of the Islamic tradition based on Islamic holy books, scriptures of Islam, particularly the Quran, Qur'an and hadith. In Islamic terminology ''sharīʿah'' ...
for Muslims and
Canon Canon or Canons may refer to: Arts and entertainment * Canon (fiction), the material accepted as officially written by an author or an ascribed author * Literary canon, an accepted body of works considered as high culture ** Western canon, th ...
for Christians, Ali Pasha enforced his own laws, allowing only in rare cases the usage of local Albanian tribal customary laws. After annexing
Suli Suli or Sulli can refer to: * Souli, region in Epirus, Greece, and home of the Souliotes * Abu Bakr bin Yahya al-Suli (c. 880 – 946), poet and scholar at the Abbasid court * Suliformes, proposed order of seabirds * Suli Lake in China * ''Suli'' ...
and Himara into his semi-independent state in 1798, he tried to organize the judiciary in every city and province according to the principle of social equality, enforcing his laws for the entire population, Muslims and Christians. To limit
blood feud A feud , also known in more extreme cases as a blood feud, vendetta, faida, clan war, gang war, private war, or mob war, is a long-running argument or fight, often between social groups of people, especially family, families or clans. Feuds begin ...
killings, Ali Pasha replaced blood feuds (Alb. '' gjakmarrje'') with other punishments such as blood payment or expulsion or the death penalty. Ali Pasha also reached an agreement with the Kurveleshi population not to trespass their territories, which at that time were larger than the area they inhabit today. Continualy since the 18th century, blood feuds and their consequences in
Labëria Labëria is a historic region that is roughly situated in southwestern Albania. Its inhabitants are known as Labs (referred to as , pl. ''Lebër'', also dial. sing. ''Lap'') and its boundaries reach from Vlorë to Himara in the south, to the Gr ...
have been limited principally by the councils of elders. The mountain region of Kurveleshi represents the last example of a tribal system among southern Albanians, which was regulated by the Code of Zuli ( ''Kanuni i Papa Zhulit/Zulit'' or ''Kanuni i Idriz Sulit''). In Kurvelesh the names of the villages were built as collective pluralia to designate the tribal settlements. For instance, ''
Lazarat Lazarat ( sq-definite, Lazarati) is a village in Gjirokastër County, in southern Albania. It is located in the Dropull valley. Formerly functioning as a municipality, as part of the 2015 local government reform, it became a subdivision of the muni ...
'' is a toponym that refers to the 'descendants of Lazar'.


