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Year 1291 ( MCCXCI) was a
common year starting on Monday A common year starting on Monday is any non-leap year (i.e., a year with 365 days) that begins on Monday, 1 January, and ends on Monday, 31 December. Its dominical letter hence is G. The most recent year of such kind was 2018, and the next one ...
of the
Julian calendar The Julian calendar is a solar calendar of 365 days in every year with an additional leap day every fourth year (without exception). The Julian calendar is still used as a religious calendar in parts of the Eastern Orthodox Church and in parts ...
.


Events


By place


Europe

*
August 1 Events Pre-1600 * 30 BC – Octavian (later known as Augustus) enters Alexandria, Egypt, bringing it under the control of the Roman Republic. *AD 69 – Batavian rebellion: The Batavians in Germania Inferior (Netherlands) revolt u ...
Federal Charter of 1291 The Federal Charter or Letter of Alliance () is one of the earliest constitutional documents of Switzerland. A treaty of alliance from 1291 between the cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden, the Charter is one of a series of alliances from wh ...
: The "three forest cantons" (''
Waldstätte ' (, "forested sites/settlements;" ) is a term which has been used since the early thirteenth century to refer to the (singular: , "site" "settlement"), or later ''Ort(schaft)'' (plural: , "locality" "place" "lieu") or (plural: , "estate") of th ...
'') of Switzerland (
Schwyz Schwyz (; ; ) is a town and the capital of the canton of Schwyz in Switzerland. The Federal Charter of 1291 or ''Bundesbrief'', the charter that eventually led to the foundation of Switzerland, can be seen at the ''Bundesbriefmuseum''. The of ...
,
Uri Uri may refer to: Places * Canton of Uri, a canton in Switzerland * Úri, a village and commune in Hungary * Uri, Iran, a village in East Azerbaijan Province * Uri, Jammu and Kashmir, a town in India * Uri (island), off Malakula Island in V ...
and
Unterwalden Unterwalden, translated from the Latin ''inter silvas'' ("between the forests"), is the old name of a forest-canton of the Old Swiss Confederacy in central Switzerland, south of Lake Lucerne, consisting of two valleys or '' Talschaften'', now tw ...
) form a defensive alliance to protect themselves from the
House of Habsburg The House of Habsburg (; ), also known as the House of Austria, was one of the most powerful Dynasty, dynasties in the history of Europe and Western civilization. They were best known for their inbreeding and for ruling vast realms throughout ...
; this is a starting point for
growth of the Old Swiss Confederacy The Old Swiss Confederacy began as a late medieval alliance between the communities of the valleys in the Central Alps, at the time part of the Holy Roman Empire, to facilitate the management of common interests such as free trade and to ensure ...
. This year is also the traditional date of the
Rütli Oath The Rütli Oath (, ) is the legendary oath taken at the foundation of the Old Swiss Confederacy (traditionally dated to 1307) by the representatives of the three founding cantons, Uri, Schwyz and Unterwalden. It is named after the site of the ...
(''Rütlischwur''), the swearing of an oath by the three cantonal representatives at
Rütli Rütli () or Grütli (; ) is a mountain meadow on Lake Lucerne, in the Seelisberg municipality of the Swiss canton of Uri. It is the site of the Rütlischwur in traditional Swiss historiography, the oath marking the foundation of the origi ...
meadow. *
August 6 Events Pre-1600 *686 – The Ummayad forces suffer a deceisive defeat against the pro-Alid forces under Ibrahim ibn al-Ashtar in the battle of Khazir. *1284 – The Republic of Pisa is defeated in the Battle of Meloria (1284), Battle o ...
– A combined Genoese-Sevillian fleet led by Admiral Benedetto Zaccaria wins a victory over 27 Marinid galleys at Alcácer Seguir –12 galleys are taken and the rest put to flight. The following day, Benedetto drags the captured vessels along the coast in view of
Abu Yaqub Yusuf an-Nasr Abu Yaqub Yusuf an-Nasr () (died 13 May 1307) was a Marinid ruler. He was the son of Abu Yusuf Ya'qub, whom he succeeded in 1286. His mother was a sharifa, Lalla Oum'el'Iz bint Mohammed al-Alaoui. He was assassinated in 1307. History Abu ...
, Marinid ruler of
Morocco Morocco, officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It has coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to Algeria–Morocc ...
, who, "defeated and dishonored", withdraws his fleet to Fez. * Late
September September is the ninth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. Its length is 30 days. September in the Northern Hemisphere and March in the Southern Hemisphere are seasonally equivalent. In the Northern hemisphere, the b ...
– Abu Yaqub Yusuf an-Nasr crosses the
Strait of Gibraltar The Strait of Gibraltar is a narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Europe from Africa. The two continents are separated by 7.7 nautical miles (14.2 kilometers, 8.9 miles) at its narrowest point. Fe ...
from Alcácer Seguir to
Tarifa Tarifa () is a Spanish municipality in the province of Cádiz, Andalusia. Located at the southernmost end of the Iberian Peninsula, it is primarily known as one of the world's most popular destinations for windsports. Tarifa lies on the Costa d ...
. During the next three months, Marinid forces besiege
