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Nondualism includes a number of philosophical and spiritual traditions that emphasize the absence of fundamental duality or separation in
existence Existence is the state of having being or reality in contrast to nonexistence and nonbeing. Existence is often contrasted with essence: the essence of an entity is its essential features or qualities, which can be understood even if one does ...
. This viewpoint questions the boundaries conventionally imposed between self and other, mind and body, observer and observed, and other
dichotomies A dichotomy () is a partition of a whole (or a set) into two parts (subsets). In other words, this couple of parts must be * jointly exhaustive: everything must belong to one part or the other, and * mutually exclusive: nothing can belong simu ...
that shape our perception of reality. As a field of study, nondualism delves into the concept of nonduality and the state of nondual awareness, encompassing a diverse array of interpretations, not limited to a particular cultural or religious context; instead, nondualism emerges as a central teaching across various belief systems, inviting individuals to examine reality beyond the confines of dualistic thinking. Nondualism emphasizes
direct experience Direct experience or immediate experience generally denotes experience gained through immediate sense perception. Many philosophical systems hold that knowledge or skills gained through direct experience cannot be fully put into words. See also * ...
as a path to
understanding Understanding is a cognitive process related to an abstract or physical object, such as a person, situation, or message whereby one is able to use concepts to model that object. Understanding is a relation between the knower and an object of u ...
. While intellectual comprehension has its place, nondualism emphasizes the transformative power of firsthand encounters with the underlying unity of existence. Through practices like
meditation Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique to train attention and awareness and detach from reflexive, "discursive thinking", achieving a mentally clear and emotionally calm and stable state, while not judging the meditat ...
and self-inquiry, practitioners aim to bypass the limitations of conceptual understanding and directly apprehend the interconnectedness that transcends superficial distinctions. This experiential aspect of nondualism challenges the limitations of
language Language is a structured system of communication that consists of grammar and vocabulary. It is the primary means by which humans convey meaning, both in spoken and signed language, signed forms, and may also be conveyed through writing syste ...
and rational thought, aiming for a more immediate,
intuitive Intuition is the ability to acquire knowledge without recourse to conscious reasoning or needing an explanation. Different fields use the word "intuition" in very different ways, including but not limited to: direct access to unconscious knowledg ...
form of knowledge. Nondualism is distinct from
monism Monism attributes oneness or singleness () to a concept, such as to existence. Various kinds of monism can be distinguished: * Priority monism states that all existing things go back to a source that is distinct from them; e.g., in Neoplatonis ...
, another philosophical concept that deals with the
nature Nature is an inherent character or constitution, particularly of the Ecosphere (planetary), ecosphere or the universe as a whole. In this general sense nature refers to the Scientific law, laws, elements and phenomenon, phenomena of the physic ...
of
reality Reality is the sum or aggregate of everything in existence; everything that is not imagination, imaginary. Different Culture, cultures and Academic discipline, academic disciplines conceptualize it in various ways. Philosophical questions abo ...
. While both philosophies challenge the conventional understanding of dualism, they approach it differently. Nondualism emphasizes unity amid diversity. In contrast, monism posits that reality is ultimately grounded in a singular substance or principle, reducing the multiplicity of existence to a singular foundation. The distinction lies in their approach to the relationship between the many and the one. Each nondual tradition presents unique interpretations of nonduality. Advaita Vedanta, a school of thought within Hindu philosophy, focuses on the realization of the unity between the individual self ( Ātman) and the ultimate reality (
Brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' (; IAST: ''Brahman'') connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality of the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII In the ...
). In
Zen Buddhism Zen (; from Chinese: '' Chán''; in Korean: ''SÅn'', and Vietnamese: ''Thiá»n'') is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition that developed in China during the Tang dynasty by blending Indian Mahayana Buddhism, particularly Yogacara and Madhyamaka ph ...
, the emphasis is on the direct experience of interconnectedness that goes beyond conventional thought constructs.
Dzogchen Dzogchen ( 'Great Completion' or 'Great Perfection'), also known as ''atiyoga'' ( utmost yoga), is a tradition of teachings in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism and Bön aimed at discovering and continuing in the ultimate ground of existence. The goal ...
, found in
Tibetan Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism is a form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet, Bhutan and Mongolia. It also has a sizable number of adherents in the areas surrounding the Himalayas, including the Indian regions of Ladakh, Gorkhaland Territorial Administration, D ...
, highlights the recognition of an innate nature free from dualistic limitations.
Taoism Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ' ...
embodies nondualism by emphasizing the harmony and interconnectedness of all phenomena, transcending dualistic distinctions, towards a pure state of awareness free of conceptualizations.


Etymology

"Dual" comes from Latin "duo", two, prefixed with "non-" meaning "not"; "non-dual" means "not-two". When referring to nonduality, Hinduism generally uses the Sanskrit term ''Advaita,'' while Buddhism uses ''Advaya'' (Tibetan: ''gNis-med,'' Chinese: ''pu-erh,'' Japanese: ''fu-ni'')''.'' "Advaita" (अदà¥à¤µà¥ˆà¤¤) is from Sanskrit roots ''a'', not; ''dvaita'', dual. As ''Advaita'', it means "not-two" or "one without a second", and is usually translated as "nondualism", "nonduality" or "nondual". The term "nondualism" and the term "''advaita''" from which it originates are polyvalent terms. "Advaya" (अदà¥à¤µà¤¯) is also a Sanskrit word that means "identity, unique, not two, without a second", and typically refers to the two truths doctrine of
Mahayana Buddhism MahÄyÄna ( ; , , ; ) is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices developed in ancient India ( onwards). It is considered one of the three main existing branches of Buddhism, the others being Thera ...
, especially
Madhyamaka Madhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; ; Tibetic languages, Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ་ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as ŚūnyavÄda ("the ŚūnyatÄ, emptiness doctrine") and NiḥsvabhÄvavÄda ("the no Svabhava, ''svabhÄva'' d ...
. The English term "nondual" was informed by early translations of the Upanishads in Western languages other than English from 1775. These terms have entered the English language from literal English renderings of " advaita" subsequent to the first wave of English translations of the
Upanishads The Upanishads (; , , ) are late Vedic and post-Vedic Sanskrit texts that "document the transition from the archaic ritualism of the Veda into new religious ideas and institutions" and the emergence of the central religious concepts of Hind ...
. These translations commenced with the work of
Müller Müller may refer to: Companies * Müller (company), a German multinational dairy company ** Müller Milk & Ingredients, a UK subsidiary of the German company * Müller (store), a German retail chain * GMD Müller, a Swiss aerial lift manufacturi ...
(1823–1900), in the monumental ''
Sacred Books of the East The ''Sacred Books of the East'' is a monumental 50-volume set of English translations of Asian religious texts, edited by Max Müller and published by the Oxford University Press between 1879 and 1910. It incorporates the essential sacred texts ...
'' (1879). He rendered "advaita" as "
Monism Monism attributes oneness or singleness () to a concept, such as to existence. Various kinds of monism can be distinguished: * Priority monism states that all existing things go back to a source that is distinct from them; e.g., in Neoplatonis ...
", as have many recent scholars. However, some scholars state that "advaita" is not really monism.


Definitions

The term nonduality is used across various spiritual and philosophical traditions but lacks a single, universally accepted definition. It broadly refers to the rejection of fundamental distinctions between concepts such as self and other, subject and object, or absolute and relative. Scholars often discuss multiple forms of nonduality, each emphasizing different aspects of
metaphysics Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that examines the basic structure of reality. It is traditionally seen as the study of mind-independent features of the world, but some theorists view it as an inquiry into the conceptual framework of ...
,
epistemology Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that examines the nature, origin, and limits of knowledge. Also called "the theory of knowledge", it explores different types of knowledge, such as propositional knowledge about facts, practical knowle ...
, and
mystical experience A religious experience (sometimes known as a spiritual experience, sacred experience, mystical experience) is a subjective experience which is interpreted within a religious framework. The concept originated in the 19th century, as a defense ag ...
.


Conceptualizing nonduality

David Loy David Robert Loy (born 1947) is an American scholar and author, and teacher in the Sanbo Zen lineage of Japanese Zen Buddhism.Advaita Vedanta,
Mahayana Buddhism MahÄyÄna ( ; , , ; ) is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices developed in ancient India ( onwards). It is considered one of the three main existing branches of Buddhism, the others being Thera ...
, and
Taoism Taoism or Daoism (, ) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to China, emphasizing harmony with the Tao ( zh, p=dào, w=tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', ' ...
. He proposes five major perspectives: # Nondual awareness – The nondifference of subject and object, where the observer and the observed are ultimately inseparable. This idea is central to Buddhist Zen, Advaita Vedanta, and Taoism, which describe reality as a unified field of experience beyond conceptual thought. # The nonplurality of the world – Although reality appears as a multiplicity of distinct entities, some traditions describe it as fundamentally one essence. This is seen in Advaita Vedanta's assertion that
Brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' (; IAST: ''Brahman'') connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality of the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII In the ...
alone is real, with the world appearing as an illusory manifestation. # The negation of dualistic thinking – Some nondual traditions reject binary oppositions such as self/other, good/evil, or existence/non-existence. The
yin-yang symbol In Chinese philosophy, a ''taijitu'' () is a Character (symbol), symbol or diagram () representing ''Taiji (philosophy), taiji'' () in both its monist (''Wuji (philosophy), wuji'') and its Dualism in cosmology, dualist (yin and yang) forms in a ...
of Taoism reflects this transcendence of opposites. # The identity of phenomena and the absolute – Nonduality in
Madhyamaka Madhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; ; Tibetic languages, Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ་ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as ŚūnyavÄda ("the ŚūnyatÄ, emptiness doctrine") and NiḥsvabhÄvavÄda ("the no Svabhava, ''svabhÄva'' d ...
Buddhism and the
two truths doctrine The Buddhism, Buddhist doctrine of the two truths (Sanskrit: '','' ) differentiates between two levels of ''satya'' (Sanskrit; PÄli: ''sacca''; meaning "truth" or "reality") in the teaching of Gautama Buddha, ÅšÄkyamuni Buddha: the "conventiona ...
asserts that phenomena (relative truth) and
emptiness Emptiness as a human condition is a sense of generalized boredom, social alienation, nihilism, and apathy. Feelings of emptiness often accompany dysthymia, depression (mood), depression, loneliness, anhedonia, wiktionary:despair, despair, or o ...
(ultimate truth) are inseparable. This differs from monistic nonduality, as it denies a singular, unchanging essence. # Mysticism and divine unity – Some mystical traditions describe a direct experience of unity between the individual and the divine, such as
Sufism Sufism ( or ) is a mysticism, mystic body of religious practice found within Islam which is characterized by a focus on Islamic Tazkiyah, purification, spirituality, ritualism, and Asceticism#Islam, asceticism. Practitioners of Sufism are r ...
’s fana (self-annihilation), Christian mystical union, and
Kabbalistic Kabbalah or Qabalah ( ; , ; ) is an esoteric method, discipline and school of thought in Jewish mysticism. It forms the foundation of mystical religious interpretations within Judaism. A traditional Kabbalist is called a Mekubbal (). Jewi ...
Ein Sof Ein Sof, or Eyn Sof (, '; meaning "infinite", ), in Kabbalah, is understood as God before any self-manifestation in the production of any spiritual realm, probably derived from Solomon ibn Gabirol's (1021–1070) term, "the Endless One" ( ''še ...
. However, this perspective differs from nondual frameworks that reject theism altogether. While Loy suggests that these perspectives stem from a shared experience of reality, other scholars challenge this claim, arguing that nondualism takes different forms in different traditions.


Nondual awareness

"Nondual awareness" refers to a state of consciousness described in contemplative traditions as a background field of unified, immutable awareness that exists prior to conceptual thought. This state is described in various ways across different traditions: * In Advaita Vedanta, nondual awareness is pure consciousness (
Atman Atman or Ä€tman may refer to: Religion * ''Ä€tman'' (Hinduism), meaning "Self", a philosophical concept common to all schools of Hindu philosophy * ''Ä€tman'' (Buddhism), ''attÄ'' or ''attan'', a reference to the essential self ** ''AnattÄ'' ...
), which is identical to
Brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' (; IAST: ''Brahman'') connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality of the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII In the ...
. * In
Mahayana Buddhism MahÄyÄna ( ; , , ; ) is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices developed in ancient India ( onwards). It is considered one of the three main existing branches of Buddhism, the others being Thera ...
, it is
rigpa In Dzogchen, ''rigpa'' (; Skt. Vidya (Knowledge), vidyÄ; "knowledge") is knowledge of the Ground (Dzogchen), ground. The opposite of ''rigpa'' is ''ma rigpa'' (''AvidyÄ (Buddhism), avidyÄ'', ignorance). A practitioner who has attained the sta ...
(Tibetan
Dzogchen Dzogchen ( 'Great Completion' or 'Great Perfection'), also known as ''atiyoga'' ( utmost yoga), is a tradition of teachings in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism and Bön aimed at discovering and continuing in the ultimate ground of existence. The goal ...
) or shunyata (emptiness), where awareness remains but is empty of intrinsic identity. * In
Samkhya Samkhya or Sankhya (; ) is a dualistic orthodox school of Hindu philosophy. It views reality as composed of two independent principles, '' Puruá¹£a'' ('consciousness' or spirit) and '' Praká¹›ti'' (nature or matter, including the human mind a ...
philosophy, it is
Purusha ''Purusha'' (, ʊɾʊʂᵊ ) is a complex concept whose meaning evolved in Vedic and Upanishadic times. Depending on source and historical timeline, it means the cosmic being or self, awareness, and universal principle.Karl Potter, Presupposit ...
, the eternal witness-consciousness that observes the fluctuations of
Prakriti Prakriti ( ) is "the original or natural form or condition of anything, original or primary substance". It is a key concept in Hinduism, formulated by the ''Samkhya'' school, where it does not refer merely to matter or nature, but includes all cog ...
(the material world).


Scientific perspectives

Recent neuroscientific and phenomenological studies have examined nondual awareness as a distinct cognitive and experiential state. Josipovic describes it as a non-representational mode of consciousness, distinct from other mental states. Gamma & Metzinger (2021) propose that nondual awareness can be mapped phenomenologically, identifying factors such as luminosity, absence of egoic boundaries, and self-reflexivity. However, scholars such as Robert Sharf argue that scientific studies risk reifying nonduality as a purely neurocognitive phenomenon, stripping it of its cultural and soteriological contexts.


Hinduism

According to Signe Cohen, the notion of the highest truth lying beyond all dualistic constructs of reality finds its origins in ancient Indian philosophical thought. One of the earliest articulations of this concept is evident in the renowned Nasadiya ("Non-Being") hymn of the Ṛigveda, which contemplates a primordial state of undifferentiated existence, devoid of both being and non-being. The
MahÄvÄkyas The MahÄvÄkyas (''sing.:'' , ; ''plural:'' , ) are "The Great Sayings" of the Upanishads, with mahÄ meaning great and vÄkya, a sentence. The ''MahÄvÄkyas'' are traditionally considered to be four in number, though actually five are prom ...
, as documented in the Upanishads, explain the unity of Brahman and Atman and form the basis of the Advaita Vedanta tradition.