Culture


Autonomy, Kanun and Gjakmarrja

The northern Albanian tribes are fiercely proud of the fact that they have never been completely conquered by external powers, in particular by the
Ottoman Empire The Ottoman Empire (), also called the Turkish Empire, was an empire, imperial realm that controlled much of Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th to early 20th centuries; it also controlled parts of southeastern Centr ...
. This fact is considered as orthodox on a heritage and historical level by the tribes. In the 18th century the Ottomans instituted the system of
bajrak The ''bajrak'' (; pronounced or , meaning "banner" or "flag") was an Ottoman Empire, Ottoman Administrative division, territorial unit, consisting of villages in mountainous frontier regions of the Balkans, from which military recruitment was ba ...
military organization in northern Albania and Kosovo. From the Ottoman perspective, the institution of the bajrak had multiple benefits. Although it recognized a semi-autonomous status in communities like Hoti, it could also be used to stabilize the borderlands; in their new capacity, these communities would defend the borders of the empire as their own territory. Furthermore, in times of rebellion the Ottomans could use the office of head bajraktar to divide and conquer the tribes by handing out privileges to a select few. On the other hand, autonomy of the borderlands was a source of conflict as the tribes tried to increase their autonomy and minimize involvement of the Ottoman state. Through a series of conflicts and renegotiation a state of balance was found between Ottoman centralization and tribal autonomy. Hence, the Ottoman era is marked by both continual conflict and the formalization of socio-economic status within Ottoman administration. Members of the tribes of northern Albania believe that their history is based on the notions of resistance and isolationism. Some scholars connect this belief with the concept of "negotiated peripherality"; throughout history the territory that northern Albanian tribes occupy has been contested and is peripheral. Northern Albanian tribes often exploited their position and negotiated their peripherality in profitable ways, which also affected their national program; its significance and challenges are different from those in southern Albania. Such peripheral territories are zones of the dynamic creation of culture, where it is possible to manipulate regional and national histories to the advantage of certain individuals and groups. Malisor society used tribal law and participated in the custom of bloodfeuding. Ottoman control mainly existed in the few urban centres and valleys of northern Albania but was minimal or almost non-existent in the mountains, where Malisors lived an autonomous existence according to kanun (tribal law) of Lek Dukagjini. Western Kosovo was also an area where Ottoman rule among highlanders was minimal to non-existent and government officials would ally themselves with local power holders to exert any form of authority. Western Kosovo was dominated by the Albanian tribal system where Kosovar Malisors settled disputes among themselves through mountain law. In a period without stable state control, it was the tribe who tried its members. The usual punishments were
fines Fines may refer to: *Fines, Andalusia, Spanish municipality *Fine (penalty) * Fine, a dated term for a Lease#Leases_of_land, premium on a lease of land, a large sum the tenant pays to commute (lessen) the rent throughout the term * Fines, ore or oth ...
,
exile Exile or banishment is primarily penal expulsion from one's native country, and secondarily expatriation or prolonged absence from one's homeland under either the compulsion of circumstance or the rigors of some high purpose. Usually persons ...
or disarmament. The house of the exiled member of the tribe would be burned. Disarmament was regarded as the most embarrassing verdict. The Law of Lek Dukagjini (kanun) was named after a medieval prince
Lekë Dukagjini Lekë III Dukagjini (1410–1481), mostly known as Lekë Dukagjini, was a 15th-century member of the Albanian nobility, from the Dukagjini family. A contemporary of Skanderbeg, Dukagjini is known for the '' Kanuni i Lekë Dukagjinit'', a code of ...
from the fifteenth century who ruled in northern Albania and codified the customary laws of the highlands. Albanian tribes from the Dibra region governed themselves according to the Law of Skanderbeg (kanun), named after a fifteenth century warrior who fought the Ottomans. Disputes would be solved through tribal law within the framework of vendetta or blood feuding; the activity was widespread among the Malisors. In situations of murder, tribal law stipulated the principle of ''koka për kokë'' (a head for a head) where relatives of the victim are obliged to seek ''
gjakmarrja In traditional Albanian culture, ( English: "blood-taking", i.e. "blood feud") or ("revenge") is the social obligation to kill an offender or a member of their family in order to salvage one's honor. This practice is generally seen as in line w ...
'' (blood vengeance). Nineteen percent of male deaths in İşkodra vilayet and 600 fatalities per year in Western Kosovo were from murders caused by vendetta and blood feuding during the late Ottoman period.


Besa

Besa is a word in the
Albanian language Albanian (Endonym and exonym, endonym: , , or ) is an Indo-European languages, Indo-European language and the only surviving representative of the Albanoid, Albanoid branch, which belongs to the Paleo-Balkan languages, Paleo-Balkan group. It ...
meaning "pledge of honor", "to keep the promise". Besa is an important institution within the tribal society of the Albanian Malisors, and is one of the moral principles of the Kanun. Albanian tribes swore oaths to jointly fight against the government and in this respect the besa served to uphold tribal autonomy. The besa was used to regulate tribal affairs both between and within tribes. The Ottoman government used the besa as a way to co-opt Albanian tribes into supporting state policies or to seal agreements. During the Ottoman period, the besa would be cited in government reports of Albanian unrest, especially in the tribes. The besa formed a central place within Albanian society in order to generate military and political power. Besas held Albanians together, united them and would wane when the will to enforce them dissipated. In times of revolt against the Ottomans, the besa functioned as a link among different groups and tribes. Besa is an important part of personal and familial standing and is often used as an example of "
Albanianism Albanian nationalism is a general grouping of nationalist ideas and concepts generated by ethnic Albanians that were first formed in the 19th century during the Albanian National Awakening (). Albanian nationalism is also associated with similar c ...
". Someone who breaks his besa may even be banished from his community.