Vejer de la Frontera Vejer de la Frontera is a Spanish hilltop town and municipality in the province of Cádiz, Andalusia, on the right bank of the river Barbate. The town of Vejer de la Frontera occupies a low hill overlooking the Straits of Gibraltar and surrounded ...
, and carry out daily raids around Ferez. In the meantime, other Marinid raiding parties devastate the countryside as far north as
Alcalá del Río Alcalá del Río is a municipality in Seville, Spain. It had a population of 9,317 in 2005. It has an area of about 83 square kilometers and has a population density of 112.3 people per square kilometer. It has an altitude of 30 meters (about 100 ...
, near
Seville Seville ( ; , ) is the capital and largest city of the Spain, Spanish autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Andalusia and the province of Seville. It is situated on the lower reaches of the Guadalquivir, River Guadalquivir, ...
. *
November November is the eleventh and penultimate month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. Its length is 30 days. November was the ninth month of the calendar of Romulus . November retained its name (from the Latin ''novem'' meaning " ...
December December is the twelfth and final month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars. Its length is 31 days. December's name derives from the Latin word ''decem'' (meaning ten) because it was originally the tenth month of the year in t ...
– The kings
Sancho IV of Castile Sancho IV of Castile (12 May 1258 – 25 April 1295) called the Brave (''el Bravo''), was the king of Castile, León and Galicia (now parts of Spain) from 1284 to his death. Following his brother Ferdinand's death, he gained the s ...
("the Brave") and
James II of Aragon James II (Catalan: ''Jaume II''; Aragonese: ''Chaime II;'' 10 April 1267 – 2 or 5 November 1327), called the Just, was the King of Aragon and Valencia and Count of Barcelona from 1291 to 1327. He was also the King of Sicily (as James I) f ...
("the Just") agree to join the war against the Marinids and conclude a treaty of friendship. Muhammad II, Nasrid ruler of
Granada Granada ( ; ) is the capital city of the province of Granada, in the autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Andalusia, Spain. Granada is located at the foot of the Sierra Nevada (Spain), Sierra Nevada mountains, at the confluence ...
, gives his support to Sancho to take Tarifa from the Marinids. In the agreement, Castile and
Aragon Aragon ( , ; Spanish and ; ) is an autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. In northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces of Spain, ...
will respect their own boundaries. *
Pope Nicholas IV Pope Nicholas IV (; born Girolamo Masci; 30 September 1227 – 4 April 1292) was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 22 February 1288 to his death, on 4 April 1292. He was the first Franciscan to be elected pope.McBrie ...
confirms the independence of
San Marino San Marino, officially the Republic of San Marino, is a landlocked country in Southern Europe, completely surrounded by Italy. Located on the northeastern slopes of the Apennine Mountains, it is the larger of two European microstates, microsta ...
by
papal bull A papal bull is a type of public decree, letters patent, or charter issued by the pope of the Catholic Church. It is named after the leaden Seal (emblem), seal (''bulla (seal), bulla'') traditionally appended to authenticate it. History Papal ...
.
* Klenová Castle is constructed in southern
Bohemia Bohemia ( ; ; ) is the westernmost and largest historical region of the Czech Republic. In a narrow, geographic sense, it roughly encompasses the territories of present-day Czechia that fall within the Elbe River's drainage basin, but historic ...
near the town of
Klatovy Klatovy (; ) is a town in the Plzeň Region of the Czech Republic. It has about 23,000 inhabitants. The historic town centre is well preserved and is protected as an Cultural monument (Czech Republic)#Monument zones, urban monument zone. Administr ...
(modern
Czech Republic The Czech Republic, also known as Czechia, and historically known as Bohemia, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. The country is bordered by Austria to the south, Germany to the west, Poland to the northeast, and Slovakia to the south ...
) as part of a frontier defense system. * King
Andrew III of Hungary Andrew III the Venetian (, , ; – 14 January 1301) was King of Hungary and King of Croatia, Croatia between 1290 and 1301. His father, Stephen the Posthumous, was the posthumous son of Andrew II of Hungary although Stephen's older half brother ...
("the Venetian") gives royal
town privileges Town privileges or borough rights were important features of European towns during most of the second millennium. The city law customary in Central Europe probably dates back to Italian models, which in turn were oriented towards the traditio ...
to
Bratislava Bratislava (German: ''Pressburg'', Hungarian: ''Pozsony'') is the Capital city, capital and largest city of the Slovakia, Slovak Republic and the fourth largest of all List of cities and towns on the river Danube, cities on the river Danube. ...
, modern-day capital of
Slovakia Slovakia, officially the Slovak Republic, is a landlocked country in Central Europe. It is bordered by Poland to the north, Ukraine to the east, Hungary to the south, Austria to the west, and the Czech Republic to the northwest. Slovakia's m ...
.