Vedanta

Several schools of Vedanta are informed by
Samkhya Samkhya or Sankhya (; ) is a dualistic orthodox school of Hindu philosophy. It views reality as composed of two independent principles, '' Puruá¹£a'' ('consciousness' or spirit) and '' Praká¹›ti'' (nature or matter, including the human mind a ...
, the earliest Indian school of dualism, but teach a form of nondualism. The best-known is Advaita Vedanta, but other nondual Vedanta schools also have a significant influence and following, such as
Vishishtadvaita Vedanta Vishishtadvaita ( IAST '; ) is a school of Hindu philosophy belonging to the Vedanta tradition. Vedanta refers to the profound interpretation of the Vedas based on Prasthanatrayi. Vishishta Advaita, meaning "non-duality with distinctions", i ...
and
Dvaitadvaita Dvaitadvaita Vedanta, also known as Svabhavika Bhedabheda and as Svabhavika Bhinnabhinna,() is the philosophical doctrine of "natural identity-in-difference" or "natural difference cum-non-difference." It was propagated by the medieval VedÄnta ...
, both of which are
bhedabheda BhedÄbheda is more a tradition than a sub-school of VedÄnta, which teaches that the individual self (''jÄ«vÄtman'') is both different and not different from the ultimate reality known as Brahman. Etymology ''BhedÄbheda'' (Devanagari: ) is ...
. "Advaita" refers to
Atman Atman or Ä€tman may refer to: Religion * ''Ä€tman'' (Hinduism), meaning "Self", a philosophical concept common to all schools of Hindu philosophy * ''Ä€tman'' (Buddhism), ''attÄ'' or ''attan'', a reference to the essential self ** ''AnattÄ'' ...
-
Brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' (; IAST: ''Brahman'') connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality of the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII In the ...
as the single universal existence beyond the plurality of the world, recognized as pure awareness or the witness-consciousness, as in
Vedanta ''Vedanta'' (; , ), also known as ''Uttara MÄ«mÄṃsÄ'', is one of the six orthodox (Ä€stika and nÄstika, ''Ästika'') traditions of Hindu philosophy and textual exegesis. The word ''Vedanta'' means 'conclusion of the Vedas', and encompa ...
,
Shaktism Shaktism () is a major Hindu denomination in which the God in Hinduism, deity or metaphysics, metaphysical reality is considered metaphorically to be a woman. Shaktism involves a galaxy of goddesses, all regarded as different aspects, mani ...
and
Shaivism Shaivism (, , ) is one of the major Hindu denominations, Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Para Brahman, supreme being. It is the Hinduism#Demographics, second-largest Hindu sect after Vaishnavism, constituting about 385 million H ...
. Although the term is best known from the Advaita Vedanta school of
Adi Shankara Adi Shankara (8th c. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya (, ), was an Indian Vedanga, Vedic scholar, Hindu philosophy, philosopher and teacher (''acharya'') of Advaita Vedanta. Reliable information on Shankara's actual life is scant, and h ...
, "advaita" is used in treatises by numerous medieval era Indian scholars, as well as modern schools and teachers. The Hindu concept of ''Advaita'' refers to the idea that all of the universe is one essential reality, and that all facets and aspects of the universe is ultimately an expression or appearance of that one reality. According to Dasgupta and Mohanta, non-dualism developed in various strands of Indian thought, both Vedic and Buddhist, from the Upanishadic period onward. The oldest traces of nondualism in Indian thought may be found in the
Chandogya Upanishad The ''Chandogya Upanishad'' (Sanskrit: , IAST: ''ChÄndogyopaniá¹£ad'') is a Sanskrit text embedded in the Chandogya Brahmana of the Sama Veda of Hinduism.Patrick Olivelle (2014), ''The Early Upanishads'', Oxford University Press; , pp. 166-1 ...
, which pre-dates the earliest Buddhism.
Pre-sectarian Buddhism Pre-sectarian Buddhism, also called early Buddhism, the earliest Buddhism, original Buddhism, and primitive Buddhism, is Buddhism as theorized to have existed before the various Early Buddhist schools developed, around 250 BCE (followed by later ...
may also have been responding to the teachings of the
Chandogya Upanishad The ''Chandogya Upanishad'' (Sanskrit: , IAST: ''ChÄndogyopaniá¹£ad'') is a Sanskrit text embedded in the Chandogya Brahmana of the Sama Veda of Hinduism.Patrick Olivelle (2014), ''The Early Upanishads'', Oxford University Press; , pp. 166-1 ...
, rejecting some of its Atman-Brahman related metaphysics. Advaita appears in different shades in various schools of Hinduism such as in Advaita Vedanta,
Vishishtadvaita Vedanta Vishishtadvaita ( IAST '; ) is a school of Hindu philosophy belonging to the Vedanta tradition. Vedanta refers to the profound interpretation of the Vedas based on Prasthanatrayi. Vishishta Advaita, meaning "non-duality with distinctions", i ...
(
Vaishnavism Vaishnavism () ), also called Vishnuism, is one of the major Hindu denominations, Hindu traditions, that considers Vishnu as the sole Para Brahman, supreme being leading all other Hindu deities, that is, ''Mahavishnu''. It is one of the majo ...
), Suddhadvaita Vedanta (Vaishnavism), non-dual
Shaivism Shaivism (, , ) is one of the major Hindu denominations, Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Para Brahman, supreme being. It is the Hinduism#Demographics, second-largest Hindu sect after Vaishnavism, constituting about 385 million H ...
and
Shaktism Shaktism () is a major Hindu denomination in which the God in Hinduism, deity or metaphysics, metaphysical reality is considered metaphorically to be a woman. Shaktism involves a galaxy of goddesses, all regarded as different aspects, mani ...
. In the Advaita Vedanta of
Adi Shankara Adi Shankara (8th c. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya (, ), was an Indian Vedanga, Vedic scholar, Hindu philosophy, philosopher and teacher (''acharya'') of Advaita Vedanta. Reliable information on Shankara's actual life is scant, and h ...
, advaita implies that all of reality is one with
Brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' (; IAST: ''Brahman'') connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality of the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII In the ...
, that the
Atman Atman or Ä€tman may refer to: Religion * ''Ä€tman'' (Hinduism), meaning "Self", a philosophical concept common to all schools of Hindu philosophy * ''Ä€tman'' (Buddhism), ''attÄ'' or ''attan'', a reference to the essential self ** ''AnattÄ'' ...
(self) and Brahman (ultimate unchanging reality) are one. The advaita ideas of some Hindu traditions contrasts with the schools that defend dualism or
Dvaita Dvaita Vedanta (); (originally known as Tattvavada; IAST: ''TattvavÄda''), is a sub-school in the Vedanta ''Vedanta'' (; , ), also known as ''Uttara MÄ«mÄṃsÄ'', is one of the six orthodox (Ä€stika and nÄstika, ''Ästika'') trad ...
, such as that of
Madhvacharya Madhvacharya (; ; 1199–1278 CE or 1238–1317 CE), also known as Purna Prajna () and Ānanda Tīrtha, was an Indian philosopher, theologian and the chief proponent of the ''Dvaita'' (dualism) school of Vedanta. Madhva called his philosophy ...
who stated that the experienced reality and
God In monotheistic belief systems, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. In polytheistic belief systems, a god is "a spirit or being believed to have created, or for controlling some part of the un ...
are two (dual) and distinct.


Advaita Vedanta

The nonduality of the Advaita Vedanta is of the identity of
Brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' (; IAST: ''Brahman'') connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality of the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII In the ...
and the
Atman Atman or Ä€tman may refer to: Religion * ''Ä€tman'' (Hinduism), meaning "Self", a philosophical concept common to all schools of Hindu philosophy * ''Ä€tman'' (Buddhism), ''attÄ'' or ''attan'', a reference to the essential self ** ''AnattÄ'' ...
. As in Samkhya, Atman is awareness, the witness-consciousness. Advaita has become a broad current in Indian culture and religions, influencing subsequent traditions like
Kashmir Shaivism Kashmir Shaivism tradition is a 20th century umbrella-term for a body of Sanskrit learning, Sanskrit exegetical literature from several Nondualism, non-dualist Shaivism, Shaiva-Shaktism, Shakta Tantra, tantric and Monism, monistic religious t ...
. The oldest surviving manuscript on Advaita Vedanta is by
Gauá¸apÄda Gauá¸apÄda (Sanskrit: गौडपाद; ), also referred as Gauá¸apÄdÄcÄrya (Sanskrit: गौडपादाचारà¥à¤¯; "Gauá¸apÄda the Teacher"), was an early medieval era Hindu philosopher and scholar of the ''Advaita'' Ve ...
(6th century CE), who has traditionally been regarded as the teacher of
Govinda bhagavatpÄda Govinda Bhagavatpada (IAST ) was the guru of the Hindu philosopher Adi Shankara. Little is known of his life and works, except that he is mentioned in all the traditional accounts ( Shankara Vijayams) as the teacher of Adi Shankara. He was the ...
and the grandteacher of
Adi Shankara Adi Shankara (8th c. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya (, ), was an Indian Vedanga, Vedic scholar, Hindu philosophy, philosopher and teacher (''acharya'') of Advaita Vedanta. Reliable information on Shankara's actual life is scant, and h ...
. Advaita is best known from the Advaita Vedanta tradition of
Adi Shankara Adi Shankara (8th c. CE), also called Adi Shankaracharya (, ), was an Indian Vedanga, Vedic scholar, Hindu philosophy, philosopher and teacher (''acharya'') of Advaita Vedanta. Reliable information on Shankara's actual life is scant, and h ...
(788-820 CE), who states that
Brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' (; IAST: ''Brahman'') connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality of the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII In the ...
, the single unified eternal truth, is pure Being, Consciousness and Bliss ('' Sat-cit-ananda''). Advaita, states Murti, is the knowledge of Brahman and self-consciousness (Vijnana) without differences. The goal of
Vedanta ''Vedanta'' (; , ), also known as ''Uttara MÄ«mÄṃsÄ'', is one of the six orthodox (Ä€stika and nÄstika, ''Ästika'') traditions of Hindu philosophy and textual exegesis. The word ''Vedanta'' means 'conclusion of the Vedas', and encompa ...
is to know the "truly real" and thus become one with it. According to Advaita Vedanta, Brahman is the highest
Reality Reality is the sum or aggregate of everything in existence; everything that is not imagination, imaginary. Different Culture, cultures and Academic discipline, academic disciplines conceptualize it in various ways. Philosophical questions abo ...
, The universe, according to Advaita philosophy, does not simply come from Brahman, it ''is'' Brahman. Brahman is the single binding unity behind the diversity in all that exists in the universe. Brahman is also that which is the cause of all changes. Brahman is the "creative principle which lies realized in the whole world". The nondualism of Advaita, relies on the Hindu concept of Ātman which is a Sanskrit word that means "essence" or "real self" of the individual; it is also appropriated as "
soul The soul is the purported Mind–body dualism, immaterial aspect or essence of a Outline of life forms, living being. It is typically believed to be Immortality, immortal and to exist apart from the material world. The three main theories that ...
". '
Atman
''Oxford Dictionaries'', Oxford University Press (2012), Quote: "1. real self of the individual; 2. a person's soul";
'' John Bowker (2000), ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions'', Oxford University Press, , See entry for Atman;
'' WJ Johnson (2009), ''A Dictionary of Hinduism'', Oxford University Press, , See entry for Atman (self). Ātman is the
first principle In philosophy and science, a first principle is a basic proposition or assumption that cannot be deduced from any other proposition or assumption. First principles in philosophy are from first cause attitudes and taught by Aristotelians, and nuan ...
, the ''true'' self of an individual beyond identification with phenomena, the essence of an individual. Atman is the Universal Principle, one eternal undifferentiated self-luminous consciousness, asserts Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. Advaita Vedanta philosophy considers Atman as self-existent awareness, limitless, non-dual and same as Brahman. Advaita school asserts that there is "soul, self" within each living entity which is fully identical with
Brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' (; IAST: ''Brahman'') connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality of the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII In the ...
. The nondualism concept of Advaita Vedanta asserts that each soul is non-different from the infinite Brahman.


=Three levels of reality

= Advaita Vedanta adopts sublation as the criterion to postulate three levels of ontological reality: * ' (''paramartha'', absolute), the Reality that is metaphysically true and ontologically accurate. It is the state of experiencing that "which is absolutely real and into which both other reality levels can be resolved". This experience can't be sublated (exceeded) by any other experience. * ' (''vyavahara''), or ''samvriti-saya'', consisting of the empirical or pragmatic reality. It is ever-changing over time, thus empirically true at a given time and context but not
metaphysically Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that examines the basic structure of reality. It is traditionally seen as the study of mind-independent features of the world, but some theorists view it as an inquiry into the conceptual framework of h ...
true. It is "our world of experience, the phenomenal world that we handle every day when we are awake". It is the level in which both ''
jiva ''Jiva'' (, IAST: ), also referred as ''JivÄtman,'' is a living being or any entity imbued with a life force in Hinduism and JÄ«va (Jainism), Jainism. The word itself originates from the Sanskrit verb-root ''jÄ«v'', which translates as 'to br ...
'' (living creatures or individual souls) and ''
Iswara ''Ishvara'' () is a concept in Hinduism, with a wide range of meanings that depend on the era and the school of Hinduism. Monier Monier Williams, Sanskrit-English dictionarySearch for Izvara, University of Cologne, Germany In ancient texts of ...
'' are true; here, the material world is also true. * ' (''pratibhasika'', apparent reality, unreality), "reality based on imagination alone". It is the level of experience in which the mind constructs its own reality. A well-known example is the perception of a rope in the dark as being a snake.


=Similarities and differences with Buddhism

= Scholars state that Advaita Vedanta was influenced by
Mahayana Buddhism MahÄyÄna ( ; , , ; ) is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, texts, philosophies, and practices developed in ancient India ( onwards). It is considered one of the three main existing branches of Buddhism, the others being Thera ...
, given the common terminology and methodology and some common doctrines.
Eliot Deutsch Eliot Sandler Deutsch (January 8, 1931 – June 28, 2020) was a philosopher, teacher, and writer. He made important contributions to the understanding and appreciation of Eastern philosophies in the West through his many works on comparative phil ...
and Rohit Dalvi state: Advaita Vedanta is related to
Buddhist philosophy Buddhist philosophy is the ancient Indian Indian philosophy, philosophical system that developed within the religio-philosophical tradition of Buddhism. It comprises all the Philosophy, philosophical investigations and Buddhist logico-episte ...
, which promotes ideas like the
two truths doctrine The Buddhism, Buddhist doctrine of the two truths (Sanskrit: '','' ) differentiates between two levels of ''satya'' (Sanskrit; PÄli: ''sacca''; meaning "truth" or "reality") in the teaching of Gautama Buddha, ÅšÄkyamuni Buddha: the "conventiona ...
and the doctrine that there is only consciousness (''vijñapti-mÄtra''). It is possible that the Advaita philosopher
Gaudapada Gauá¸apÄda (Sanskrit: गौडपाद; ), also referred as Gauá¸apÄdÄcÄrya (Sanskrit: गौडपादाचारà¥à¤¯; "Gauá¸apÄda the Teacher"), was an early medieval era Hindu philosopher and scholar of the ''Advaita'' Ved ...
was influenced by Buddhist ideas. Shankara harmonised
Gaudapada Gauá¸apÄda (Sanskrit: गौडपाद; ), also referred as Gauá¸apÄdÄcÄrya (Sanskrit: गौडपादाचारà¥à¤¯; "Gauá¸apÄda the Teacher"), was an early medieval era Hindu philosopher and scholar of the ''Advaita'' Ved ...
's ideas with the Upanishadic texts, and developed a very influential school of orthodox Hinduism. The Buddhist term '' vijñapti-mÄtra'' is often used interchangeably with the term ''citta-mÄtra'', but they have different meanings. The standard translation of both terms is "consciousness-only" or "mind-only". Advaita Vedanta has been called "idealistic monism" by scholars, but some disagree with this label. Another concept found in both
Madhyamaka Madhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; ; Tibetic languages, Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ་ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as ŚūnyavÄda ("the ŚūnyatÄ, emptiness doctrine") and NiḥsvabhÄvavÄda ("the no Svabhava, ''svabhÄva'' d ...
Buddhism and Advaita Vedanta is Ajativada ("ajÄta"), which Gaudapada adopted from
Nagarjuna NÄgÄrjuna (Sanskrit: नागारà¥à¤œà¥à¤¨, ''NÄgÄrjuna''; ) was an Indian monk and Mahayana, MahÄyÄna Buddhist Philosophy, philosopher of the Madhyamaka (Centrism, Middle Way) school. He is widely considered one of the most importa ...
's philosophy. Gaudapada "wove oth doctrinesinto a philosophy of the ''Mandukaya Upanisad'', which was further developed by Shankara. Michael Comans states there is a fundamental difference between Buddhist thought and that of Gaudapada, in that Buddhism has as its philosophical basis the doctrine of
Dependent Origination A dependant (US spelling: dependent) is a person who relies on another as a primary source of income and usually assistance with activities of daily living. A common-law spouse who is financially supported by their partner may also be included ...
according to which "everything is without an essential nature (''nihsvabhÄva''), and everything is empty of essential nature (''svabhava-shunya'')", while Gaudapada does not rely on this principle at all. Gaudapada's ''Ajativada'' is an outcome of reasoning applied to an unchanging nondual reality according to which "there exists a Reality (''sat'') that is unborn (''aja'')" that has essential nature (''svabhava''), and this is the "eternal, fearless, undecaying Self (Atman) and Brahman". Thus, Gaudapada differs from Buddhist scholars such as Nagarjuna, states Comans, by accepting the premises and relying on the fundamental teaching of the Upanishads. Among other things, Vedanta school of Hinduism holds the premise, "Atman exists, as self evident truth", a concept it uses in its theory of nondualism. Buddhism, in contrast, holds the premise, "Atman does not exist (or, An-atman) as self evident". Mahadevan suggests that Gaudapada adopted Buddhist terminology and adapted its doctrines to his Vedantic goals, much like early Buddhism adopted Upanishadic terminology and adapted its doctrines to Buddhist goals; both used pre-existing concepts and ideas to convey new meanings. Dasgupta and Mohanta note that Buddhism and Shankara's Advaita Vedanta are not opposing systems, but "different phases of development of the same non-dualistic metaphysics from the Upanishadic period to the time of Sankara".