History


Late Ottoman period

During the
Great Eastern Crisis The Great Eastern Crisis of 1875–1878 began in the Ottoman Empire's Rumelia, administrative territories in the Balkan Peninsula in 1875, with the outbreak of several uprisings and wars that resulted in the intervention of international powers, ...
, Prenk Bib Doda, hereditary chieftain of Mirdita initiated a rebellion in mid-April 1877 against government control and the Ottoman Empire sent troops to put it down. Montenegro attempted to gain support among the Malisors even though it lacked religious or ethnic links with the Albanian tribesmen. During the Eastern Crisis and subsequent border negotiations in April 1880, Italy suggested that the Ottoman Empire give Montenegro the Tuz district, containing mainly Catholic Gruda and Hoti populations, which would have split between them both countries. With Hoti this would have caused tensions and instability because of their traditionally having precedence over the other four tribes during peace and war. The tribes affected by the negotiations swore a besa (pledge) to resist any reduction of their lands and sent telegrams to surrounding regions asking for military assistance. During the late Ottoman period Ghegs often lacked education and integration within the Ottoman system, even though they had autonomy and military capabilities. Those factors gave the area of Gegënia an importance within the empire that differed from Toskëria. Still many Ottoman officers thought that Ghegs, in particular the highlanders, were a liability instead of an asset. They were commonly referred to as a "wild" () and backward people living poverty and ignorance for 500 years, and hostile to civilisation and progress. In areas of Albania were Malisors lived, the empire only posted Ottoman officers who had prior experience in other tribal regions of the state like
Kurdistan Kurdistan (, ; ), or Greater Kurdistan, is a roughly defined geo- cultural region in West Asia wherein the Kurds form a prominent majority population and the Kurdish culture, languages, and national identity have historically been based. G ...
or
Yemen Yemen, officially the Republic of Yemen, is a country in West Asia. Located in South Arabia, southern Arabia, it borders Saudi Arabia to Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, the north, Oman to Oman–Yemen border, the northeast, the south-eastern part ...
that could bridge cultural divides with Gheg tribesmen. Under Sultan
Abdul Hamid II Abdulhamid II or Abdul Hamid II (; ; 21 September 184210 February 1918) was the 34th sultan of the Ottoman Empire, from 1876 to 1909, and the last sultan to exert effective control over the fracturing state. He oversaw a Decline and modernizati ...
, Ottoman officials were posted to Albanian populated lands. Some Albanians strongly disproved of blood feuding, seeing it as inhumane and uncivilised, and an unnecessary waste of life that created social disruption, lawlessness and economic dislocation. To resolve this problem, Ottoman officials formed Blood Feud Reconciliation Commissions (musalaha-ı dem komisyonları) that produced results with limited success. In the late Ottoman period, due to the influence of Catholic Franciscan priests, some reduction of blood feuding among Albanian highlanders was achieved. For instance, guilt was restricted to the offender or their household and one tribe accepted the razing of the offender's home as compensation for the offense. Ottoman officials viewed the violence committed by Malisors in the 1880s-1890s as a tribal problem not related to nationalism or religion. They also noted that Albanian tribesmen who identified with Islam did so in name only and lacked knowledge of the religion. In the aftermath of the
Young Turk Revolution The Young Turk Revolution (July 1908; ) was a constitutionalist revolution in the Ottoman Empire. Revolutionaries belonging to the Internal Committee of Union and Progress, an organization of the Young Turks movement, forced Sultan Abdul Hamid II ...