Britain

* Spring – Several nobles unsuccessfully claim the Scottish throne (a process known as the 'Great Cause'), including
John Balliol John Balliol or John de Balliol ( – late 1314), known derisively as Toom Tabard (meaning 'empty coat'), was King of Scots from 1292 to 1296. Little is known of his early life. After the death of Margaret, Maid of Norway, Scotland entered an ...
,
Robert de Brus Robert I (11 July 1274 – 7 June 1329), popularly known as Robert the Bruce (), was King of Scots from 1306 until his death in 1329. Robert led Kingdom of Scotland, Scotland during the First War of Scottish Independence against Kingdom of Eng ...
, John Hastings and William de Vesci. Fearing civil war, the Guardians of Scotland ask King
Edward I of England Edward I (17/18 June 1239 – 7 July 1307), also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots (Latin: Malleus Scotorum), was King of England from 1272 to 1307. Concurrently, he was Lord of Ireland, and from 1254 ...
to arbitrate. Before agreeing, he obtains concessions to revive English overlordship over the Scots. *
May 10 Events Pre-1600 * 28 BC – A sunspot is observed by Han dynasty astronomers during the reign of Emperor Cheng of Han, one of the earliest dated sunspot observations in China. * 1291 – Scottish nobles recognize the authority of ...
– Edward I meets the claimants for the Scottish crown at
Norham Castle Norham Castle (sometimes Nornam) is a castle in Norham, Northumberland, England, overlooking the River Tweed, on the border between England and Scotland. It is a Grade I listed building and a Scheduled Ancient Monument. The castle saw much actio ...
and informs them that he will judge the various claims to the throne, but they must acknowledge him as overlord of
Scotland Scotland is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It contains nearly one-third of the United Kingdom's land area, consisting of the northern part of the island of Great Britain and more than 790 adjac ...
and, to ensure peace, surrender the royal castles of the kingdom into his keeping. *
June 13 Events Pre-1600 * 313 – The decisions of the Edict of Milan, signed by Constantine the Great and co-emperor Valerius Licinius, granting religious freedom throughout the Roman Empire, are published in Nicomedia. * 1325 – Ibn ...
– Guardians and the Scottish nobles recognize Edward I as overlord of Scotland, agreeing that the kingdom will be handed over to himd until a rightful heir has been found.