Vishishtadvaita Vedanta

Vishishtadvaita Vedanta Vishishtadvaita ( IAST '; ) is a school of Hindu philosophy belonging to the Vedanta tradition. Vedanta refers to the profound interpretation of the Vedas based on Prasthanatrayi. Vishishta Advaita, meaning "non-duality with distinctions", i ...
is another main school of Vedanta and teaches the nonduality of the qualified whole, in which Brahman alone exists, but is characterized by multiplicity. It can be described as "qualified monism", or "qualified non-dualism", or "attributive
monism Monism attributes oneness or singleness () to a concept, such as to existence. Various kinds of monism can be distinguished: * Priority monism states that all existing things go back to a source that is distinct from them; e.g., in Neoplatonis ...
". According to this school, the world is real, yet underlying all the differences is an all-embracing unity, of which all "things" are an "attribute".
Ramanuja Ramanuja ('; Middle Tamil: RÄmÄṉujam; Classical Sanskrit: RÄmÄnuja; 1077 – 1157), also known as Ramanujacharya, was an Indian Hindu philosopher, guru and social reformer. He is one of the most important exponents of the Sri Vaishnavi ...
, the main proponent of Vishishtadvaita philosophy contends that the
Prasthanatrayi Prasthanatrayi (, IAST: ), literally, ''three sources (or axioms)'', refers to the three canonical texts of theology having epistemic authority, especially of the Vedanta schools. It consists of: # The Upanishads, known as ' (injunctive texts), a ...
("The three courses") – namely the
Upanishad The Upanishads (; , , ) are late Vedic and post-Vedic Sanskrit texts that "document the transition from the archaic ritualism of the Veda into new religious ideas and institutions" and the emergence of the central religious concepts of Hind ...
s, the
Bhagavad Gita The Bhagavad Gita (; ), often referred to as the Gita (), is a Hindu texts, Hindu scripture, dated to the second or first century BCE, which forms part of the Hindu epic, epic poem Mahabharata. The Gita is a synthesis of various strands of Ind ...
, and the
Brahma Sutras The ''Brahma SÅ«tras'' (), also known as the Vedanta SÅ«tra (Sanskrit: वेदानà¥à¤¤ सूतà¥à¤°), Shariraka SÅ«tra, and Bhikshu-sÅ«tra, are a Sanskrit text which criticizes the metaphysical dualism of the influential Samkhya philos ...
– are to be interpreted in a way that shows this
unity in diversity Unity in diversity is used as an expression of harmony and unity between dissimilar individuals or groups. It is a concept of "unity without uniformity and diversity without fragmentation" that shifts focus from unity based on a mere tolerance ...
, for any other way would violate their consistency.
Vedanta Desika Vedanta Desika (1268–1369), also rendered Vedanta Desikan, Swami Vedanta Desika, and Thoopul Nigamantha Desikan, was an Indian polymath who wrote philosophical as well as religious and poetical works in several languages, including Sanskrit ...
defines ''Vishishtadvaita'' using the statement: ''Asesha Chit-Achit Prakaaram Brahmaikameva Tatvam'' – "
Brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' (; IAST: ''Brahman'') connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality of the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII In the ...
, as qualified by the sentient and insentient modes (or attributes), is the only reality."


Neo-Vedanta

Neo-Vedanta, also called "neo-Hinduism" is a modern interpretation of
Hinduism Hinduism () is an Hypernymy and hyponymy, umbrella term for a range of Indian religions, Indian List of religions and spiritual traditions#Indian religions, religious and spiritual traditions (Sampradaya, ''sampradaya''s) that are unified ...
which developed in response to western
colonialism Colonialism is the control of another territory, natural resources and people by a foreign group. Colonizers control the political and tribal power of the colonised territory. While frequently an Imperialism, imperialist project, colonialism c ...
and
orientalism In art history, literature, and cultural studies, Orientalism is the imitation or depiction of aspects of the Eastern world (or "Orient") by writers, designers, and artists from the Western world. Orientalist painting, particularly of the Middle ...
, and aims to present Hinduism as a "homogenized ideal of Hinduism" with Advaita Vedanta as its central doctrine.
Unitarian Universalism Unitarian Universalism (abbreviated UUism or UU) is a liberal religious tradition characterized by its commitment to theological diversity, inclusivity, and social justice. Unitarian Universalists do not adhere to a single creed or doctrine. I ...
had a strong impact on Ram Mohan Roy and the Brahmo Samaj, and subsequently on Swami Vivekananda. Vivekananda was one of the main representatives of
Neo-Vedanta Neo-Vedanta, also called neo-Hinduism, Hindu modernism, Global Hinduism and Hindu Universalism, are terms to characterize interpretations of Hinduism that developed in the 19th century. The term "Neo-Vedanta" was coined by German Indologist ...
, a modern interpretation of Hinduism in line with western esoteric traditions, especially
Transcendentalism Transcendentalism is a philosophical, spiritual, and literary movement that developed in the late 1820s and 1830s in the New England region of the United States. "Transcendentalism is an American literary, political, and philosophical movement of ...
,
New Thought The New Thought movement (also Higher Thought) is a new religious movement that coalesced in the United States in the early 19th century. New Thought was seen by its adherents as succeeding "ancient thought", accumulated wisdom and philosophy ...
and
Theosophy Theosophy is a religious movement established in the United States in the late 19th century. Founded primarily by the Russian Helena Blavatsky and based largely on her writings, it draws heavily from both older European philosophies such as Neop ...
. His reinterpretation was, and is, very successful, creating a new understanding and appreciation of Hinduism within and outside India, and was the principal reason for the enthusiastic reception of yoga, transcendental meditation and other forms of Indian spiritual self-improvement in the West. Narendranath Datta (Swami Vivekananda) became a member of a
Freemasonry Freemasonry (sometimes spelled Free-Masonry) consists of fraternal groups that trace their origins to the medieval guilds of stonemasons. Freemasonry is the oldest secular fraternity in the world and among the oldest still-existing organizati ...
lodge "at some point before 1884" and of the
Sadharan Brahmo Samaj The Sadharan Brahmo Samaj or Universal Brahmo Samaj is a division of Brahmoism formed as a result of schisms in the Brahmo Samaj first in 1866 and then another in 1878. Due to ideological differences, Keshab Chandra Sen, one of Brahmo Samaj ...
in his twenties, a breakaway faction of the
Brahmo Samaj Brahmo Samaj ( ) is the societal component of Brahmoism, which began as a monotheistic reformist movement during the Bengal Renaissance. It was one of the most influential religious movements in India and made a significant contribution to ...
led by Keshab Chandra Sen and
Debendranath Tagore Debendranath Tagore (15 May 1817 – 19 January 1905; birth name: Debendronath Thakur) was an Indian philosopher and religious reformer, active in the Brahmo Samaj (earlier called Bhramho Sabha) ("Society of Brahma", also translated as ''Socie ...
. Ram Mohan Roy (1772–1833), the founder of the Brahmo Samaj, had a strong sympathy for the Unitarians, who were closely connected to the
Transcendentalists Transcendentalism is a philosophical, spiritual, and literary movement that developed in the late 1820s and 1830s in the New England region of the United States. "Transcendentalism is an American literary, political, and philosophical movement of ...
, who in turn were interested in and influenced by Indian religions early on. It was in this
cult Cults are social groups which have unusual, and often extreme, religious, spiritual, or philosophical beliefs and rituals. Extreme devotion to a particular person, object, or goal is another characteristic often ascribed to cults. The term ...
ic milieu that Narendra became acquainted with Western
esotericism Esotericism may refer to: * Eastern esotericism, a broad range of religious beliefs and practices originating from the Eastern world, characterized by esoteric, secretive, or occult elements * Western esotericism, a wide range of loosely related id ...
.
Debendranath Tagore Debendranath Tagore (15 May 1817 – 19 January 1905; birth name: Debendronath Thakur) was an Indian philosopher and religious reformer, active in the Brahmo Samaj (earlier called Bhramho Sabha) ("Society of Brahma", also translated as ''Socie ...
brought this "neo-Hinduism" closer in line with western
esotericism Esotericism may refer to: * Eastern esotericism, a broad range of religious beliefs and practices originating from the Eastern world, characterized by esoteric, secretive, or occult elements * Western esotericism, a wide range of loosely related id ...
, a development which was furthered by Keshab Chandra Sen, who was also influenced by
transcendentalism Transcendentalism is a philosophical, spiritual, and literary movement that developed in the late 1820s and 1830s in the New England region of the United States. "Transcendentalism is an American literary, political, and philosophical movement of ...
, which emphasised personal
religious experience A religious experience (sometimes known as a spiritual experience, sacred experience, mystical experience) is a subjectivity, subjective experience which is interpreted within a religious framework. The concept originated in the 19th century, a ...
over mere reasoning and theology. Sen's influence brought Vivekananda fully into contact with western esotericism, and it was also via Sen that he met Ramakrishna. Vivekananda's acquaintance with western esotericism made him very successful in western esoteric circles, beginning with his speech in 1893 at the Parliament of Religions. Vivekananda adapted traditional Hindu ideas and religiosity to suit the needs and understandings of his western audiences, who were especially attracted by and familiar with western esoteric traditions and movements like
Transcendentalism Transcendentalism is a philosophical, spiritual, and literary movement that developed in the late 1820s and 1830s in the New England region of the United States. "Transcendentalism is an American literary, political, and philosophical movement of ...
and
New thought The New Thought movement (also Higher Thought) is a new religious movement that coalesced in the United States in the early 19th century. New Thought was seen by its adherents as succeeding "ancient thought", accumulated wisdom and philosophy ...
. In 1897 he founded the
Ramakrishna Mission Ramakrishna Math and Ramakrishna Mission (RKM) is a spiritual and philanthropic organisation headquartered in Belur Math, West Bengal. The mission is named after the Indian Hindu spiritual guru and mystic Ramakrishna. The mission was founde ...
, which was instrumental in the spread of Neo-Vedanta in the west, and attracted people like
Alan Watts Alan Wilson Watts (6 January 1915 – 16 November 1973) was a British and American writer, speaker, and self-styled "philosophical entertainer", known for interpreting and popularising Buddhist, Taoist, and Hinduism, Hindu philosophy for a Wes ...
.
Aldous Huxley Aldous Leonard Huxley ( ; 26 July 1894 – 22 November 1963) was an English writer and philosopher. His bibliography spans nearly 50 books, including non-fiction novel, non-fiction works, as well as essays, narratives, and poems. Born into the ...
, author of ''
The Perennial Philosophy ''The Perennial Philosophy'' is a comparative study of mysticism by the British writer and novelist Aldous Huxley. Its title derives from the theological tradition of ''perennial philosophy''. Context ''The Perennial Philosophy'' was pub ...
'', was associated with another neo-Vedanta organisation, the Vedanta Society of Southern California, founded and headed by
Swami Prabhavananda Swami Prabhavananda (December 26, 1893 – July 4, 1976) was an Indian philosopher, monk of the Ramakrishna Order, and religious teacher. He moved to America in 1923 to take up the role of assistant minister in the San Francisco Vedanta Society. ...
. Together with
Gerald Heard Henry FitzGerald Heard (6 October 1889 – 14 August 1971), commonly called Gerald Heard, was an English-born American historian, science writer and broadcaster, public lecturer, educator, and philosopher. He wrote many articles and over 35 boo ...
,
Christopher Isherwood Christopher William Bradshaw Isherwood (26 August 1904 – 4 January 1986) was an Anglo-American novelist, playwright, screenwriter, autobiographer, and diarist. His best-known works include '' Goodbye to Berlin'' (1939), a semi-autobiographical ...
, and other followers he was initiated by the Swami and was taught meditation and spiritual practices. Neo-Vedanta, as represented by
Vivekananda Swami Vivekananda () (12 January 1863 – 4 July 1902), born Narendranath Datta, was an Indian Hindu monk, philosopher, author, religious teacher, and the chief disciple of the Indian mystic Ramakrishna. Vivekananda was a major figure in th ...
and
Radhakrishnan Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (; 5 September 188817 April 1975; natively Radhakrishna) was an Indian academician, philosopher and statesman who served as the President of India from 1962 to 1967. He previously served as the vice president of ...
, is indebted to Advaita vedanta, but also reflects Advaya-philosophy. A main influence on neo-Advaita was
Ramakrishna Ramakrishna (18 February 1836 – 16 August 1886——— —), also called Ramakrishna Paramahansa (; ; ), born Ramakrishna Chattopadhay,M's original Bengali diary page 661, Saturday, 13 February 1886''More About Ramakrishna'' by Swami Prab ...
, himself a
bhakta ''Bhakti'' (; Pali: ''bhatti'') is a term common in Indian religions which means attachment, fondness for, devotion to, trust, homage, worship, piety, faith, or love.See Monier-Williams, ''Sanskrit Dictionary'', 1899. In Indian religions, it ...
and tantrika, and the guru of Vivekananda. According to Michael Taft, Ramakrishna reconciled the dualism of formlessness and form. Ramakrishna regarded the Supreme Being to be both Personal and Impersonal, active and inactive: Radhakrishnan acknowledged the reality and diversity of the world of experience, which he saw as grounded in and supported by the absolute or Brahman. According to Anil Sooklal, Vivekananda's neo-Advaita "reconciles
Dvaita Dvaita Vedanta (); (originally known as Tattvavada; IAST: ''TattvavÄda''), is a sub-school in the Vedanta ''Vedanta'' (; , ), also known as ''Uttara MÄ«mÄṃsÄ'', is one of the six orthodox (Ä€stika and nÄstika, ''Ästika'') trad ...
or dualism and Advaita or non-dualism": Radhakrishnan also reinterpreted Shankara's notion of ''
maya Maya may refer to: Ethnic groups * Maya peoples, of southern Mexico and northern Central America ** Maya civilization, the historical civilization of the Maya peoples ** Mayan languages, the languages of the Maya peoples * Maya (East Africa), a p ...
''. According to Radhakrishnan, maya is not a strict absolute idealism, but "a subjective misperception of the world as ultimately real". According to Sarma, standing in the tradition of
Nisargadatta Maharaj Nisargadatta Maharaj (born Maruti Shivrampant Kambli; 17 April 1897 â€“ 8 September 1981) was an Indian guru of nondualism, belonging to the Inchagiri Sampradaya, a lineage of teachers from the Navnath Sampradaya. The publication in ...
, AdvaitavÄda means "spiritual non-dualism or absolutism", in which opposites are ''manifestations'' of the Absolute, which itself is immanent and transcendent: Neo-Vedanta was well-received among Theosophists,
Christian Science Christian Science is a set of beliefs and practices which are associated with members of the Church of Christ, Scientist. Adherents are commonly known as Christian Scientists or students of Christian Science, and the church is sometimes in ...
, and the
New Thought The New Thought movement (also Higher Thought) is a new religious movement that coalesced in the United States in the early 19th century. New Thought was seen by its adherents as succeeding "ancient thought", accumulated wisdom and philosophy ...
movement; Christian Science in turn influenced the self-study teaching
A Course in Miracles ''A Course in Miracles'' (also referred to as ''ACIM'') is a 1976 book by Helen Schucman. The underlying premise is that the greatest "miracle" is the act of simply gaining a full "awareness of love's presence" in a person's life. Schucman ...
.