in 1908 the new Young Turk government established the Commissions for Reconciliation of Blood Feuds that focused on regions such as İpek (Pejë) and Prizren. The commissions sentenced Albanians who had participated in blood feud killing. The Council of Ministers allowed the Commission to continue their work in the provinces until May 1909. After the Young Turk Revolution and subsequent restoration of the Ottoman constitution, the Hoti, Shala, Shoshi, and Kastati tribes made a besa (pledge) to support it and stop blood feuding with other tribes until November 6, 1908. However, Albanian tribes that showed enthusiasm had little knowledge of what the constitution would do for them. During the Albanian revolt of 1910, Malisors such as the Shala tribe fought against Ottoman troops that were sent to quell the uprising and disarm the population by collecting guns and replacing the Law of Lek with state courts and laws. Malisors planned further resistance and Albanian tribes living near the border fled into Montenegro while negotiating terms with the Ottomans for their return. The Ottoman military commander Mahmud Shevket concluded that the Bajraktars had become Albanian nationalists and posed a danger to the empire compared to previous uprisings. The
Albanian revolt of 1911 The Malissori uprising or the Albanian revolt of 1911 was one of many Albanians, Albanian revolts in the Ottoman Empire and lasted from 24 March 1911 until 4 August 1911 in the region of Malësia (also spelled Malissori). Background The main ...
was begun during March by Catholic Albanian tribesmen after they returned from exile in Montenegro. The Ottoman government sent 8,000 troops to quell the uprising and ordered that tribal chieftains stand trial for leading the rebellion. During the revolt,
Terenzio Tocci Terenzio Tocci (; 9 March 1880 – 14 April 1945) was an Italo-Albanian politician of Arbëresh origins. Distinguished for patriotic activities before the Albanian independence he went on to serve during World War II as Chairman of the Superior ...
, an Italo-Albanian lawyer gathered the Mirditë chieftains on 26/27 April 1911 in Orosh and proclaimed the independence of Albania, raised the
flag of Albania The flag of Albania () depicts a silhouetted black double-headed eagle in the center of a red background. The red stands for bravery, strength, valour and bloodshed, while the Eagle – traditionally the symbol of Albanians – represents the so ...
and declared a provisional government. After Ottoman troops entered the area to put down the rebellion, Tocci fled the empire abandoning his activities. On 23 June 1911 Albanian Malisors and other revolutionaries gathered in Montenegro and drafted the
Greçë Memorandum The Greçë Memorandum () or the Red Book () was a memorandum with twelve requests for the establishment of an autonomous Albanian province within the Ottoman Empire. The Memorandum was jointly written by Ismail Kemal and Luigj Gurakuqi. Request ...
demanding Albanian sociopolitical and linguistic rights with signatories from the Hoti, Gruda, Shkreli, Kelmendi and Kastrati tribes. In later negotiations with the Ottomans, an amnesty was granted to the tribesmen with promises by the government to: build roads and schools in tribal areas, pay wages of teachers, limit military service to the Istanbul and Shkodër areas, grant the right to carry weapons in the countryside but not in urban areas, appoint bajraktar relatives to certain administrative positions and compensate the Malisors returning from Montenegro with money and food. The final agreement was signed in
Podgorica Podgorica ( cnr-Cyrl, Подгорица; ) is the Capital city, capital and List of cities and towns in Montenegro, largest city of Montenegro. The city is just north of Lake Skadar and close to coastal destinations on the Adriatic Sea. Histor ...
by both the Ottomans and Malisors during August 1912. The highlanders had managed to thwart the centralist tendencies of the Young Turk government.