Levant

*
May 18 Events Pre-1600 * 332 – Emperor Constantine the Great announces free distributions of food to the citizens in Constantinople. * 872 – Louis II of Italy is crowned for the second time as Holy Roman Emperor at Rome, at the age of 47 ...
Siege of Acre: Mamluk forces under Sultan
Al-Ashraf Khalil Al-Malik Al-Ashraf Salāh ad-Dīn Khalil ibn Qalawūn (; c. 1260s – 14 December 1293) was the eighth Turkic Bahri dynasty, Bahri Mamluk Sultanate, Mamluk sultan, succeeding his father Qalawun. He served from 12 November 1290 until his assassi ...
capture
Acre The acre ( ) is a Unit of measurement, unit of land area used in the Imperial units, British imperial and the United States customary units#Area, United States customary systems. It is traditionally defined as the area of one Chain (unit), ch ...
after a six-week siege. The Mamluks take the outer wall of the city after fierce fighting. The Military Orders drive them back temporarily, but three days later the inner wall is breached. King
Henry II of Cyprus Henry II (June 1270 – 31 March 1324) was the last crowned Kingdom of Jerusalem, King of Jerusalem (after the fall of Acre on 28 May 1291, this title became empty) and also ruled as Kingdom of Cyprus, King of Cyprus. He was of the Lusignan ...
escapes, but the bulk of the defenders and most of the citizens perish in the fighting or are sold into slavery. The surviving knights fall back to the fortified towers and resist for ten days until the Mamluks breakthrough on
May 28 Events Pre-1600 * 585 BC – A solar eclipse occurs, as predicted by the Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling Cyaxares in the Battle of the Eclipse, leading to a truce. This is one of the cardinal dates from ...
. The fall of Acre signals the end of the Crusader
Kingdom of Jerusalem The Kingdom of Jerusalem, also known as the Crusader Kingdom, was one of the Crusader states established in the Levant immediately after the First Crusade. It lasted for almost two hundred years, from the accession of Godfrey of Bouillon in 1 ...
. No effective Crusade is raised to recapture the
Holy Land The term "Holy Land" is used to collectively denote areas of the Southern Levant that hold great significance in the Abrahamic religions, primarily because of their association with people and events featured in the Bible. It is traditionall ...
afterward. *
June June is the sixth and current month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars—the latter the most widely used calendar in the world. Its length is 30 days. June succeeds May and precedes July. This month marks the start of su ...
– Al-Ashraf Khalil enters
Damascus Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...
in triumph with Crusaders chained at their feet and the captured Crusader standards, which are carried upside-down as a sign of their defeat. Following the capture of Acre, Khalil and his Mamluk generals proceed to wrest control of the remaining Crusader-held fortresses along the Syrian coast. Within weeks, the Mamluks conquer Tyre,
Sidon Sidon ( ) or better known as Saida ( ; ) is the third-largest city in Lebanon. It is located on the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean coast in the South Governorate, Lebanon, South Governorate, of which it is the capital. Tyre, Lebanon, Tyre, t ...
,
Beirut Beirut ( ; ) is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Lebanon. , Greater Beirut has a population of 2.5 million, just under half of Lebanon's population, which makes it the List of largest cities in the Levant region by populatio ...
,
Haifa Haifa ( ; , ; ) is the List of cities in Israel, third-largest city in Israel—after Jerusalem and Tel Aviv—with a population of in . The city of Haifa forms part of the Haifa metropolitan area, the third-most populous metropolitan area i ...
and
Tartus Tartus ( / ALA-LC: ''Ṭarṭūs''; known in the County of Tripoli as Tortosa and also transliterated from French language, French Tartous) is a major port city on the Mediterranean coast of Syria. It is the second largest port city in Syria (af ...
. *
July July is the seventh month of the year in the Julian calendar, Julian and Gregorian calendars. Its length is 31 days. It was named by the Roman Senate in honour of Roman general Julius Caesar in 44 B.C., being the month of his birth. Before the ...
Thibaud Gaudin Thibaud Gaudin (1229? – April 16, 1292) was the Grand Master of the Knights Templar from August 1291 until his death in April 1292. Life The history of Thibaud Gaudin within the Order is rather mysterious. Born to a noble family in the area of ...
arrives with the surviving knights, with the treasure of the Order, in Sidon. There, he is elected as Grand Master of the
Knights Templar The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon, mainly known as the Knights Templar, was a Military order (religious society), military order of the Catholic Church, Catholic faith, and one of the most important military ord ...
, to succeed
Guillaume de Beaujeu Guillaume de Beaujeu, aka William of Beaujeu ( 1230 – 1291) was the 21st Grand Master of the Knights Templar, from 1273 until his death during the Siege of Acre (1291), siege of Acre in 1291. He was the last Grand Master to preside in Palestin ...
(who was mortally wounded during the siege of Acre). Shortly after, Mamluk forces attack Sidon and Gaudin (who has not had enough knights to defend) evacuates the city and moves to the
Sidon Sea Castle Sidon's Sea Castle () was built by the crusaders in the thirteenth century as a fortress of the Holy Land. It is one of the most prominent historical sites in the port city of Sidon, Lebanon. History The city of Sidon is located on the Mediterran ...
on
July 14 Events Pre-1600 * 982 – King Otto II and his Frankish army are defeated by the Muslim army of al-Qasim at Cape Colonna, Southern Italy. *1223 – Louis VIII becomes King of France upon the death of his father, Philip II. * 142 ...
. *
August 14 Events Pre-1600 * 74 BC – A group of officials, led by the Western Han minister Huo Guang, present articles of impeachment against the new emperor, Liu He, to the imperial regent, Empress Dowager Shangguan. * 29 BC – Octavian ...
– Mamluk forces conquer the last Crusader outpost in
Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
, the Templar fortress of
Atlit Atlit or Athlit may refer to: Places * Atlit, an historical fortified town in Israel, also known as Château Pèlerin * Atlit (modern town), a nearby town in Israel Media *Athlit (album), ''Athlit'' (album), an ambient music album by Oöphoi *Atli ...
south of Acre. All that now is left to the Knights Templar is the island fortress of Ruad. Al-Ashraf Khalil returns to
Cairo Cairo ( ; , ) is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Egypt and the Cairo Governorate, being home to more than 10 million people. It is also part of the List of urban agglomerations in Africa, largest urban agglomeration in Africa, L ...
in triumph as the "victor in the long struggle against the
Crusader states The Crusader states, or Outremer, were four Catholic polities established in the Levant region and southeastern Anatolia from 1098 to 1291. Following the principles of feudalism, the foundation for these polities was laid by the First Crusade ...
".