Kashmir Shaivism

Advaita is also a central concept in various schools of Shaivism, such as
Kashmir Shaivism Kashmir Shaivism tradition is a 20th century umbrella-term for a body of Sanskrit learning, Sanskrit exegetical literature from several Nondualism, non-dualist Shaivism, Shaiva-Shaktism, Shakta Tantra, tantric and Monism, monistic religious t ...
and Shiva Advaita which is generally known as
Veerashaivism The Lingayats are a monotheistic religious denomination of Hinduism. Lingayats are also known as , , , . Lingayats are known for their unique practice of Ishtalinga worship, where adherents carry a personal linga symbolizing a constant, intima ...
. Kashmir Shaivism is a school of
Åšaivism Shaivism (, , ) is one of the major Hindu denominations, Hindu traditions, which worships Shiva as the Para Brahman, supreme being. It is the Hinduism#Demographics, second-largest Hindu sect after Vaishnavism, constituting about 385 million H ...
, described by
Abhinavagupta Abhinavagupta (DevanÄgarÄ« अभिनवगà¥à¤ªà¥à¤¤à¤ƒ; c. 950 – 1016 CE) was a philosopher, mystic and aesthetician from Kashmir. He was also considered an influential musician, poet, dramatist, exegete, theologian, and logicianR ...
as "paradvaita", meaning "the supreme and absolute non-dualism". It is categorized by various scholars as
monistic Monism attributes oneness or singleness () to a concept, such as to existence. Various kinds of monism can be distinguished: * Priority monism states that all existing things go back to a source that is distinct from them; e.g., in Neoplatonis ...
idealism Idealism in philosophy, also known as philosophical realism or metaphysical idealism, is the set of metaphysics, metaphysical perspectives asserting that, most fundamentally, reality is equivalent to mind, Spirit (vital essence), spirit, or ...
(
absolute idealism Absolute idealism is chiefly associated with Friedrich Schelling and G. W. F. Hegel, both of whom were German idealist philosophers in the 19th century. The label has also been attached to others such as Josiah Royce, an American philosopher wh ...
, theistic monism, realistic idealism, transcendental physicalism or concrete monism). Kashmir Saivism is based on a strong monistic interpretation of the ''
Bhairava Bhairava (, ), or KÄla Bhairava, is a Shaivite and VajrayÄna deity worshipped by Hindus and Buddhists. In Shaivism, he is a powerful manifestation, or avatar, of Shiva.Kramrisch, Stella (1994). ''The Presence of Åšiva''. Princeton, NJ: P ...
Tantras'' and its subcategory the '' Kaula Tantras'', which were tantras written by the Kapalikas. There was additionally a revelation of the '' Siva Sutras'' to
Vasugupta Vasugupta ( – 850 CE) was the author of the '' Shiva Sutras'', an important text of the Advaita tradition of Kashmir Shaivism, also called ''Trika'' (sometimes called ''Trika Yoga''). Biography Little is known about Vasugupta's life, other th ...
. Kashmir Saivism claimed to supersede the dualistic
Shaiva Siddhanta Shaiva Siddhanta () is a form of Shaivism popular in a pristine form in Tamilnadu and Sri Lanka and in a Tantrayana syncretised form in Vietnam and Indonesia (as Siwa Siddhanta). It propounds a devotional philosophy with the ultimate goal of e ...
. Somananda, the first theologian of monistic Saivism, was the teacher of Utpaladeva, who was the grand-teacher of
Abhinavagupta Abhinavagupta (DevanÄgarÄ« अभिनवगà¥à¤ªà¥à¤¤à¤ƒ; c. 950 – 1016 CE) was a philosopher, mystic and aesthetician from Kashmir. He was also considered an influential musician, poet, dramatist, exegete, theologian, and logicianR ...
, who in turn was the teacher of Ksemaraja. The philosophy of Kashmir Shaivism can be seen in contrast to Shankara's Advaita. Advaita Vedanta holds that Brahman is inactive (''niá¹£kriya'') and the phenomenal world is a false appearance (''mÄyÄ'') of Brahman, like snake seen in semi-darkness is a false appearance of Rope lying there. In Kashmir Shavisim, all things are a manifestation of the Universal Consciousness, ''
Chit Chit may refer to: *Chit (board wargames), a type of wargame counter * Chit (name) *Chit, a voucher or certificate with monetary value * Blood chit, document requesting safe passage and assistance for military personnel stranded in enemy territor ...
'' or ''
Brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' (; IAST: ''Brahman'') connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality of the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII In the ...
''. Kashmir Shavisim sees the phenomenal world (''
Åšakti Shakti (Devanagari: शकà¥à¤¤à¤¿, IAST: Åšakti; 'energy, ability, strength, effort, power, might, capability') in Hinduism, is the "Universal Power" that underlies and sustains all existence. Conceived as feminine in essence, Shakti refer ...
'') as real: it exists, and has its being in Consciousness (''Chit''). Kashmir Shaivism was influenced by, and took over doctrines from, several orthodox and heterodox Indian religious and philosophical traditions. These include Vedanta, Samkhya, Patanjali Yoga and Nyayas, and various Buddhist schools, including Yogacara and Madhyamika, but also Tantra and the Nath-tradition.


Contemporary Indian traditions

Primal awareness is also part of other Indian traditions, which are less strongly, or not all, organised in monastic and institutional organisations. Although often called "Advaita Vedanta", these traditions have their origins in vernacular movements and "
householder Householder may refer to: *Householder, a person who is the head of a household *Householder (Buddhism), a Buddhist term most broadly referring to any layperson * Householder (surname), notable people with the surname *''The Householder'', a 1963 ...
" traditions, and have close ties to the
Nath Natha, also called Nath (), are a Shaivism, Shaiva sub-tradition within Hinduism in India and Nepal. A medieval movement, it combined ideas from Buddhism, Shaivism, Tantra and Yoga traditions of the Indian subcontinent.
,
Nayanars The Nayanars (or Nayanmars; , and later 'teachers of Shiva') were a group of 63 Tamils, Tamil Hindu saints living during the 6th to 8th centuries CE who were devoted to the Hindu god Shiva. Along with the Alvars, their contemporaries who were de ...
and
Sant Mat Sant Mat was a spiritual movement on the Indian subcontinent during the 13th–17th centuries CE. The name literally means "teachings of sants", i.e. mystic Hindu saints. Through association and seeking truth by following '' sants'' and their tea ...
traditions.


Natha Sampradaya

The Natha Sampradaya, with
Nath Natha, also called Nath (), are a Shaivism, Shaiva sub-tradition within Hinduism in India and Nepal. A medieval movement, it combined ideas from Buddhism, Shaivism, Tantra and Yoga traditions of the Indian subcontinent.
yogis such as
Gorakhnath Gorakhnath (also known as Gorakshanath (Sanskrit: ''Goraká¹£anÄtha'') (Devanagari : गोरकà¥à¤·à¤¨à¤¾à¤¥ / गोरखनाथ), c. early 11th century) was a Hindu yogi, mahasiddha and saint who was the founder of the Nath Hindu monas ...
, introduced
Sahaja Sahaja ( ) is spontaneous liberating knowledge in Indian Tantric and Tibetan Buddhist religions. Sahaja practices first arose in Bengal during the 8th century among yogis called Sahajiya siddhas. Ananda Coomaraswamy describes its significanc ...
, the concept of a spontaneous spirituality. According to Ken Wilber, this state reflects nonduality.


Neo-Advaita

Neo-Advaita is a
new religious movement A new religious movement (NRM), also known as a new religion, is a religious or Spirituality, spiritual group that has modern origins and is peripheral to its society's dominant religious culture. NRMs can be novel in origin, or they can be part ...
based on a modern Western interpretation of Advaita Vedanta, especially the teachings of
Ramana Maharshi Ramana Maharshi (; ; 30 December 1879 – 14 April 1950) was an Indian Hindu Sage (philosophy), sage and ''jivanmukta'' (liberated being). He was born Venkataraman Iyer, but is mostly known by the name Bhagavan Sri Ramana Maharshi. He was b ...
. According to
Arthur Versluis Arthur Versluis (born 1959) is a professor and Department Chair of Religious Studies in the College of Arts & Letters at Michigan State University. Academic career Versluis did his Ph.D research at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. His thesis ...
, neo-Advaita is part of a larger religious current which he calls immediatism. Neo-Advaita has been criticized for this immediatism and its lack of preparatory practices. Notable neo-advaita teachers are H. W. L. Poonja and his students Gangaji, Andrew Cohen, and
Eckhart Tolle Eckhart Tolle ( ; ; born Ulrich Leonard Tölle, 16 February 1948) is a German-born spiritual teacher and self-help author. His books include ''The Power of Now, The Power of Now: A Guide to Spiritual Enlightenment'' (1997), ''A New Earth, A New ...
.


Buddhism

There are different Buddhist views which resonate with the concepts and experiences of primordial awareness and non-duality or "not two" (''advaya''). The
Buddha Siddhartha Gautama, most commonly referred to as the Buddha (),* * * was a wandering ascetic and religious teacher who lived in South Asia during the 6th or 5th century BCE and founded Buddhism. According to Buddhist legends, he was ...
does not use the term ''advaya'' in the earliest Buddhist texts, but it does appear in some of the
Mahayana sutras The Mahayana sutras are Buddhist texts that are accepted as wikt:canon, canonical and authentic Buddhist texts, ''buddhavacana'' in Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhist sanghas. These include three types of sutras: Those spoken by the Buddha; those spoke ...
, such as the ''Vimalakīrti''. The Buddha taught meditative inquiry (''
dhyana Dhyana may refer to: Meditative practices in Indian religions * Dhyana in Buddhism (PÄli: ''jhÄna'') * Dhyana in Hinduism * Jain DhyÄna, see Jain meditation Other *''Dhyana'', a work by British composer John Tavener Sir John Kenneth ...
'') and nondiscursive attention (''
samadhi Statue of a meditating Rishikesh.html" ;"title="Shiva, Rishikesh">Shiva, Rishikesh ''SamÄdhi'' (Pali and ), in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, is a state of meditative consciousness. In many Indian religious traditions, the cultivati ...
'').


Indian Buddhism


Nirvana

In archaic Buddhism, ''
Nirvana Nirvana, in the Indian religions (Jainism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism), is the concept of an individual's passions being extinguished as the ultimate state of salvation, release, or liberation from suffering ('' duḥkha'') and from the ...
'' may have been a kind of transformed and transcendent consciousness or discernment ('' viññana'') that has "stopped" (''nirodhena''). According to Harvey this nirvanic consciousness is said to be "objectless", "infinite" (''anantam''), "unsupported" (''appatiṭṭhita'') and "non-manifestive" (''anidassana'') as well as "beyond time and spatial location".
Stanislaw Schayer Stanislaw Schayer (May 8, 1899, in Sędziszów, Poland – December 1, 1941, in Otwock, Poland) was a linguist, Indologist, philosopher, professor at the University of Warsaw The University of Warsaw (, ) is a public university, public resear ...
, a Polish scholar, argued in the 1930s that the Nikayas preserve elements of an archaic form of Buddhism which is close to Brahmanical beliefs, and survived in the
Mahayana MahÄyÄna ( ; , , ; ) is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, Buddhist texts#MahÄyÄna texts, texts, Buddhist philosophy, philosophies, and practices developed in ancient India ( onwards). It is considered one of the three main ex ...
tradition. Schayer's view, possibly referring to texts where "'consciousness' (''vinnana'') seems to be the ultimate reality or substratum" as well as to
luminous mind Luminous mind ( Skt: or , Pali: ; Tib: ; Ch: ; Jpn: ) is a Buddhist term that appears only rarely in the Pali Canon, but is common in the Mahayana sūtras and central to the Buddhist tantras. It is variously translated as "brightly shining ...
, saw nirvana as an immortal, deathless sphere, a transmundane reality or state. A similar view is also defended by C. Lindtner, who argues that in precanonical Buddhism nirvana is an actual existent. The original and early Buddhist concepts of nirvana may have been similar to those found in competing
Åšramaṇa A ''Å›ramaṇa''; ; ; ; ) is a person "who labours, toils, or exerts themselves for some higher or religious purpose" or "seeker, or ascetic, one who performs acts of austerity".Monier Monier-Williams, शà¥à¤°à¤®à¤£ Å›ramaṇa, Sanskrit-Eng ...
(strivers/ascetics) traditions such as
Jainism Jainism ( ), also known as Jain Dharma, is an Indian religions, Indian religion whose three main pillars are nonviolence (), asceticism (), and a rejection of all simplistic and one-sided views of truth and reality (). Jainism traces its s ...
and Upanishadic Vedism. Similar ideas were proposed by
Edward Conze Edward Conze, born Eberhard Julius Dietrich Conze (1904–1979), was a scholar of Marxism and Buddhism, known primarily for his commentaries and translations of the PrajñÄpÄramitÄ literature. Biography Conze's parents, Dr. Ernst Conze (1872 ...
and M. Falk, citing sources which speak of an eternal and "invisible infinite consciousness, which shines everywhere" as point to the view that nirvana is a kind of
Absolute Absolute may refer to: Companies * Absolute Entertainment, a video game publisher * Absolute Radio, (formerly Virgin Radio), independent national radio station in the UK * Absolute Software Corporation, specializes in security and data risk ma ...
, and arguing that the nirvanic element, as an "essence" or pure consciousness, is immanent within samsara, an "abode" or "place" of prajña, which is gained by the enlightened. In the Theravada tradition, ''nibbÄna'' is regarded as an uncompounded or unconditioned (''asankhata'')
dhamma Dharma (; , ) is a key concept in various Indian religions. The term ''dharma'' does not have a single, clear translation and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit ''dhr-'', meaning ''to hold'' or ''to support' ...
(phenomenon, event) which is "transmundane", and which is beyond our normal dualistic conceptions.


Luminous mind

Another influential concept in Indian Buddhism is the idea of
luminous mind Luminous mind ( Skt: or , Pali: ; Tib: ; Ch: ; Jpn: ) is a Buddhist term that appears only rarely in the Pali Canon, but is common in the Mahayana sūtras and central to the Buddhist tantras. It is variously translated as "brightly shining ...
which became associated with Buddha-nature. In the Early Buddhist Texts there are various mentions of luminosity or radiance which refer to the development of the mind in
meditation Meditation is a practice in which an individual uses a technique to train attention and awareness and detach from reflexive, "discursive thinking", achieving a mentally clear and emotionally calm and stable state, while not judging the meditat ...
. In the ''Saṅgīti-sutta'' for example, it relates to the attainment of
samadhi Statue of a meditating Rishikesh.html" ;"title="Shiva, Rishikesh">Shiva, Rishikesh ''SamÄdhi'' (Pali and ), in Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism, Sikhism, is a state of meditative consciousness. In many Indian religious traditions, the cultivati ...
, where the perception of light (''Äloka sañña'') leads to a mind endowed with luminescence (''sappabhÄsa''). According to Analayo, the ''Upakkilesa-sutta'' and its parallels mention that the presence of defilements "results in a loss of whatever inner light or luminescence (obhÄsa) had been experienced during meditation". The Pali ''DhÄtuvibhaá¹…ga-sutta'' uses the metaphor of refining gold to describe equanimity reached through meditation, which is said to be "pure, bright, soft, workable, and luminous". The Pali Anguttara Nikaya (A.I.8-10) states: The term is given no direct doctrinal explanation in the Pali discourses, but later Buddhist schools explained it using various concepts developed by them.Harvey, page 99. The
Theravada ''TheravÄda'' (; 'School of the Elders'; ) is Buddhism's oldest existing school. The school's adherents, termed ''TheravÄdins'' (anglicized from Pali ''theravÄdÄ«''), have preserved their version of the Buddha's teaching or ''Dharma (Buddhi ...
school identifies the "luminous mind" with the '' bhavanga'', a concept first proposed in the
TheravÄda Abhidhamma The Theravada Abhidhamma tradition, also known as the Abhidhamma Method, refers to a scholastic systematization of the TheravÄda school's understanding of the highest Buddhist teachings ( Abhidhamma). These teachings are traditionally believed ...
. The later schools of the
Mahayana MahÄyÄna ( ; , , ; ) is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, Buddhist texts#MahÄyÄna texts, texts, Buddhist philosophy, philosophies, and practices developed in ancient India ( onwards). It is considered one of the three main ex ...
identify it with both the Mahayana concepts of ''
bodhicitta In Mahayana Buddhism, bodhicitta ("aspiration to enlightenment" or "the thought of awakening") is the mind ( citta) that is aimed at awakening (bodhi) through wisdom and compassion for the benefit of all sentient beings.Dayal, Har (1970). ''T ...
'' and ''
tathagatagarbha In Buddhist philosophy and soteriology, Buddha-nature ( Chinese: , Japanese: , , Sanskrit: ) is the innate potential for all sentient beings to become a Buddha or the fact that all sentient beings already have a pure Buddha-essence within ...
''. The notion is of central importance in the philosophy and practice of
Dzogchen Dzogchen ( 'Great Completion' or 'Great Perfection'), also known as ''atiyoga'' ( utmost yoga), is a tradition of teachings in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism and Bön aimed at discovering and continuing in the ultimate ground of existence. The goal ...
.