Independent Albania

The last tribal system of Europe in northern Albania stayed intact until 1944 when
Albanian communists The People's Socialist Republic of Albania, () was the Marxist-Leninist state that existed in Albania from 10 January 1946 to the 29 April 1991. Originally founded as the People's Republic of Albania from 1946 to 1976, it was governed by the P ...
seized power, ruling the country for half a century. During that time the tribal system was almost eradicated by the communists. After the collapse of communism in the early 1990s, northern Albania underwent demographic changes in tribal areas, sometimes becoming depopulated. Much of the population seeking a better life, moved either abroad or to Albanian cities such as Tiranë, Durrës or Shkodër; populations historically stemming from the tribes have become scattered. Locals that remained in northern Albanian areas have maintained an awareness of their tribal identity.


List of historical tribes and tribal regions

The following is a list of historical Albanian tribes and tribal regions. Some of the tribes are considered ''extinct'' because no collective memory of descent has survived (i.e. Mataruga, Rogami etc.) while others became slavicised very early on and the majority of the descendants no longer consider themselves Albanian (i.e. Kuči, Mahine etc.).


Malësia e Madhe Malësia e Madhe ("Great Highlands"), known simply as Malësia (, ), is a historical and ethnographic region in northern Albania and eastern central Montenegro corresponding to the highlands of the geographical subdivision of the Malësi e Madhe ...

''
Malësia e Madhe Malësia e Madhe ("Great Highlands"), known simply as Malësia (, ), is a historical and ethnographic region in northern Albania and eastern central Montenegro corresponding to the highlands of the geographical subdivision of the Malësi e Madhe ...
'', in the Northern Albanian Alps between Albania and Montenegro, historically has been the land of ten bigger and three smaller tribal regions. Two of them, Suma and Tuzi, came together to form Gruda in the 15th to 16th century. The people of this area are commonly called "highlanders" (). *
Kelmendi Kelmendi is a historical Albanian tribes, Albanian tribe (''fis'') and region in Malësia (Kelmend (municipality), Kelmend municipality) and eastern Montenegro (parts of Gusinje Municipality). It is located in the upper valley of the Cem (river), ...
*
Boga Boga is a common name for fishes and may refer to: *''Haemulon vittata'' *''Haemulon vittatum'' *''Leporinus obtusidens'' Boga may also refer to: * Boga (soft drink), a Tunisian brand of soft drinks * BOGA, the Bern Botanical Gardens in Switzer ...
* Gruda (entirely in Montenegro) * Hoti (partially in Montenegro) * Kastrati * Shkreli * Triesh (entirely in Montenegro) * Koja (entirely in Montenegro) *
Lohja Lohja (; ) is a town in Finland, located in the southern interior of the country. Lohja is situated in the western part of the Uusimaa region. The population of Lohja is approximately . It is the most populous Municipalities of Finland, munici ...
*
Tuzi Tuzi (, ; or ''Tuzi'') is a small town in the central region of Montenegro, and the seat of Tuzi Municipality. It is located along a main road between the city of Podgorica and the Albanian border crossing, just a few kilometers north of Lake S ...
* Gruemiri *
Rrjolli The Rrjolli is a historical Albanian tribe (''fis'') and region in Malësia of north Albania. The tribal region is centred along the banks of the Rrjoll river that stems from Mount Bishkaz and empties into Lake Shkodër. The Rrjolli tribe is not a ...
* Reçi * Marsheni * Lepuroshi


Pulat

* Plani * Xhani * Kiri * Suma * Drishti


Brda-

Zeta Zeta (, ; uppercase Ζ, lowercase ζ; , , classical or ''zē̂ta''; ''zíta'') is the sixth letter of the Greek alphabet. In the system of Greek numerals, it has a value of 7. It was derived from the Phoenician alphabet, Phoenician letter zay ...