Asia

* In
Japan Japan is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asia, Asian mainland, it is bordered on the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea ...
the temple of
Nanzen-ji , or Zuiryusan Nanzen-ji, formerly , is a Zen Buddhist temple in Kyoto, Japan. Emperor Kameyama established it in 1291 on the site of his previous detached palace. It is also the headquarters of the Nanzen-ji branch of Rinzai Zen. The precinct ...
at
Kyoto Kyoto ( or ; Japanese language, Japanese: , ''Kyōto'' ), officially , is the capital city of Kyoto Prefecture in the Kansai region of Japan's largest and most populous island of Honshu. , the city had a population of 1.46 million, making it t ...
is established by Emperor Kameyama. This temple becomes one of the most important religious schools within the Rinzai sect of
Zen Zen (; from Chinese: ''Chán''; in Korean: ''Sŏn'', and Vietnamese: ''Thiền'') is a Mahayana Buddhist tradition that developed in China during the Tang dynasty by blending Indian Mahayana Buddhism, particularly Yogacara and Madhyamaka phil ...
Buddhism Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
and includes multiple sub-temples. *
Guo Shoujing Guo Shoujing (, 1231–1316), courtesy name Ruosi (), was a Chinese astronomer, hydraulic engineer, mathematician, and politician of the Yuan dynasty. The later Johann Adam Schall von Bell (1591–1666) was so impressed with the preserved astro ...
, Chinese engineer and astronomer, constructs the artificial
Kunming Lake Kunming Lake ( zh, c=, p=Kūnmíng Hú) is the central lake on the grounds of the Summer Palace in Haidian District, Beijing, China. Together with the Longevity Hill, Kunming Lake forms the key landscape features of the Summer Palace gardens. W ...
, which is developed into a reservoir with
summer garden The Summer Garden () is a historic public garden that occupies an eponymous island between the Neva, Fontanka, Moika, and the Swan Canal in downtown Saint Petersburg, Russia and shares its name with the adjacent Summer Palace of Peter th ...
s for
Khanbaliq Khanbaliq (; , ''Qaɣan balɣasu'') or Dadu of Yuan (; , ''Dayidu'') was the Historical capitals of China, winter capital of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty in what is now Beijing, the capital of China today. It was located at the center of modern ...
(or Dadu of Yuan), Mongol capital of Emperor
Kublai Khan Kublai Khan (23 September 1215 – 18 February 1294), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Shizu of Yuan and his regnal name Setsen Khan, was the founder and first emperor of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China. He proclaimed the ...
.