Buddha-nature

Buddha nature In Buddhist philosophy and Buddhist paths to liberation, soteriology, Buddha-nature (Chinese language, Chinese: , Japanese language, Japanese: , , Sanskrit: ) is the innate potential for all Sentient beings (Buddhism), sentient beings to bec ...
or '' tathagata-garbha'' (literally "Buddha womb") is that which allows sentient beings to become Buddhas. Various Mahayana texts such as the ''
TathÄgatagarbha sÅ«tras The TathÄgatagarbha sÅ«tras are a group of Mahayana sutras that present the concept of the "womb" or "embryo" (''garbha'') of the tathÄgata, the buddha. Every sentient being has the possibility to attain Buddhahood because of the '' tathÄga ...
'' focus on this idea and over time it became a very influential doctrine in Indian Buddhism, as well in East Asian and Tibetan Buddhism. The Buddha nature teachings may be regarded as a form of nondualism. According to Sally B King, all beings are said to be or possess '' tathagata-garbha'', which is nondual Thusness or Dharmakaya. This reality, states King, transcends the "duality of self and not-self", the "duality of form and emptiness" and the "two poles of being and non being". There various interpretations and views on
Buddha-nature In Buddhist philosophy and soteriology, Buddha-nature ( Chinese: , Japanese: , , Sanskrit: ) is the innate potential for all sentient beings to become a Buddha or the fact that all sentient beings already have a pure Buddha-essence within ...
and the concept became very influential in India, China and Tibet, where it also became a source of much debate. In later Indian YogÄcÄra, a new sub-school developed which adopted the doctrine of '' tathagata-garbha'' into the YogÄcÄra system. The influence of this hybrid school can be seen in texts like the '' Lankavatara Sutra'' and the ''Ratnagotravibhaga''. This synthesis of YogÄcÄra tathagata-garbha became very influential in later Buddhist traditions, such as Indian
Vajrayana ''VajrayÄna'' (; 'vajra vehicle'), also known as MantrayÄna ('mantra vehicle'), GuhyamantrayÄna ('secret mantra vehicle'), TantrayÄna ('tantra vehicle'), Tantric Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism, is a MahÄyÄna Buddhism, MahÄyÄna Buddhis ...
,
Chinese Buddhism Chinese Buddhism or Han Buddhism ( zh, s=汉传佛教, t=漢傳佛教, first=t, poj=Hàn-thoân HuÌt-kàu, j=Hon3 Cyun4 Fat6 Gaau3, p=Hànchuán Fójiào) is a Chinese form of Mahayana Buddhism. The Chinese Buddhist canonJiang Wu, "The Chin ...
and
Tibetan Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism is a form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet, Bhutan and Mongolia. It also has a sizable number of adherents in the areas surrounding the Himalayas, including the Indian regions of Ladakh, Gorkhaland Territorial Administration, D ...
.


''Advaya''

According to Kameshwar Nath Mishra, one connotation of ''advaya'' in Indic Sanskrit Buddhist texts is that it refers to the
middle way The Middle Way (; ) as well as "teaching the Dharma by the middle" (''majjhena dhammaṃ deseti'') are common Buddhist terms used to refer to two major aspects of the Dharma, that is, the teaching of the Buddha. The first phrasing, the Middle ...
between two opposite extremes (such as eternalism and
annihilationism In Christianity, annihilationism (also known as extinctionism or destructionism) is the belief that after the Last Judgment, all damned humans and fallen angels including Satan will be totally destroyed and their consciousness extinguished. Annih ...
), and thus it is "not two". One of these
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
Mahayana sutras The Mahayana sutras are Buddhist texts that are accepted as wikt:canon, canonical and authentic Buddhist texts, ''buddhavacana'' in Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhist sanghas. These include three types of sutras: Those spoken by the Buddha; those spoke ...
, the ''Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra'' contains a chapter on the "Dharma gate of non-duality" (''advaya dharma dvara pravesa'') which is said to be entered once one understands how numerous pairs of opposite extremes are to be rejected as forms of grasping. These extremes which must be avoided in order to understand ultimate reality are described by various characters in the text, and include: Birth and extinction, 'I' and 'Mine', Perception and non-perception, defilement and purity, good and not-good, created and uncreated, worldly and unworldly, samsara and nirvana, enlightenment and ignorance, form and emptiness and so on. The final character to attempt to describe ultimate reality is the bodhisattva
Manjushri Manjushri () is a ''bodhisattva'' who represents '' prajñÄ'' (transcendent wisdom) of the Buddhas in MahÄyÄna Buddhism. The name "MañjuÅ›rÄ«" is a combination of Sanskrit word " mañju" and an honorific " Å›rÄ«"; it can be literally transla ...
, who states:
It is in all beings wordless, speechless, shows no signs, is not possible of cognizance, and is above all questioning and answering.
VimalakÄ«rti VimalakÄ«rti ( ' "stainless, undefiled" + ' "fame, glory, reputation") is a bodhisattva and the central figure in the ',prapañca In Buddhism, conceptual proliferation (PÄli: ; Sanskrit: ; zh, s=æˆè®º, t=戲論, p=xìlùn; ) or, alternatively, mental proliferation or conceptual elaboration, refers to conceptualization of the world through language and concepts which can t ...
'') or thought constructs (''vikalpa''). The ''
Laá¹…kÄvatÄra SÅ«tra The ''Laá¹…kÄvatÄra SÅ«tra'' (Sanskrit: लङà¥à¤•à¤¾à¤µà¤¤à¤¾à¤°à¤¸à¥‚तà¥à¤°à¤®à¥, "Discourse of the Descent into Laá¹…kÄ", , Chinese: 入楞伽經) is a prominent Mahayana Buddhist sÅ«tra. It is also titled ''Laá¹…kÄvatÄraratnasÅ«t ...
'', a text associated with
YogÄcÄra Yogachara (, IAST: ') is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through the interior lens of meditation, as well as philosophical reasoning (hetuvidyÄ). ...
Buddhism, also uses the term "''advaya''" extensively. In the
Mahayana MahÄyÄna ( ; , , ; ) is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, Buddhist texts#MahÄyÄna texts, texts, Buddhist philosophy, philosophies, and practices developed in ancient India ( onwards). It is considered one of the three main ex ...
Buddhist philosophy Buddhist philosophy is the ancient Indian Indian philosophy, philosophical system that developed within the religio-philosophical tradition of Buddhism. It comprises all the Philosophy, philosophical investigations and Buddhist logico-episte ...
of
Madhyamaka Madhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; ; Tibetic languages, Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ་ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as ŚūnyavÄda ("the ŚūnyatÄ, emptiness doctrine") and NiḥsvabhÄvavÄda ("the no Svabhava, ''svabhÄva'' d ...
, the
two truths The Buddhist doctrine of the two truths (Sanskrit: '','' ) differentiates between two levels of ''satya'' (Sanskrit; PÄli: ''sacca''; meaning "truth" or "reality") in the teaching of ÅšÄkyamuni Buddha: the "conventional" or "provisional" (''s ...
or ways of understanding reality, are said to be ''advaya'' (not two). As explained by the Indian philosopher
Nagarjuna NÄgÄrjuna (Sanskrit: नागारà¥à¤œà¥à¤¨, ''NÄgÄrjuna''; ) was an Indian monk and Mahayana, MahÄyÄna Buddhist Philosophy, philosopher of the Madhyamaka (Centrism, Middle Way) school. He is widely considered one of the most importa ...
, there is a non-dual relationship, that is, there is no absolute separation, between conventional and ultimate truth, as well as between samsara and
nirvana Nirvana, in the Indian religions (Jainism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and Sikhism), is the concept of an individual's passions being extinguished as the ultimate state of salvation, release, or liberation from suffering ('' duḥkha'') and from the ...
. The concept of nonduality is also important in the other major Indian Mahayana tradition, the
Yogacara Yogachara (, IAST: ') is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through the interior lens of meditation, as well as philosophical reasoning (hetuvidyÄ). ...
school, where it is seen as the absence of duality between the perceiving subject (or "grasper") and the
object Object may refer to: General meanings * Object (philosophy), a thing, being, or concept ** Object (abstract), an object which does not exist at any particular time or place ** Physical object, an identifiable collection of matter * Goal, an a ...
(or "grasped"). It is also seen as an explanation of
emptiness Emptiness as a human condition is a sense of generalized boredom, social alienation, nihilism, and apathy. Feelings of emptiness often accompany dysthymia, depression (mood), depression, loneliness, anhedonia, wiktionary:despair, despair, or o ...
and as an explanation of the content of the awakened mind which sees through the illusion of subject-object duality. However, in this conception of non-dualism, there are still a multiplicity of individual mind streams (''citta santana'') and thus Yogacara does not teach an idealistic monism. These basic ideas have continued to influence Mahayana Buddhist doctrinal interpretations of Buddhist traditions such as
Dzogchen Dzogchen ( 'Great Completion' or 'Great Perfection'), also known as ''atiyoga'' ( utmost yoga), is a tradition of teachings in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism and Bön aimed at discovering and continuing in the ultimate ground of existence. The goal ...
,
Mahamudra MahÄmudrÄ (Sanskrit: महामà¥à¤¦à¥à¤°à¤¾, , contraction of ) literally means "great seal" or "great imprint" and refers to the fact that "all phenomena inevitably are stamped by the fact of wisdom and emptiness inseparable". MahÄmud ...
,
Zen Zen (; from Chinese: ''Chán''; in Korean: ''SÅn'', and Vietnamese: ''Thiá»n'') is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition that developed in China during the Tang dynasty by blending Indian Mahayana Buddhism, particularly Yogacara and Madhyamaka phil ...
,
Huayan The Huayan school of Buddhism (, Wade–Giles: ''Hua-Yen,'' "Flower Garland," from the Sanskrit "''Avataṃsaka''") is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition that developed in China during the Tang dynasty (618-907).Yü, Chün-fang (2020). ''Chinese Bu ...
and
Tiantai Tiantai or T'ien-t'ai () is an East Asian Buddhist school of MahÄyÄna Buddhism that developed in 6th-century China. Drawing from earlier MahÄyÄna sources such as Madhyamaka, founded by NÄgÄrjuna, who is traditionally regarded as the f ...
as well as concepts such as
Buddha-nature In Buddhist philosophy and soteriology, Buddha-nature ( Chinese: , Japanese: , , Sanskrit: ) is the innate potential for all sentient beings to become a Buddha or the fact that all sentient beings already have a pure Buddha-essence within ...
,
luminous mind Luminous mind ( Skt: or , Pali: ; Tib: ; Ch: ; Jpn: ) is a Buddhist term that appears only rarely in the Pali Canon, but is common in the Mahayana sūtras and central to the Buddhist tantras. It is variously translated as "brightly shining ...
,
Indra's net Indra's net (also called Indra's jewels or Indra's pearls, Sanskrit ''IndrajÄla'', Chinese: 因陀羅網) is a metaphor used to illustrate the concepts of ŚūnyatÄ (emptiness), pratÄ«tyasamutpÄda (dependent origination),. and interpenetrati ...
,
rigpa In Dzogchen, ''rigpa'' (; Skt. Vidya (Knowledge), vidyÄ; "knowledge") is knowledge of the Ground (Dzogchen), ground. The opposite of ''rigpa'' is ''ma rigpa'' (''AvidyÄ (Buddhism), avidyÄ'', ignorance). A practitioner who has attained the sta ...
and
shentong ''Rangtong'' and ''shentong'' are two distinctive views on emptiness ( sunyata) and the two truths doctrine within Tibetan Buddhism. Rangtong (; "empty of self-nature") is a philosophical term in Tibetan Buddhism which is used by Tibetan defende ...
.


Madhyamaka

Madhyamaka, also known as ''ŚūnyavÄda'' (the
emptiness Emptiness as a human condition is a sense of generalized boredom, social alienation, nihilism, and apathy. Feelings of emptiness often accompany dysthymia, depression (mood), depression, loneliness, anhedonia, wiktionary:despair, despair, or o ...
teaching), refers primarily to a
MahÄyÄna MahÄyÄna ( ; , , ; ) is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, Buddhist texts#MahÄyÄna texts, texts, Buddhist philosophy, philosophies, and practices developed in ancient India ( onwards). It is considered one of the three main ex ...
Buddhist Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
school of philosophy founded by
NÄgÄrjuna NÄgÄrjuna (Sanskrit: नागारà¥à¤œà¥à¤¨, ''NÄgÄrjuna''; ) was an Indian monk and MahÄyÄna Buddhist philosopher of the Madhyamaka (Centrism, Middle Way) school. He is widely considered one of the most important Buddhist philosoph ...
. In Madhyamaka, ''Advaya'' refers to the fact that the
two truths The Buddhist doctrine of the two truths (Sanskrit: '','' ) differentiates between two levels of ''satya'' (Sanskrit; PÄli: ''sacca''; meaning "truth" or "reality") in the teaching of ÅšÄkyamuni Buddha: the "conventional" or "provisional" (''s ...
are not separate or different., as well as the non-dual relationship of s''aṃsÄra'' (the round of
rebirth Rebirth may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media Film * ''Rebirth'' (2011 film), a 2011 Japanese drama film * ''Rebirth'' (2016 film), a 2016 American thriller film * ''Rebirth'', a 2011 documentary film produced by Project Rebirth * '' ...
and
suffering Suffering, or pain in a broad sense, may be an experience of unpleasantness or aversion, possibly associated with the perception of harm or threat of harm in an individual. Suffering is the basic element that makes up the negative valence (psyc ...
) and ''nirvÄṇa'' (cessation of suffering,
liberation Liberation or liberate may refer to: Film and television * ''Liberation'' (film series), a 1970–1971 series about the Great Patriotic War * "Liberation" (''The Flash''), a TV episode * "Liberation" (''K-9''), an episode Gaming * '' Liberati ...
). According to Murti, in Madhyamaka, ''Advaya'' is an
epistemological Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that examines the nature, origin, and limits of knowledge. Also called "the theory of knowledge", it explores different types of knowledge, such as propositional knowledge about facts, practical knowled ...
theory, unlike the metaphysical view of Hindu Advaita. Madhyamaka ''advaya'' is closely related to the classical Buddhist understanding that all things are impermanent ('' anicca'') and devoid of self ('' anatta'') or essenceless (''niḥsvabhÄva''), and that this emptiness does not constitute an absolute reality in itself. In Madhyamaka, the
two truths doctrine The Buddhism, Buddhist doctrine of the two truths (Sanskrit: '','' ) differentiates between two levels of ''satya'' (Sanskrit; PÄli: ''sacca''; meaning "truth" or "reality") in the teaching of Gautama Buddha, ÅšÄkyamuni Buddha: the "conventiona ...
refer to conventional (''saṃvá¹›ti'') and ultimate (''paramÄrtha'') truth. The ultimate truth is
emptiness Emptiness as a human condition is a sense of generalized boredom, social alienation, nihilism, and apathy. Feelings of emptiness often accompany dysthymia, depression (mood), depression, loneliness, anhedonia, wiktionary:despair, despair, or o ...
, or non-existence of inherently existing things, and the "emptiness of emptiness": emptiness does not in itself constitute an absolute reality. Conventionally, things exist, but ultimately, they are empty of any existence on their own, as described in Nagarjuna's magnum opus, the ''
MÅ«lamadhyamakakÄrikÄ The ''MÅ«lamadhyamakakÄrikÄ'' (), abbreviated as ''MMK'', is the foundational text of the Madhyamaka school of MahÄyÄna Buddhist philosophy. It was composed by the Indian philosopher NÄgÄrjuna (around roughly 150 CE).Siderits and Katsura ...
'' (MMK). As
Jay Garfield Jay Lazar Garfield (born 13 November 1955) is an American professor of philosophy who specializes in Tibetan Buddhism. He also specializes on the philosophy of mind, cognitive science, epistemology, metaphysics, philosophy of language, ethics, and ...
notes, for Nagarjuna, to understand the two truths as totally different from each other is to reify and confuse the purpose of this doctrine, since it would either destroy conventional realities such as the Buddha's teachings and the empirical reality of the world (making Madhyamaka a form of
nihilism Nihilism () encompasses various views that reject certain aspects of existence. There have been different nihilist positions, including the views that Existential nihilism, life is meaningless, that Moral nihilism, moral values are baseless, and ...
) or deny the
dependent origination A dependant (US spelling: dependent) is a person who relies on another as a primary source of income and usually assistance with activities of daily living. A common-law spouse who is financially supported by their partner may also be included ...
of phenomena (by positing eternal
essence Essence () has various meanings and uses for different thinkers and in different contexts. It is used in philosophy and theology as a designation for the property (philosophy), property or set of properties or attributes that make an entity the ...
s). Thus the non-dual doctrine of the
middle way The Middle Way (; ) as well as "teaching the Dharma by the middle" (''majjhena dhammaṃ deseti'') are common Buddhist terms used to refer to two major aspects of the Dharma, that is, the teaching of the Buddha. The first phrasing, the Middle ...
lies beyond these two extremes. Emptiness is a consequence of ''
pratÄ«tyasamutpÄda ''PratÄ«tyasamutpÄda'' (Sanskrit: पà¥à¤°à¤¤à¥€à¤¤à¥à¤¯à¤¸à¤®à¥à¤¤à¥à¤ªà¤¾à¤¦, PÄli: ''paá¹­iccasamuppÄda''), commonly translated as dependent origination, or dependent arising, is a key doctrine in Buddhism shared by all schools of B ...
'' (dependent arising), the teaching that no ''dharma'' ("thing", "phenomena") has an existence of its own, but always comes into existence in dependence on other ''dharmas''. According to Madhyamaka all
phenomena A phenomenon ( phenomena), sometimes spelled phaenomenon, is an observable Event (philosophy), event. The term came into its modern Philosophy, philosophical usage through Immanuel Kant, who contrasted it with the noumenon, which ''cannot'' be ...
are empty of substance or essence () because they are dependently co-arisen. Likewise it is because they are dependently co-arisen that they have no intrinsic, independent reality of their own. Madhyamaka also rejects the existence of absolute realities or beings such as
Brahman In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' (; IAST: ''Brahman'') connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality of the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII In the ...
or Self. In the highest sense, "ultimate reality" is not an ontological
Absolute Absolute may refer to: Companies * Absolute Entertainment, a video game publisher * Absolute Radio, (formerly Virgin Radio), independent national radio station in the UK * Absolute Software Corporation, specializes in security and data risk ma ...
reality that lies beneath an unreal world, nor is it the non-duality of a personal self (''atman'') and an absolute Self (cf.
Purusha ''Purusha'' (, ʊɾʊʂᵊ ) is a complex concept whose meaning evolved in Vedic and Upanishadic times. Depending on source and historical timeline, it means the cosmic being or self, awareness, and universal principle.Karl Potter, Presupposit ...
). Instead, it is the knowledge which is based on a deconstruction of such reifications and
Conceptual proliferation In Buddhism, conceptual proliferation (PÄli: ; Sanskrit: ; zh, s=æˆè®º, t=戲論, p=xìlùn; ) or, alternatively, mental proliferation or conceptual elaboration, refers to conceptualization of the world through language and concepts which can t ...
s. However, according to Nagarjuna, even the very schema of ultimate and conventional, samsara and nirvana, is not a final reality, and he thus famously deconstructs even these teachings as being empty and not different from each other in the MMK where he writes: According to Nancy McCagney, what this refers to is that the two truths depend on each other; without emptiness, conventional reality cannot work, and vice versa. It does not mean that samsara and nirvana are the same, or that they are one single thing, as in Advaita Vedanta, but rather that they are both empty, open, without limits, and merely exist for the conventional purpose of teaching the Buddha Dharma. The later Madhyamikas, states Yuichi Kajiyama, developed the ''Advaya'' definition as a means to '' Nirvikalpa-Samadhi'' by suggesting that "things arise neither from their own selves nor from other things, and that when subject and object are unreal, the mind, being not different, cannot be true either; thereby one must abandon attachment to cognition of nonduality as well, and understand the lack of intrinsic nature of everything". Thus, the Buddhist nondualism or Advaya concept became a means to realizing absolute
emptiness Emptiness as a human condition is a sense of generalized boredom, social alienation, nihilism, and apathy. Feelings of emptiness often accompany dysthymia, depression (mood), depression, loneliness, anhedonia, wiktionary:despair, despair, or o ...
.