*
Bytadosi Bythëdosi (also Bitidosi, Bitadosi; cyrl, Битидоси, Битадоси) was a historical noble Albanian tribes, Albanian tribe (''fis'') in the Middle Ages. They inhabited the Cem (river), Cem valley in the Brda (Montenegro) area in south-e ...
* Bratonishi *
Bukumiri Bukumiri (alternatively, ''Bukmiri'') was an Albanian tribe (''fis'') that lived in present-day central and south-eastern Montenegro. They were semi-nomadic pastoralists whose social organization was based on kinship around brotherhoods of common p ...
* Kuçi *
Macure The Macure were an Albanian tribe that lived on the territory on the part of Montenegro which is today known as Šekular. Bratonožići and Rovci. Like other non-Slavic tribes of Montenegro, they were either assimilated or expelled. The majority of ...
*
Malonšići Malonšići (in older forms: Malončići and Malonjšiki, Cyrillic: Малоншићи) was a historical Tribes of Montenegro, tribe (''pleme'') of Albanians, Albanian origin and area in the Brda (Montenegro), Brda region of Montenegro. Malonši ...
* Mataguzi * Mugoša * Piperi * Palabardhi *
Rogami Rogami ( cyrl, Рогами) was a historical Albanian tribe in the Middle Ages. They inhabited the Brda (Montenegro) area in central and eastern Montenegro, being centered around the region of Piperi. Toponyms related to them can be found in many ...
* Vasaj


Albania Veneta Venetian Albania (, , , , ) was the official term for several possessions of the Republic of Venice in the southeastern Adriatic, encompassing coastal territories primarily in present-day southern Montenegro and partially in northern Albania. Sev ...

* Pamalioti * Mahine * Kryethi * Kakarriqi


Herzegovina Herzegovina ( or ; sh-Latn-Cyrl, Hercegovina, separator=" / ", Херцеговина, ) is the southern and smaller of two main geographical Regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina, regions of Bosnia and Herzegovina, the other being Bosnia (reg ...
- Ragusan Hinterland

*
Burmazi Burmazi was an Albanian tribe which is attested in Herzegovina in the Middle Ages. Name The name ''Burmazi'' is a compound of the Albanian words ''burr'' (man) + ''madh'' (big or great). The form ''Burmazi'' instead of ''Burmadhi'' signifies ...
* Mataruga * Shpani * Kriçi *
Riđani The Riđani ( sr-Cyrl, Риђани) was a historical tribe and region in Old Herzegovina, modern Montenegro, that existed from the late medieval period until its annexion by the Principality of Montenegro in the mid-18th century. History Ori ...


Dukagjin Highlands

The Dukagjin Highlands includes the following tribes: * Bobi *
Shala Shala (Šala) was a Mesopotamian goddess of weather and grain and the wife of the weather god Adad. It is assumed that she originated in northern Mesopotamia and that her name might have Hurrian origin. She was worshiped especially in Karka ...
* Shoshi *
Shllaku Shllak ( sq-definite, Shllaku), is a region of Northern Albania, east of Shkodër whose territory is synonymous with the historic Albanian tribe of the same name. Members of Shllaku tribe are Catholics. The region corresponds to today's Shllak Mu ...
* Mavriqi *
Mazreku Mazreku (archaic forms: Masarecu, Masareccu, Meserechus, Mânzaraku, Mazaraki or Mazarek) is an Albanian tribe or ''fis'' from the Dukagjin highlands. Historically they were one of the most widespread tribes, and placenames related to them are fo ...
* Dushmani * Toplana * Prekali


Gjakova Highlands The Highlands of Gjakova or Gjakova Highlands (), known colloquially as ''Tropoja'', refers to the mountainous ethnographic region in the eastern Albanian Alps that sits between north-eastern Albania and western Kosovo, serving as the historical ...

There are six tribes of the
Gjakova Highlands The Highlands of Gjakova or Gjakova Highlands (), known colloquially as ''Tropoja'', refers to the mountainous ethnographic region in the eastern Albanian Alps that sits between north-eastern Albania and western Kosovo, serving as the historical ...
() also known as ''Malësia e Vogël'' ("Lesser Malësia"): *
Nikaj The Nikaj are an historical Albanian tribe (''fis'') and region in the Highlands of Gjakova of north Albania. The Nikaj tribe is a traditional ''fis'' in the sense of being a community that claims paternal descent from one common ancestor, consis ...
(commonly grouped as Nikaj-Mërtur) *
Mërturi The Mërturi are an historical Albanian tribe (''fis'') and region in the Highlands of Gjakova of north Albania. The Mërturi tribe is a traditional ''fis'' in the sense of being a community that claims paternal descent from one common ancestor, ...
(commonly grouped as Nikaj-Mërtur) *
Krasniqi Krasniqi is a historical Albanian tribe and region in the Accursed Mountains in northeastern Albania, bordering Kosovo. The region lies within the Tropoje District and is part of a wider area between Albania and Kosovo that is historically kn ...
* Gashi * Bytyçi *
Morina ''Morina'' is a genus flowering plants in the family Caprifoliaceae. It includes 14 species native to Eurasia, ranging from southeastern Europe through Western and Central Asia to the Himalayas, China, Bangladesh, and Myanmar. It is named in hon ...