By topic


Economy

* Four towns of the
County of Holland The County of Holland was a Imperial State, state of the Holy Roman Empire from its inception until 1433. From 1433 onward it was part of the Burgundian Netherlands, from 1482 part of the Habsburg Netherlands and from 1581 onward the leading pro ...
(
Dordrecht Dordrecht (), historically known in English as Dordt (still colloquially used in Dutch, ) or Dort, is a List of cities in the Netherlands by province, city and List of municipalities of the Netherlands, municipality in the Western Netherlands, lo ...
,
Haarlem Haarlem (; predecessor of ''Harlem'' in English language, English) is a List of cities in the Netherlands by province, city and Municipalities of the Netherlands, municipality in the Netherlands. It is the capital of the Provinces of the Nether ...
,
Leiden Leiden ( ; ; in English language, English and Archaism, archaic Dutch language, Dutch also Leyden) is a List of cities in the Netherlands by province, city and List of municipalities of the Netherlands, municipality in the Provinces of the Nethe ...
and
Alkmaar Alkmaar () is a List of cities in the Netherlands by province, city and List of municipalities of the Netherlands, municipality in the Netherlands, located in the Provinces of the Netherlands, province of North Holland. Alkmaar is well known fo ...
) and two of the
County of Zeeland The County of Zeeland () was a county of the Holy Roman Empire in the Low Countries and it later became one of the seven provinces of the Dutch Republic. It covered an area in the Scheldt and Meuse (river), Meuse delta roughly corresponding to t ...
(
Middelburg Middelburg may refer to: Places and jurisdictions Europe * Middelburg, Zeeland, the capital city of the province of Zeeland, southwestern Netherlands ** Roman Catholic Diocese of Middelburg, a former Catholic diocese with its see in the Zeeland ...
and
Zierikzee Zierikzee () is a small city in the southwest Netherlands, 50 km southwest of Rotterdam. It is situated in the municipality of Schouwen-Duiveland, Zeeland. The city hall of Schouwen-Duiveland is located in Zierikzee, its largest city. Zierikze ...
) agree collectively to secure a loan by their sovereign, Count
Floris V Floris V (24 June 1254 – 27 June 1296) reigned as Count of Holland and Zeeland from 1256 until 1296. His life was documented in detail in the Rijmkroniek by Melis Stoke, his chronicler. He is credited with a mostly peaceful reign, modern ...
. This gives important securities to the lenders, and allows Floris to access the same low interest rates as the cities’ governments. * Venetian glass manufacture is concentrated on the island of
Murano Murano is a series of islands linked by bridges in the Venetian Lagoon, northern Italy. It lies about north of Venice and measures about across with a population of just over 5,000 (2004 figures). It is famous for its glass making. It was o ...
(located in the
Venetian Lagoon The Venetian Lagoon (; ) is an enclosed bay of the Adriatic Sea, in northern Italy, in which the city of Venice is situated. Its name in the Italian and Venetian languages, ' (cognate of Latin ' ), has provided the English name for an enclosed, ...
), to prevent fires in
Venice Venice ( ; ; , formerly ) is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the Veneto Regions of Italy, region. It is built on a group of 118 islands that are separated by expanses of open water and by canals; portions of the city are li ...
itself.