YogÄcÄra tradition

In the
Mahayana MahÄyÄna ( ; , , ; ) is a term for a broad group of Buddhist traditions, Buddhist texts#MahÄyÄna texts, texts, Buddhist philosophy, philosophies, and practices developed in ancient India ( onwards). It is considered one of the three main ex ...
tradition of YogÄcÄra ( Skt; "yoga practice"), ''adyava'' (Tibetan: ''gnyis med'') refers to overcoming the conceptual and perceptual dichotomies of cognizer and cognized, or subject and object. The concept of ''adyava'' in YogÄcÄra is an epistemological stance on the nature of experience and knowledge, as well as a phenomenological exposition of yogic cognitive transformation. Early Buddhism schools such as
Sarvastivada The ''SarvÄstivÄda'' (; ;) was one of the early Buddhist schools established around the reign of Ashoka (third century BCE).Westerhoff, The Golden Age of Indian Buddhist Philosophy in the First Millennium CE, 2018, p. 60. It was particular ...
and
SautrÄntika The SautrÄntika or Sutravadin (, SuttavÄda in Pali; ; ; ) were an early Buddhist school generally believed to be descended from the Sthavira nikÄya by way of their immediate parent school, the SarvÄstivÄdins.Westerhoff, Jan, The Golden Ag ...
, that thrived through the early centuries of the common era, postulated a dualism (''dvaya)'' between the mental activity of grasping (''grÄhaka'', "cognition", "subjectivity") and that which is grasped (''grÄhya'', "cognitum", intentional object). Yogacara postulates that this dualistic relationship is a false illusion or superimposition (''samaropa''). YogÄcÄra also taught the doctrine which held that only mental cognitions really exist (''vijñapti-mÄtra''), instead of the mind-body dualism of other Indian Buddhist schools. This is another sense in which reality can be said to be non-dual, because it is "consciousness-only". There are several interpretations of this main theory, which has been widely translated as ''representation-only, ideation-only, impressions-only'' and ''perception-only.'' Some scholars see it as a kind of subjective or epistemic
Idealism Idealism in philosophy, also known as philosophical realism or metaphysical idealism, is the set of metaphysics, metaphysical perspectives asserting that, most fundamentally, reality is equivalent to mind, Spirit (vital essence), spirit, or ...
(similar to Kant's theory) while others argue that it is closer to a kind of
phenomenology Phenomenology may refer to: Art * Phenomenology (architecture), based on the experience of building materials and their sensory properties Philosophy * Phenomenology (Peirce), a branch of philosophy according to Charles Sanders Peirce (1839â ...
or
representationalism In the philosophy of perception and philosophy of mind, direct or naïve realism, as opposed to indirect or representational realism, are differing models that describe the nature of conscious experiences.Lehar, Steve. (2000)The Function of Con ...
. According to Mark Siderits the main idea of this doctrine is that we are only ever aware of mental images or impressions which manifest themselves as external objects, but "there is actually no such thing outside the mind." For Alex Wayman, this doctrine means that "the mind has only a report or representation of what the sense organ had sensed." Jay Garfield and Paul Williams both see the doctrine as a kind of Idealism in which only mentality exists. However, even the idealistic interpretation of YogÄcÄra is not an absolute
monistic Monism attributes oneness or singleness () to a concept, such as to existence. Various kinds of monism can be distinguished: * Priority monism states that all existing things go back to a source that is distinct from them; e.g., in Neoplatonis ...
idealism like Advaita Vedanta or
Hegelianism Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (27 August 1770 – 14 November 1831) was a 19th-century German idealism, German idealist. His influence extends across a wide range of topics from metaphysical issues in epistemology and ontology, to political phi ...
, since in YogÄcÄra, even consciousness "enjoys no transcendent status" and is just a conventional reality. Indeed, according to Jonathan Gold, for YogÄcÄra, the ultimate truth is not consciousness, but an ineffable and inconceivable "thusness" or "thatness" ('' tathatÄ''). Also, YogÄcÄra affirms the existence of individual
mindstream Mindstream (Pali: ''citta-santÄna'', Sanskrit: ''citta-saṃtÄna;'' Ch: ''xin xiangxu'' 心相續) in Buddhist philosophy is the moment-to-moment continuum of sense impressions and mental phenomena ( citta), which is also described as continui ...
s, and thus Kochumuttom also calls it a ''realistic pluralism''. The YogÄcÄrins defined three basic modes by which we perceive our world. These are referred to in YogÄcÄra as the three natures (''trisvabhÄva'') of experience. They are: # ''Parikalpita'' (literally, "fully conceptualized"): "imaginary nature", wherein things are incorrectly comprehended based on conceptual and linguistic construction, attachment and the subject object duality. It is thus equivalent to samsara. # ''Paratantra'' (literally, "other dependent"): "dependent nature", by which the dependently originated nature of things, their causal relatedness or flow of conditionality. It is the basis which gets erroneously conceptualized, # ''Pariniá¹£panna'' (literally, "fully accomplished"): "absolute nature", through which one comprehends things as they are in themselves, that is, empty of subject-object and thus is a type of non-dual cognition. This experience of "thatness" ('' tathatÄ'') is uninfluenced by any conceptualization at all. To move from the duality of the ''Parikalpita'' to the non-dual consciousness of the ''Pariniá¹£panna,'' YogÄcÄra teaches that there must be a transformation of consciousness, which is called the "revolution of the basis" (''parÄvá¹›tty-ÄÅ›raya).'' According to
Dan Lusthaus Dan Lusthaus is an American writer on Buddhism. He is a graduate of Temple University's Department of Religion, and is a specialist in ''YogÄcÄra''. The author of several articles and books on the topic, Lusthaus has taught at UCLA, Florida Stat ...
, this transformation which characterizes awakening is a "radical psycho-cognitive change" and a removal of false "interpretive projections" on reality (such as ideas of a self, external objects, etc.). The '' MahÄyÄnasÅ«trÄlamkÄra,'' a YogÄcÄra text, also associates this transformation with the concept of non-abiding nirvana and the non-duality of samsara and nirvana. Regarding this state of
Buddhahood In Buddhism, Buddha (, which in classic Indo-Aryan languages, Indic languages means "awakened one") is a title for those who are Enlightenment in Buddhism, spiritually awake or enlightened, and have thus attained the Buddhist paths to liberat ...
, it states:
Its operation is nondual (''advaya vrtti'') because of its abiding neither in samsara nor in nirvana (''samsaranirvana-apratisthitatvat''), through its being both conditioned and unconditioned (''samskrta-asamskrtatvena'').
This refers to the YogÄcÄra teaching that even though a Buddha has entered nirvana, they do no "abide" in some quiescent state separate from the world but continue to give rise to extensive activity on behalf of others. This is also called the non-duality between the compounded (''samskrta'', referring to samsaric existence) and the uncompounded (''asamskrta'', referring to nirvana). It is also described as a "not turning back" from both samsara and nirvana. For the later thinker Dignaga, non-dual knowledge or ''advayajñÄna'' is also a synonym for '' prajñaparamita'' (transcendent wisdom) which liberates one from samsara.


Tantric Buddhism

Buddhist Tantra ''VajrayÄna'' (; 'vajra vehicle'), also known as MantrayÄna ('mantra vehicle'), GuhyamantrayÄna ('secret mantra vehicle'), TantrayÄna ('tantra vehicle'), Tantric Buddhism, and Esoteric Buddhism, is a MahÄyÄna Buddhist tradition that emp ...
, also known as Vajrayana, Mantrayana or Esoteric Buddhism, drew upon all these previous Indian Buddhist ideas and nondual philosophies to develop innovative new traditions of Buddhist practice and new religious texts called the Buddhist tantras (from the 6th century onwards). Tantric Buddhism was influential in China and is the main form of Buddhism in the Himalayan regions, especially
Tibetan Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism is a form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet, Bhutan and Mongolia. It also has a sizable number of adherents in the areas surrounding the Himalayas, including the Indian regions of Ladakh, Gorkhaland Territorial Administration, D ...
. The concept of ''advaya'' has various meanings in Buddhist Tantra. According to Tantric commentator Lilavajra, Buddhist Tantra's "utmost secret and aim" is Buddha nature. This is seen as a "non-dual, self-originated Wisdom ( jnana), an effortless fount of good qualities". In Buddhist Tantra, there is no strict separation between the sacred (nirvana) and the profane (samsara), and all beings are seen as containing an immanent seed of awakening or Buddhahood. The Buddhist Tantras also teach that there is a non-dual relationship between emptiness and compassion (''karuna''), this unity is called
bodhicitta In Mahayana Buddhism, bodhicitta ("aspiration to enlightenment" or "the thought of awakening") is the mind ( citta) that is aimed at awakening (bodhi) through wisdom and compassion for the benefit of all sentient beings.Dayal, Har (1970). ''T ...
. They also teach a "nondual pristine wisdom of bliss and emptiness". Advaya is also said to be the co-existence of Prajña (wisdom) and
Upaya In Buddhism, upaya (Sanskrit: उपाय, , ''expedient means'', ''pedagogy'') is an aspect of guidance along the Buddhist paths to liberation where a conscious, voluntary action "is driven by an incomplete reasoning" about its direction. Up ...
(skill in means). These nondualities are also related to the idea of ''yuganaddha'', or "union" in the Tantras. This is said to be the "indivisible merging of innate great bliss (the means) and clear light (emptiness)" as well as the merging of relative and ultimate truths and the knower and the known, during Tantric practice. Buddhist Tantras also promote certain practices which are
antinomian Antinomianism ( [] 'against' and [] 'law') is any view which rejects laws or Legalism (theology), legalism and argues against moral, religious or social norms (), or is at least considered to do so. The term has both religious and secular meaning ...
, such as sexual rites or the consumption of disgusting or repulsive substances (the "five ambrosias", feces, urine, blood, semen, and marrow.). These are said to allow one to cultivate nondual perception of the pure and impure (and similar conceptual dualities) and thus it allows one to prove one's attainment of nondual gnosis (''advaya jñana''). Indian Buddhist Tantra also views humans as a microcosmos which mirrors the macrocosmos. Its aim is to gain access to the awakened energy or consciousness of Buddhahood, which is nondual, through various practices.


East-Asian Buddhism


Chinese

Chinese Buddhism was influenced by the philosophical strains of Indian Buddhist nondualism such as the Madhymaka doctrines of emptiness and the
two truths The Buddhist doctrine of the two truths (Sanskrit: '','' ) differentiates between two levels of ''satya'' (Sanskrit; PÄli: ''sacca''; meaning "truth" or "reality") in the teaching of ÅšÄkyamuni Buddha: the "conventional" or "provisional" (''s ...
as well as
Yogacara Yogachara (, IAST: ') is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through the interior lens of meditation, as well as philosophical reasoning (hetuvidyÄ). ...
and '' tathagata-garbha''. For example, Chinese Madhyamaka philosophers like
Jizang Jizang ( zh, c=å‰è—, p=Jízàng, w=Chi-tsang. Japanese: ) (549–623) was a Persian- Chinese Buddhist monk and scholar who is often regarded as the founder of East Asian MÄdhyamaka. He is also known as Jiaxiang or Master Jiaxiang ( zh, t=å˜‰ç¥ ...
, discussed the nonduality of the two truths. Chinese Yogacara also upheld the Indian Yogacara views on nondualism. One influential text in Chinese Buddhism which synthesizes '' Tathagata-garbha'' and Yogacara views is the
Awakening of Faith in the Mahayana ''Awakening of Faith in the MahÄyÄna'' (AF, , reconstructed Sanskrit title: ''*MahÄyÄna-Å›raddhotpÄda-Å›Ästra'') is an influential Mahayana Buddhist treatise for East Asian Buddhism. Though traditionally attributed to the 2nd century CE ...
, which may be a Chinese composition. In Chinese Buddhism, the polarity of absolute and relative realities is also expressed as "
essence-function or essence-function is a key concept in Chinese philosophy and East Asian Buddhism. It is a compound of two terms: "essence" (), the absolute reality, cause, or source of all things, and "function" (, ), the manifestations of ti, which make up ...
". This was a result of an ontological interpretation of the two truths as well as influences from native Taoist and Confucian metaphysics. In this theory, the absolute is essence, the relative is function. They can't be seen as separate realities, but interpenetrate each other. This interpretation of the two truths as two ontological realities would go on to influence later forms of East Asian metaphysics. As Chinese Buddhism continued to develop in new innovative directions, it gave rise to new traditions like
Tiantai Tiantai or T'ien-t'ai () is an East Asian Buddhist school of MahÄyÄna Buddhism that developed in 6th-century China. Drawing from earlier MahÄyÄna sources such as Madhyamaka, founded by NÄgÄrjuna, who is traditionally regarded as the f ...
and Chan (Zen), which also upheld their own unique teachings on non-duality. The
Tiantai Tiantai or T'ien-t'ai () is an East Asian Buddhist school of MahÄyÄna Buddhism that developed in 6th-century China. Drawing from earlier MahÄyÄna sources such as Madhyamaka, founded by NÄgÄrjuna, who is traditionally regarded as the f ...
school for example, taught a threefold truth, instead of the classic "two truths" of Indian Madhyamaka. Its "third truth" was seen as the nondual union of the two truths which transcends both. Tiantai metaphysics is an immanent
holism Holism is the interdisciplinary idea that systems possess properties as wholes apart from the properties of their component parts. Julian Tudor Hart (2010''The Political Economy of Health Care''pp.106, 258 The aphorism "The whole is greater than t ...
, which sees every phenomenon, moment or event as conditioned and manifested by the whole of reality. Every instant of experience is a reflection of every other, and hence, suffering and nirvana, good and bad, Buddhahood and evildoing, are all "inherently entailed" within each other. Each moment of consciousness is simply the Absolute itself, infinitely immanent and self reflecting. Two doctrines of the
Huayan school The Huayan school of Buddhism (, Wade–Giles: ''Hua-Yen,'' "Flower Garland," from the Sanskrit "''Avataṃsaka''") is a Mahayana, Mahayana Buddhist tradition that developed in China during the Tang dynasty, Tang dynasty (618-907).Yü, Chün-fan ...
(Flower Garland), which flourished in
China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...
during the
Tang period The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=å”æœ), or the Tang Empire, was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed by the Five Dynasties and T ...
, are considered nondual by some scholars. King writes that the Fourfold Dharmadhatu and the doctrine of the mutual containment and interpenetration of all phenomena (''dharmas'') or "perfect interfusion" (''yuanrong'', 圓èž) are classic nondual doctrines. This can be described as the idea that all
phenomena A phenomenon ( phenomena), sometimes spelled phaenomenon, is an observable Event (philosophy), event. The term came into its modern Philosophy, philosophical usage through Immanuel Kant, who contrasted it with the noumenon, which ''cannot'' be ...
"are representations of the wisdom of Buddha without exception" and that "they exist in a state of mutual dependence, interfusion and balance without any contradiction or conflict." According to this theory, any phenomenon exists only as part of the total nexus of reality, its existence depends on the total network of all other things, which are all equally connected to each other and contained in each other. Another Huayan metaphor used to express this view, called
Indra's net Indra's net (also called Indra's jewels or Indra's pearls, Sanskrit ''IndrajÄla'', Chinese: 因陀羅網) is a metaphor used to illustrate the concepts of ŚūnyatÄ (emptiness), pratÄ«tyasamutpÄda (dependent origination),. and interpenetrati ...
, is also considered nondual by some.