Puka

The "seven tribes of Puka" (), inhabit the Puka region. Durham said of them: "Puka group ... sometimes reckoned a large tribe of seven bairaks. Sometimes as a group of tribes". * Qerreti * Puka *
Kabashi The Kabashi (the definite form of Kabash) are an Albanian tribe, or ''fis'', from the Pukë region. It is considered part of the "seven tribes of Puka" (Albanian: shtatë bajrakët e Pukës) that inhabit the region. Durham said of them: "Puka ...
* Berisha or Berisha-Merturi * Thaçi * Mali i Zi


Mirdita Mirdita is a region of northern Albania whose territory is synonymous with the historic Albanian tribe of the same name. Etymology The name Mirdita derives from a legendary ancestor named Mir Diti from whom the tribe claims descent. Other a ...

* Skana *
Dibrri The Dibrri tribe is an Albanian tribe and one of the five bajraks of the ethnographic Mirdita region in northern central Albania. Geography Dibrri tribal territory stretches across the counties of Lezhë and Shkodër. The northern portion occup ...
* Fani *
Kushneni The Kushneni or Kuzhneni tribe are an Albanian tribes, Albanian tribe and one of the traditional bajraks of the Mirdita region in northern central Albania. The Kushneni tribe were one of the three traditional bajraks of Mirdita, which has now incr ...
*
Oroshi is the Japanese term for a wind blowing strong down the slope of a mountain, occasionally as strong gusts of wind which can cause damage. ''Oroshi'' is a strong local wind across the Kanto Plain on the Pacific Ocean side of central Honshu. This ...
*
Spaçi The Spaçi or Spaqi tribe is an Albanian tribe and one of the bajraks of the ethnographic Mirdita region in northern central Albania. The Spaçi tribe were one of the three traditional bajraks of Mirdita, which has now increased to five. Geograp ...
* Kthella * Selita * Dukagjini


Shkodra Lowlands -

Zadrima Zadrima is an ethnographic region situated in north-western Albania between the cities of Shkodra and Lezha, located left of the Lower Drin which eventually drains into the Adriatic Sea from near Lezha. Geography The Zadrima Plain includes v ...
- Lezha Highlands

*
Bushati The Bushati family () is an Albanian Muslim family that ruled the Pashalik of Scutari from 1757 to 1831. Origins They are descendants of the medieval Bushati tribe, a pastoralist tribe () in northern Albania and Montenegro. The name Bushat is c ...
* Bulgëri * Kryezezi * Manatia * Vela *
Renesi The Renesi were a medieval Albanian tribe from the region around Lezhë, in northern Albania. The Renesi were Catholic. Some members of the Renesi migrated in Dalmatia and settled in the city of Zara. They became a numerous and important stradio ...