Exploration

* Spring – The brothers
Vandino and Ugolino Vivaldi __NOTOC__ Vandino (sometimes Vadino or Guido) and Ugolino Vivaldi (sometimes Ugolino de Vivaldo) (fl. 1291) were two brothers and Genoese explorers and merchants who are best known for their attempted voyage from Europe to India via Africa. Th ...
, Italian explorers and merchants from
Genoa Genoa ( ; ; ) is a city in and the capital of the Italian region of Liguria, and the sixth-largest city in Italy. As of 2025, 563,947 people live within the city's administrative limits. While its metropolitan city has 818,651 inhabitan ...
, embark with two galleys intending to reach
India India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
and establish a trade route to
Italy Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe, Western Europe. It consists of Italian Peninsula, a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea, with the Alps on its northern land b ...
. They sail along the coast of present-day
Morocco Morocco, officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It has coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to Algeria–Morocc ...
after passing through the
Strait of Gibraltar The Strait of Gibraltar is a narrow strait that connects the Atlantic Ocean to the Mediterranean Sea and separates Europe from Africa. The two continents are separated by 7.7 nautical miles (14.2 kilometers, 8.9 miles) at its narrowest point. Fe ...
. They may have followed the African coast as far as
Cape Non Cape Chaunar, Cap Uarsig, Cape Nun, ''Cap Noun'', ''Cabo de Não'' or ''Nant'' is a cape on the Atlantic coast of Africa, in southern Morocco, between Tarfaya and Sidi Ifni. By the 15th century it was considered insurmountable by Arabs and Europ ...
before being lost at sea.