Zen

The Buddha-nature and Yogacara philosophies have had a strong influence on Chán and Zen. The teachings of Zen are expressed by a set of polarities: Buddha-nature – sunyata; absolute-relative; sudden and gradual enlightenment. The Lankavatara-sutra, a popular sutra in Zen, endorses the Buddha-nature and emphasizes purity of mind, which can be attained in gradations. The Diamond-sutra, another popular sutra, emphasizes sunyata, which "must be realized totally or not at all". The
Prajnaparamita file:Medicine Buddha painted mandala with goddess Prajnaparamita in center, 19th century, Rubin.jpg, A Tibetan painting with a PrajñÄpÄramitÄ sÅ«tra at the center of the mandala PrajñÄpÄramitÄ means "the Perfection of Wisdom" or "Trans ...
Sutras emphasize the non-duality of form and emptiness: form is emptiness, emptiness is form, as the
Heart Sutra The ''Heart SÅ«tra'', ) is a popular sutra in Mahayana, MahÄyÄna Buddhism. In Sanskrit, the title ' translates as "The Heart of the Prajnaparamita, Perfection of Wisdom". The Sutra famously states, "Form is emptiness (''śūnyatÄ''), em ...
says. According to
Chinul Jinul Puril Bojo Daesa (, "Bojo Jinul"; 1158–1210), often called Jinul or Chinul for short, was a Korean monk of the Goryeo period, who is considered to be the most influential figure in the formation of Korean Seon (Zen) Buddhism. He is credi ...
, Zen points not to mere emptiness, but to ''suchness'' or the
dharmadhatu Dharmadhatu (; ; ) is the 'dimension', 'realm' or 'sphere' (dhÄtu) of the Dharma or Absolute Reality. Entire Dharmadhatu was filled with an infinite number of buddha-lands (Sanskrit: buddhaká¹£etra) with ineffable number of Buddhas. This rea ...
. The idea that the ultimate reality is present in the daily world of relative reality fitted into the Chinese culture which emphasized the mundane world and society. But this does not explain how the absolute is present in the relative world. This question is answered in such schemata as the Five Ranks of Tozan and the Oxherding Pictures. The continuous pondering of the break-through
kÅan A ( ; ; zh, c=公案, p=gÅng'àn ; ; ) is a narrative, story, dialogue, question, or statement from Chan Buddhism, Chinese Chan Buddhist lore, supplemented with commentaries, that is used in Zen Buddhism, Buddhist practice in different way ...
(''shokan'') or
Hua Tou ''Hua Tou'' (simplified Chinese: è¯å¤´; traditional Chinese: 話頭, Korean: ''hwadu'', Japanese: ''watÅ'') is part of a form of Buddhist meditation known as ''Gongfu'' 工夫 (not to be confused with the Martial Arts 功夫) common in the t ...
, "word head", leads to kensho, an initial insight into "seeing the (Buddha-)nature". According to Victor Sogen Hori, a central theme of many koans is the "identity of opposites", and point to the original nonduality. Hori describes kensho, when attained through koan-study, as the absence of subject–object duality. The aim of the so-called break-through koan is to see the "nonduality of subject and object", in which "subject and object are no longer separate and distinct". Zen Buddhist training does not end with kenshÅ. Practice is to be continued to deepen the insight and to express it in daily life, to fully manifest the nonduality of absolute and relative. To deepen the initial insight of kensho, shikantaza and kÅan-study are necessary. This trajectory of initial insight followed by a gradual deepening and ripening is expressed by
Linji Yixuan Japanese painting of Linji Linji Yixuan (; ''Rinzai Gigen''; died 866 CE) was a Tang dynasty (618-907) Chinese monk and teacher of the Hongzhou school of Chinese Chan (Zen). Linji was the leading figure of Chan Buddhism in the Tang, and the '' ...
in his Three Mysterious Gates, the Four Ways of Knowing of
Hakuin was one of the most influential figures in Japanese Zen Buddhism, who regarded bodhicitta, working for the benefit of others, as the ultimate concern of Zen-training. While never having received formal dharma transmission, he is regarded as t ...
, the
Five Ranks The "Five Ranks" (; ) is a poem consisting of five stanzas describing the stages of realization in the practice of Zen Buddhism. It expresses the interplay of absolute and relative truth and the fundamental non-dualism of Buddhist teaching. O ...
, and the Ten Ox-Herding Pictures which detail the steps on the
Path A path is a route for physical travel – see Trail. Path or PATH may also refer to: Physical paths of different types * Bicycle path * Bridle path, used by people on horseback * Course (navigation), the intended path of a vehicle * Desir ...
.


Korean

The polarity of absolute and relative is also expressed as "essence-function". The absolute is essence, the relative is function. They can't be seen as separate realities, but interpenetrate each other. The distinction does not "exclude any other frameworks such as ''neng-so'' or 'subject-object' constructions", though the two "are completely different from each other in terms of their way of thinking". In Korean Buddhism, essence-function is also expressed as "body" and "the body's functions". A metaphor for essence-function is "a lamp and its light", a phrase from the ''
Platform Sutra Double page from the Korean woodblock print of "''The Sixth Patriarch's Dharma Jewel Platform Sutra''", Bibliothèque_Nationale_de_France.html" ;"title="Goryeo, c. 1310. Bibliothèque Nationale de France">Goryeo, c. 1310. Bibliothèque National ...
'', where Essence is lamp and Function is light.


Tibetan Buddhism


Prasangika Madhyamaka

The Gelugpa school, following Tsongkhapa, adheres to the adyava Prasaá¹…gika
MÄdhyamaka Madhyamaka ("middle way" or "centrism"; ; ; Tibetan: དབུ་མ་པ་ ; ''dbu ma pa''), otherwise known as ŚūnyavÄda ("the emptiness doctrine") and NiḥsvabhÄvavÄda ("the no ''svabhÄva'' doctrine"), refers to a tradition of Bud ...
view, which states that all phenomena are sunyata, empty of self-nature, and that this "emptiness" is itself only a qualification, not a concretely existing "absolute" reality.


Shentong

In Tibetan Buddhism, the essentialist position is represented by ''shentong'', while the nominalist, or non-essentialist position, is represented by ''rangtong''. Shentong is a philosophical sub-school found in
Tibetan Buddhism Tibetan Buddhism is a form of Buddhism practiced in Tibet, Bhutan and Mongolia. It also has a sizable number of adherents in the areas surrounding the Himalayas, including the Indian regions of Ladakh, Gorkhaland Territorial Administration, D ...
. Its adherents generally hold that the nature of mind (''
svasaṃvedana In Buddhist philosophy, svasaṃvedana (also ''svasaṃvitti'') is a term which refers to the self-reflexive nature of consciousness, that is, the awareness of being aware. It was initially a theory of cognition held by the Mahasamghika and Sau ...
''), the substratum of the
mindstream Mindstream (Pali: ''citta-santÄna'', Sanskrit: ''citta-saṃtÄna;'' Ch: ''xin xiangxu'' 心相續) in Buddhist philosophy is the moment-to-moment continuum of sense impressions and mental phenomena ( citta), which is also described as continui ...
, is "empty" () of "other" (), i.e., empty of all qualities other than an inherently existing, ineffable nature. Shentong has often been incorrectly associated with the CittamÄtra (
Yogacara Yogachara (, IAST: ') is an influential tradition of Buddhist philosophy and psychology emphasizing the study of cognition, perception, and consciousness through the interior lens of meditation, as well as philosophical reasoning (hetuvidyÄ). ...
) position, but is in fact also Madhyamaka, and is present primarily as the main philosophical theory of the
Jonang The Jonang () is a school of Indo-Tibetan Buddhism. Its origins in Tibet can be traced to the early 12th century master Yumo Mikyo Dorje. It became widely known through the work of the popular 14th century figure Dolpopa Sherab Gyaltsen. The J ...
school, although it is also taught by the
Sakya The ''Sakya'' (, 'pale earth') school is one of four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism, the others being the Nyingma, Kagyu, and Gelug. It is one of the Red Hat Orders along with the Nyingma and Kagyu. Origins Virūpa, 16th century. It depict ...
and
Kagyu The ''Kagyu'' school, also transliterated as ''Kagyü'', or ''Kagyud'' (), which translates to "Oral Lineage" or "Whispered Transmission" school, is one of the main schools (''chos lugs'') of Tibetan Buddhism, Tibetan (or Himalayan) Buddhism. ...
schools. According to Shentongpa (proponents of shentong), the emptiness of ultimate reality should not be characterized in the same way as the emptiness of apparent phenomena because it is '' prabhÄÅ›vara- saṃtÄna'', or "luminous mindstream" endowed with limitless Buddha qualities. It is empty of all that is false, not empty of the limitless Buddha qualities that are its innate nature. The contrasting Prasaá¹…gika view that all phenomena are sunyata, empty of self-nature, and that this "emptiness" is not a concretely existing "absolute" reality, is labeled rangtong, "empty of self-nature". The shentong-view is related to the
RatnagotravibhÄga The ''RatnagotravibhÄga'' (Sanskrit, abbreviated as RGV, meaning: ''Analysis of the Jeweled Lineage, Investigating the Jewel Disposition'') and its ''vyÄkhyÄ'' commentary (abbreviated RGVV to refer to the RGV verses along with the embedded comm ...
sutra and the Yogacara-Madhyamaka synthesis of
ÅšÄntaraká¹£ita (Sanskrit: शानà¥à¤¤à¤°à¤•à¥à¤·à¤¿à¤¤; , 725–788),stanford.eduÅšÄntaraká¹£ita (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)/ref> whose name translates into English as "protected by the One who is at peace" was an important and influential In ...
. The truth of sunyata is acknowledged, but not considered to be the highest truth, which is the empty nature of mind. Insight into sunyata is preparatory for the recognition of the nature of mind.


Dzogchen

Dzogchen is concerned with the "natural state" and emphasizes direct experience. The state of nondual awareness is called ''
rigpa In Dzogchen, ''rigpa'' (; Skt. Vidya (Knowledge), vidyÄ; "knowledge") is knowledge of the Ground (Dzogchen), ground. The opposite of ''rigpa'' is ''ma rigpa'' (''AvidyÄ (Buddhism), avidyÄ'', ignorance). A practitioner who has attained the sta ...
''. This primordial nature is clear light, unproduced and unchanging, free from all defilements. Through meditation, the
Dzogchen Dzogchen ( 'Great Completion' or 'Great Perfection'), also known as ''atiyoga'' ( utmost yoga), is a tradition of teachings in Indo-Tibetan Buddhism and Bön aimed at discovering and continuing in the ultimate ground of existence. The goal ...
practitioner experiences that thoughts have no substance. Mental phenomena arise and fall in the mind, but fundamentally they are empty. The practitioner then considers where the mind itself resides. Through careful examination one realizes that the mind is emptiness.
Karma Lingpa Karma Lingpa (1326–1386) was the tertön (revealer) of the Bardo Thodol, the so-called ''Tibetan Book of the Dead''. Tradition holds that he was a reincarnation of Chokro Lü Gyeltsen, a disciple of Padmasambhava. History Karma Lingpa was ...
(1326–1386) revealed "Self-Liberation through seeing with naked awareness" (''rigpa ngo-sprod'',) which is attributed to
Padmasambhava Padmasambhava ('Born from a Lotus'), also known as Guru Rinpoche ('Precious Guru'), was a legendary tantric Buddhist Vajracharya, Vajra master from Oddiyana. who fully revealed the Vajrayana in Tibet, circa 8th – 9th centuries... He is consi ...
. The text gives an introduction, or
pointing-out instruction The pointing-out instruction () is an introduction to the nature of mind in the Tibetan Buddhist lineages of MahÄmudrÄ and Dzogchen. In these traditions, a lama gives the pointing-out instruction in such a way that the disciple successfully ...
(''ngo-spro''), into
rigpa In Dzogchen, ''rigpa'' (; Skt. Vidya (Knowledge), vidyÄ; "knowledge") is knowledge of the Ground (Dzogchen), ground. The opposite of ''rigpa'' is ''ma rigpa'' (''AvidyÄ (Buddhism), avidyÄ'', ignorance). A practitioner who has attained the sta ...
, the state of presence and awareness. In this text, Karma Lingpa writes the following regarding the unity of various terms for nonduality:


=Garab Dorje's three statements

=
Garab Dorje Garab Dorje (c. 665) () was the first human to receive the complete direct transmission teachings of Sutra, Tantra and Dzogchen. The circumstances of his birth are shrouded in different interpretations, with some accounts describing a miraculous ...
(c. 665) epitomized the Dzogchen teaching in three principles, known as "Striking the Vital Point in Three Statements" (''Tsik Sum Né Dek''), said to be his last words. These three statements are believed to convey the heart of his teachings and serve as a concise and profound encapsulation of Dzogchen's view, its practice of contemplation, and the role of conduct. They give in short the development a student has to undergo: Garab Dorje's three statements were integrated into the ''Nyingthig'' traditions, the most popular of which in the '' Longchen Nyingthig'' by
Jigme Lingpa Jigme Lingpa (1730–1798) was a Tibetan ''tertön'' of the Nyingma lineage of Tibetan Buddhism. He was the promulgator of the Longchen Nyingthig, the Heart Essence teachings of Longchenpa, from whom, according to tradition, he received a v ...
(1730–1798). The statements are: # ''Introducing directly the face of rigpa itself'' (''ngo rang tok tu tré''). Dudjom Rinpoche states this refers to: "Introducing directly the face of the naked mind as the rigpa itself, the innate primordial wisdom." # ''Deciding upon one thing and one thing only'' (''tak chik tok tu ché''). Dudjom states: "Because all phenomena, whatever manifests, whether saṃsÄra or nirvÄṇa, are none other than the rigpa’s own play, there is complete and direct decision that there is nothing other than the abiding of the continual flow of rigpa." # ''Confidence directly in the liberation of rising thoughts'' (''deng drol tok tu cha''). Dudjom comments: "In the recognition of ''namtok'' rising thoughts whatever arises, whether gross or subtle, there is direct confidence in the simultaneity of the arising and dissolution in the expanse of dharmakÄya, which is the unity of rigpa and ''śūnyatÄ''."