Mat A mat is a hard or soft floor covering that generally is placed on a floor or other flat surface. Mats serve a range of purposes including: * serving to clean items passed over it, such as a doormat, which removes dirt from the soles of shoe ...
- Kruja Highlands

* Kurbini * Ranza * Benda * Bushkashi * Doçi * Kadiu * Jonima * Progoni


Upper Drin Basin

*
Hasi People's Socialist Revolutionary Party (; HASI) was a non-legal Basque political party, considered commonly to be the political branch of ETA. It always ran as part of the coalition of the Basque National Liberation Movement The Basque National ...
*
Luma Luma or LUMA may refer to: Arts and entertainment * LUMA Projection Arts Festival, an annual event in Binghamton, NY, US * Unified Theory (band), formerly called Luma * Luma (Mario), a fictional species from the video game ''Super Mario Galaxy'' ...
* Lura *
Arrëni Arrëni (also spelled Arni, Arrni, Arnji and Arrnji) were a small Albanian tribe or ''fis'' from the Lumë region. Geography The Arrëni inhabited the southwestern part of the Lumë valley and a village in the region is named after their trib ...
* Dibra


Sharr Mountains Dragash or Sharr ( sq-definite, Dragashi or ''Sharri;'' sr-cyr, Драгаш) is a town and municipality located in the Prizren District of Kosovo. According to the 2011 census, the municipality has 34,827 inhabitants. The Albanian name ''Shar ...

*
Sopa The Stop Online Piracy Act (SOPA) was a proposed United States congressional bill to expand the ability of U.S. law enforcement to combat online copyright infringement and online trafficking in counterfeit goods. Introduced on October 26, 20 ...


Myzeqe The Myzeqe (; sq-definite, Myzeqeja; ) is a plain in the Western Lowlands of Albania. The Myzeqe is the largest and widest plain, measured by area, in the Lowlands. Location The Myzeqe plain is a large alluvial plain traversed by three main riv ...

* Lalë


Labëri and

Epirus Epirus () is a Region#Geographical regions, geographical and historical region, historical region in southeastern Europe, now shared between Greece and Albania. It lies between the Pindus Mountains and the Ionian Sea, stretching from the Bay ...

* Beqaj * Bua * Boçari * Dangëlli * Dhrako * Xhavella * Kaskarelli *
Malakasioi The Malakasi were a historical Albanian tribes, Albanian tribe in medieval Epirus (region), Epirus, Thessaly and later southern Greece. Their name is a reference to their area of origin, Dangëllia (from Turkish Dağ-ili, older name "Malakasi") in ...
*
Mazaraki The Mazreku, or alternatively, the Mazaraki, Mazarech and Masarachi, were a historical Albanian tribe in medieval Epirus and Thessaly. They appear in historical records as one of the Albanian tribes which raided and invaded Thessaly after 1318 and ...
* Nika * Meçohysaj * Pantazi * Zenevisi *
Spata Spata () is a town east of downtown Athens, Greece. Since the 2011 local government reform it is part of the municipality Spata-Artemida, of which it is the seat and a municipal unit. The municipal unit (officially named Spata-Loutsa) has an a ...
*
Losha LoSHA (an abbreviation of List of Sexual Harassers in Academia) was a crowdsourced list of sexual harassers in academia that was compiled in 2017 by Raya Sarkar, a law student studying at UC Davis School of Law. This list, published on Sarkar's Fac ...


Historical

* Suma (part of Gruda since the 15th-16th century) * Nucullaj (now part of Koja) * Gorvokaj (now part of Koja) * Lazori (as of 1485 part of Kuçi) * Kopliku * Vorpsi (surname) Tirana


See also

*
Albanian culture Albanian culture or the culture of Albanians ( ) is a term that embodies the Albanian art, artistic, Albanian cuisine, culinary, Albanian literature, literary, Music of Albania, musical, Politics of Albania, political and Traditions of Albania, ...
*
List of ancient Illyrian peoples and tribes This is a list of ancient tribes in the ancient territory of Illyria (; ). The name ''Illyrians'' seems to be the name of a single Illyrian tribe that was the first to come into contact with the ancient Greeks, causing the name Illyrians to be ap ...


References


Sources

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{Albania topics Albanian ethnographic regions
Albanian Albanian may refer to: *Pertaining to Albania in Southeast Europe; in particular: **Albanians, an ethnic group native to the Balkans **Albanian language **Albanian culture **Demographics of Albania, includes other ethnic groups within the country ...