Other eastern religions


Sikhism

Many newer, contemporary
Sikhs Sikhs (singular Sikh: or ; , ) are an ethnoreligious group who adhere to Sikhism, a religion that originated in the late 15th century in the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent, based on the revelation of Guru Nanak. The term ''Sikh'' ...
have suggested that human souls and the monotheistic God are two different realities (dualism), distinguishing it from the monistic and various shades of nondualistic philosophies of other Indian religions. However, some Sikh scholars have attempted to explore nondualism exegesis of Sikh scriptures, such as during the neocolonial reformist movement by
Bhai Vir Singh Vir Singh (5 December 1872 – 10 June 1957) was a Sikh poet, scholar and theologist of the Sikh revival movement, playing an important part in the renewal of Punjabi literary tradition. Family and personal life Born in 1872, in Amritsar, ...
. According to Mandair, Singh interprets the Sikh scriptures as teaching nonduality. Sikh scholar Bhai Mani Singh is quoted as saying that Sikhism has all the essence of
Vedanta ''Vedanta'' (; , ), also known as ''Uttara MÄ«mÄṃsÄ'', is one of the six orthodox (Ä€stika and nÄstika, ''Ästika'') traditions of Hindu philosophy and textual exegesis. The word ''Vedanta'' means 'conclusion of the Vedas', and encompa ...
philosophy. Historically, the Sikh symbol of Ik Oankaar has had a monistic meaning, and has been reduced to simply meaning, "There is but One God", which is incorrect. Older exegesis of Sikh scripture, such as the Faridkot Teeka, has always described Sikh metaphysics as a non-dual,
panentheistic Panentheism (; "all in God", from the Greek , and ) is the belief that the divine intersects every part of the universe and also extends beyond space and time. The term was coined by the German philosopher Karl Krause in 1828 (after reviewin ...
universe.


Taoism

Taoism's ''
wu wei ''Wu wei'' () is a polysemous, ancient Chinese concept expressing an ideal dao, practice of "inaction", "inexertion" or "effortless action", as a state of personal harmony and free-flowing, spontaneous Improvisation, creative manifestation. In a ...
'' (Chinese ''wu'', not; ''wei'', doing) is a term with various translations and interpretations designed to distinguish it from passivity. Commonly understood as "effortless action", this concept intersects with the core notions of nondualism. ''Wu wei'' encourages individuals to flow with the natural rhythms of existence, moving beyond dualistic perspectives and embracing a harmonious unity with the universe. This holistic approach to life, characterized by spontaneous and unforced action, aligns with the essence of nondualism, emphasizing interconnectedness, oneness, and the dissolution of dualistic boundaries. By seamlessly integrating effortless action in both physical deeds and mental states, ''wu wei'' embodies the nondual philosophy's essence. The concept of
Yin and Yang Originating in Chinese philosophy, yin and yang (, ), also yinyang or yin-yang, is the concept of opposite cosmic principles or forces that interact, interconnect, and perpetuate each other. Yin and yang can be thought of as complementary an ...
, often mistakenly conceived of as a symbol of dualism, is actually meant to convey the notion that all apparent opposites are complementary parts of a non-dual whole.


Western traditions

A modern strand of thought sees "nondual consciousness" as a universal psychological state, which is a common stratum and of the same essence in different spiritual traditions. It is derived from
Neo-Vedanta Neo-Vedanta, also called neo-Hinduism, Hindu modernism, Global Hinduism and Hindu Universalism, are terms to characterize interpretations of Hinduism that developed in the 19th century. The term "Neo-Vedanta" was coined by German Indologist ...
and neo-Advaita, but has historical roots in
neo-Platonism Neoplatonism is a version of Platonic philosophy that emerged in the 3rd century AD against the background of Hellenistic philosophy and religion. The term does not encapsulate a set of ideas as much as a series of thinkers. Among the common i ...
,
Western esotericism Western esotericism, also known as the Western mystery tradition, is a wide range of loosely related ideas and movements that developed within Western society. These ideas and currents are united since they are largely distinct both from orthod ...
, and Perennialism. The idea of nondual consciousness as "the central essence" is a universalistic and
perennialist The perennial philosophy (), also referred to as perennialism and perennial wisdom, is a school of thought in philosophy and spirituality that posits that the recurrence of common themes across world religions illuminates universal truths about ...
idea, which is part of a modern mutual exchange and synthesis of ideas between western spiritual and esoteric traditions and Asian religious revival and reform movements. Central elements in the western traditions are
Neo-Platonism Neoplatonism is a version of Platonic philosophy that emerged in the 3rd century AD against the background of Hellenistic philosophy and religion. The term does not encapsulate a set of ideas as much as a series of thinkers. Among the common i ...
, which had a strong influence on
Christian contemplation Christian mysticism is the tradition of mysticism, mystical practices and mystical theology within Christianity which "concerns the preparation f the personfor, the consciousness of, and the effect of ..a direct and transformative pr ...
or
mysticism Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute (philosophy), Absolute, but may refer to any kind of Religious ecstasy, ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or Spirituality, spiritual meani ...
, and its accompanying
apophatic theology Apophatic theology, also known as negative theology, is a form of theology, theological thinking and religious practice which attempts to Problem of religious language, approach God, the Divine, by negation, to speak only in terms of what may no ...
.


Medieval Abrahamic religions


Christian contemplation and mysticism

In Christian mysticism,
contemplative prayer Christian mysticism is the tradition of mysticism, mystical practices and mystical theology within Christianity which "concerns the preparation f the personfor, the consciousness of, and the effect of ..a direct and transformative pr ...
and
Apophatic theology Apophatic theology, also known as negative theology, is a form of theology, theological thinking and religious practice which attempts to Problem of religious language, approach God, the Divine, by negation, to speak only in terms of what may no ...
are central elements. In contemplative prayer, the mind is focused by constant repetition a phrase or word. Saint
John Cassian John Cassian, also known as John the Ascetic and John Cassian the Roman (, ''Ioannes Cassianus'', or ''Ioannes Massiliensis''; Greek: Ίωάννης Κασσιανός ÏŒ ΕÏημίτης; – ), was a Christian monk and theologian celebrated ...
recommended use of the phrase "O God, make speed to save me: O Lord, make haste to help me". Another formula for repetition is the name of Jesus or the
Jesus Prayer The Jesus Prayer, also known as The Prayer, is a short formulaic prayer and is especially esteemed and advocated in Eastern Christianity and Catholicism. There are multiple versions of this prayer, however the most widely used version is as follo ...
, which has been called "the mantra of the Orthodox Church", although the term "Jesus Prayer" is not found in the Fathers of the Church. The author of ''
The Cloud of Unknowing ''The Cloud of Unknowing'' (Middle English: ''The Cloude of Unknowyng'') is an anonymous work of Christian mysticism written in Middle English in the latter half of the 14th century. The text is a spiritual guide on contemplative prayer. The ...
'' recommended use of a monosyllabic word, such as "God" or "Love". Apophatic theology is derived from
Neo-Platonism Neoplatonism is a version of Platonic philosophy that emerged in the 3rd century AD against the background of Hellenistic philosophy and religion. The term does not encapsulate a set of ideas as much as a series of thinkers. Among the common i ...
via
Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite (or Dionysius the Pseudo-Areopagite) was a Greek author, Christian theologian and Neoplatonic philosopher of the late 5th to early 6th century, who wrote a set of works known as the ''Corpus Areopagiticum'' ...
. In this approach, the notion of God is stripped from all positive qualifications, leaving a "darkness" or "unground", it had a strong influence on western mysticism. A notable example is
Meister Eckhart Eckhart von Hochheim ( – ), commonly known as Meister Eckhart (), Master Eckhart or Eckehart, claimed original name Johannes Eckhart,
, who also attracted attention from Zen-Buddhists like D.T. Suzuki in modern times, due to the similarities between Buddhist thought and Neo-Platonism. ''The Cloud of Unknowing'' – an anonymous work of
Christian mysticism Christian mysticism is the tradition of mystical practices and mystical theology within Christianity which "concerns the preparation f the personfor, the consciousness of, and the effect of ..a direct and transformative presence of God" ...
written in
Middle English Middle English (abbreviated to ME) is a form of the English language that was spoken after the Norman Conquest of 1066, until the late 15th century. The English language underwent distinct variations and developments following the Old English pe ...
in the latter half of the 14th century – advocates a mystic relationship with God. The text describes a spiritual union with God through the heart. The author of the text advocates
centering prayer Centering Prayer is a method designed to facilitate the development of contemplative prayer by preparing our faculties to receive this gift. It presents ancient Christian wisdom teachings in an updated form. Centering Prayer is not meant to replace ...
, a form of inner silence. According to the text, God can not be known through knowledge or from intellection. It is only by emptying the mind of all created images and thoughts that we can arrive to experience God. Continuing on this line of thought, God is completely unknowable by the mind. God is not known through the intellect but through intense
contemplation In a religious context, the practice of contemplation seeks a direct awareness of the Divinity, divine which Transcendence (religion), transcends the intellect, often in accordance with religious practices such as meditation or contemplative pr ...
, motivated by love, and stripped of all thought.
Thomism Thomism is the philosophical and theological school which arose as a legacy of the work and thought of Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), the Dominican philosopher, theologian, and Doctor of the Church. In philosophy, Thomas's disputed ques ...
, though not non-dual in the ordinary sense, considers the unity of God so absolute that even the duality of subject and
predicate Predicate or predication may refer to: * Predicate (grammar), in linguistics * Predication (philosophy) * several closely related uses in mathematics and formal logic: **Predicate (mathematical logic) **Propositional function **Finitary relation, o ...
, to describe him, can be true only by
analogy Analogy is a comparison or correspondence between two things (or two groups of things) because of a third element that they are considered to share. In logic, it is an inference or an argument from one particular to another particular, as oppose ...
. In Thomist thought, even the
Tetragrammaton The TetragrammatonPronounced ; ; also known as the Tetragram. is the four-letter Hebrew-language theonym (transliteration, transliterated as YHWH or YHVH), the name of God in the Hebrew Bible. The four Hebrew letters, written and read from ...
is only an approximate name, since "I am" involves a predicate whose own essence is its subject. The former nun and contemplative Bernadette Roberts is considered a nondualist by Jerry Katz. Hypostatic-union is an incomplete form of non-duality applied to a tertiary entity, neglecting the Subjective idealism, subjective self.


Jewish Hasidism and Kabbalism

According to Jay Michaelson, nonduality begins to appear in the medieval Jewish textual tradition which peaked in Hasidism: One of the most striking contributions of the Kabbalah, which became a central idea in Chasidic thought, was a highly innovative reading of the monotheistic idea. The belief in one God is no longer perceived as the mere rejection of other deities or intermediaries, but a denial of any existence outside of God.


Western philosophy

Baruch Spinoza's formulation of pantheism in the 17th century constitutes a seminal European manifestation of nondualism. His philosophical work, especially expounded in ''Ethics (Spinoza book), Ethics'' posits a radical idea that fuses divinity with the material world, suggesting that God and the universe are not separate entities but different facets of a single underlying substance. In his worldview, the finite and the infinite are harmoniously interwoven, challenging René Descartes' Mind–body dualism, dualistic perspective. One of Friedrich Nietzsche's philosophical insights also resonates with nondualism. Nietzsche wrote that "We cease to think when we refuse to do so under the constraint of language." This idea is explored in his book ''On Truth and Lies in a Nonmoral Sense''. His scrutiny of conventional thought and language urges a departure from linguistic boundaries. This perspective aligns with the nondual notion of transcending dualistic concepts and engaging with reality in a more immediate, intuitive manner.


Academic views


Orientalism

The western world has been exposed to Indian religions since the late 18th century. The first western translation of a Sanskrit text was made in 1785. It marked a growing interest in Indian culture and languages. The first translation of the dualism and nondualism discussing Upanishads appeared in two parts in 1801 and 1802 and influenced Arthur Schopenhauer, who called them "the consolation of my life". Early translations also appeared in other European languages.


Common-core thesis

The common-core thesis suggests that different mystical traditions may describe similar, if not identical, experiences, despite using different conceptual frameworks and terminologies. Proponents of Perennialism, such as
Aldous Huxley Aldous Leonard Huxley ( ; 26 July 1894 – 22 November 1963) was an English writer and philosopher. His bibliography spans nearly 50 books, including non-fiction novel, non-fiction works, as well as essays, narratives, and poems. Born into the ...
, argue that a universal mystical core underlies all religious traditions. Huxley, influenced by Swami Vivekananda, Vivekananda's
Neo-Vedanta Neo-Vedanta, also called neo-Hinduism, Hindu modernism, Global Hinduism and Hindu Universalism, are terms to characterize interpretations of Hinduism that developed in the 19th century. The term "Neo-Vedanta" was coined by German Indologist ...
and Universalism, promoted this idea in his book ''The Perennial Philosophy''. However, scholarly critiques of this thesis argue that religious experiences are often culturally and doctrinally mediated, rather than pointing to a single, universal experience. Elias Amidon describes this common essence as an "indescribable but definitely recognizable reality" that serves as the ground of all being. He suggests that various spiritual traditions refer to this reality by different names, including: While some scholars, such as Jean-Marc Renard, argue that nondual awareness is rooted in direct experience or intuition of "the Real", they also emphasize that nondualism differs from
monism Monism attributes oneness or singleness () to a concept, such as to existence. Various kinds of monism can be distinguished: * Priority monism states that all existing things go back to a source that is distinct from them; e.g., in Neoplatonis ...
. Unlike monism, which may conceptualize reality as a unified whole, nondualism is understood as fundamentally "nonconceptual" and "not graspable in an idea".
Alan Watts Alan Wilson Watts (6 January 1915 – 16 November 1973) was a British and American writer, speaker, and self-styled "philosophical entertainer", known for interpreting and popularising Buddhist, Taoist, and Hinduism, Hindu philosophy for a Wes ...
is credited with popularizing this distinction between nondualism and monism, particularly in ''The Supreme Identity'' (1950) and ''The Way of Zen'' (1957). He explained that monism often leads to conceptualizing reality as a single entity, whereas nondualism points beyond conceptual frameworks entirely.


Critiques of the common-core thesis

Critics of the common-core thesis, often referred to as diversity theorists, argue that mystical experiences are not universal but instead culturally and doctrinally shaped. Scholars such as S. T. Katz and Wayne Proudfoot assert that all religious experiences are mediated by language, tradition, and conceptual frameworks rather than reflecting an unconditioned, universal mystical reality. Katz, in particular, writes that "[N]o unmediated experience is possible, and that in the extreme, language is not simply used to interpret experience but in fact constitutes experience." This position challenges the idea that nondual awareness is a common mystical essence, arguing instead that what one experiences in religious practice is shaped by their specific cultural and doctrinal background. Philosopher Keith Yandell further critiques the common-core thesis by distinguishing five distinct categories of religious experiences, each tied to a specific doctrinal framework: * Numinous experiences – Found in monotheistic traditions such as Judaism, Christianity, and Vedantic Hinduism. * Nirvana, Nirvanic experiences – Found in Buddhism, where one perceives the self as a bundle of fleeting states rather than a fixed entity. * Kevala Jnana, Kevala experiences – Found in Jainism, where the self is understood as an indestructible subject of experience. * Moksha experiences – Found in Hinduism, with Brahman conceptualized either as a cosmic person or as an impersonal, qualityless absolute. * Nature mystical experiences – Found in traditions emphasizing union with nature rather than a transcendental or metaphysical realization. This classification suggests that religious experiences vary significantly across traditions, contradicting the claim that all mystical experiences point to the same nondual essence. Further criticism comes from Richard King and Robert Sharf, who argue that what one experiences in meditation or mystical practice is largely shaped by pre-existing doctrinal expectations. In this view, mystical experiences are not independent proofs of a given tradition's truth but are instead a result of the teachings and practices within that tradition. For example, Bronkhorst traces the historical development of "liberating insight" in Buddhism, demonstrating that the concept evolved significantly over time. Early Buddhist texts did not provide a clear definition of what constituted enlightenment. Later, the Four Noble Truths became the dominant framework for understanding liberation. Over time, this emphasis shifted again; in some Hinayana schools, liberation was increasingly understood through the doctrine of no-self (anatta) as a fundamental realization. Schmithausen further observes that Buddhist scriptures contain multiple interpretations of enlightenment, suggesting that even within a single tradition, the nature of ultimate realization was not fixed but subject to doctrinal development and reinterpretation. These variations challenge the idea that nondual awareness is a universal and timeless mystical experience, instead suggesting that different traditions construct different understandings of what constitutes ultimate reality.


Phenomenology

Nondual awareness, also called pure consciousness or awareness, contentless consciousness, consciousness-as-such, and Minimal Phenomenal Experience, is a topic of phenomenological research. As described in Samkhya-Yoga and other systems of meditation, and referred to as, for example, Turya and Atman, pure awareness manifests in advanced states of meditation. Pure consciousness is distinguished from the workings of the mind, and "consists in nothing but the being seen of what is seen". present twelve factors in their phenomenological analysis of pure awareness experienced by meditators, including luminosity; emptiness and non-egoic self-awareness; and witness-consciousness.


See also

*One taste *The Void (philosophy), The Void


References


Notes


Citations


Works cited

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Further reading

* * * * * * * * *


External links

* {{Universalism footer Nonduality, Buddha-nature Eastern philosophy Philosophy of religion Pluralism (philosophy) Postmodern theory