Births

*
February 8 Events Pre-1600 * 421 – Constantius III becomes co-emperor of the Western Roman Empire. * 1238 – The Mongols burn the Russian city of Vladimir. * 1250 – Seventh Crusade: Crusaders engage Ayyubid forces in the Battle of ...
Afonso IV ("the Brave"), king of
Portugal Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. Featuring Cabo da Roca, the westernmost point in continental Europe, Portugal borders Spain to its north and east, with which it share ...
(d. 1357) *
March 9 Events Pre-1600 *141 BC – Liu Che, Posthumous name, posthumously known as Emperor Wu of Han, assumes the throne over the Han dynasty of China. *1009 – First known mention of Lithuania, in the Annals of Quedlinburg, annals of the mo ...
Cangrande I della Scala Cangrande (christened Can Francesco) della Scala (9 March 1291 – 22 July 1329) was an Italian nobleman, belonging to the della Scala family that ruled Verona from 1308 until 1387. He was indeed one of the most important characters at the time ...
, Italian
nobleman Nobility is a social class found in many societies that have an aristocracy. It is normally appointed by and ranked immediately below royalty. Nobility has often been an estate of the realm with many exclusive functions and characteristics. T ...
(d.
1329 Year 1329 ( MCCCXXIX) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar. Events January–December * February 1 – King John of Bohemia (of the Teutonic Order) captures Medvėgalis, an important fortress of the pagan Gr ...
) *
May 10 Events Pre-1600 * 28 BC – A sunspot is observed by Han dynasty astronomers during the reign of Emperor Cheng of Han, one of the earliest dated sunspot observations in China. * 1291 – Scottish nobles recognize the authority of ...
Gilbert de Clare, English nobleman and knight (d.
1314 Events January – March * January 17 – Queen Oljath, who had been the Queen consort of the Kingdom of Georgia as wife of King Vakhtang II (d. 1292), and then his cousin, King David VIII (d. 1302), marries a third time, taking ...
) *
August 12 Events Pre-1600 *1099 – First Crusade: Battle of Ascalon Crusaders under the command of Godfrey of Bouillon defeat Fatimid forces led by Al-Afdal Shahanshah. This is considered the last engagement of the First Crusade. * 1121 – Bat ...
Ichijō Uchitsune, Japanese nobleman (''
kugyō is the collective term for the very few most powerful men attached to the court of the Emperor of Japan in pre-Meiji eras. The term generally referred to the and court officials and denoted a court rank between First Rank and Third Rank un ...
'') (d. 1325) * September 23Bolesław III, Polish nobleman and knight (d.
1352 Year 1352 ( MCCCLII) was a leap year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar. Events January–December * February 13 – War of the Straits – The Battle of the Bosporus is fought in a stormy sea into the night between the ...
) *
October 31 Events Pre-1600 * 475 – Romulus Augustulus is proclaimed Western Roman Emperor. * 683 – During the Siege of Mecca, the Kaaba catches fire and is burned down. * 802 – Empress Irene is deposed and banished to Lesbos. Consp ...
Philippe de Vitry Philippe de Vitry (31 October 12919 June 1361) was a French composer-poet, bishop and Music theory, music theorist in the style of late medieval music. An accomplished, innovative, and influential composer, he was widely acknowledged as a le ...
, French musician and poet (d. 1361) *
December 15 Events Pre-1600 * 533 – Vandalic War: Byzantine Empire, Byzantine general Belisarius defeats the Vandals, commanded by King Gelimer, at the Battle of Tricamarum. * 687 – Pope Sergius I is elected as a compromise between antipopes P ...
Aymon ("the Peaceful"), Savoyan nobleman (d.
1343 Year 1343 ( MCCCXLIII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. Events January–December * January 14 – Arnošt of Pardubice becomes the last bishop of Prague and, subsequently, the first Archbishop of P ...
) *
December 20 Events Pre-1600 *AD 69 – Antonius Primus enters Rome to claim the title of Emperor for Nero's former general Vespasian. * 1192 – Richard I of England is captured and imprisoned by Leopold V of Austria on his way home to England ...
Margareta Ebner, German nun and mystic (d.
1351 Year 1351 ( MCCCLI) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar. Events January–December * January 14 – Edward III of England institutes the Treason Act 1351, defining treason in English law. It remains unrep ...
) * Hugh de Audley, English nobleman, knight and diplomat (d.
1347 Year 1347 ( MCCCXLVII) was a common year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar, and a common year starting on Sunday of the Proleptic Gregorian calendar. Events January–December * January 26 – Charles University in Prague i ...
) *
Luis de la Cerda Luis de La Cerda, also called Louis of Spain (France, 1291 - Lamotte-du-Rhône, 5 July 1348) was an expatriate royal prince of the Crown of Castile, who lived and served in the Kingdom of France. Among his titles, Luis de la Cerda was the count ...
, French nobleman, prince and admiral (d.
1348 Year 1348 (Roman numerals, MCCCXLVIII) was a leap year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar, the 1348th year of the Common Era (CE) and ''Anno Domini'' (AD) designations, the 348th year of the 2nd millennium, the 48th year of the 14th centu ...
) * Luitgard of Wittichen, German nun,
abbess An abbess (Latin: ''abbatissa'') is the female superior of a community of nuns in an abbey. Description In the Catholic Church (both the Latin Church and Eastern Catholic), Eastern Orthodox, Coptic, Lutheran and Anglican abbeys, the mod ...
and mystic (d. 1348) * Marie of Artois, French noblewoman (
House of Artois The House of Artois was a cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty, descended from Louis VIII the Lion, King of France, through his younger son, Robert (1216 – 1250). Robert received the County of Artois as appanage in his father's will. In 12 ...
) (d.
1365 Year 1365 ( MCCCLXV) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. Events January–December * March 3 – Battle of Gataskogen: Albert of Mecklenburg defeats and captures Magnus Eriksson, obtaining the throne ...
) * Tōin Kinkata, Japanese official, historian and writer (d. 1360)


Deaths

*
March 5 Events Pre-1600 * 363 – Roman emperor Julian leaves Antioch with an army of 90,000 to attack the Sasanian Empire, in a campaign which would bring about his own death. * 1046 – Nasir Khusraw begins the seven-year Middle Easte ...
Sa'ad al-Dawla Saʿd al-Dawla ibn Ṣafī ibn Hibatullāh ibn Muhassib al-Dawla al-Abharī () (c. 1240 – March 5, 1291) was a Jewish physician and statesman in thirteenth-century Persia (Iran). Biography Originally from the town of Abhar in western Iran ...
, Persian physician and
vizier A vizier (; ; ) is a high-ranking political advisor or Minister (government), minister in the Near East. The Abbasids, Abbasid caliphs gave the title ''wazir'' to a minister formerly called ''katib'' (secretary), who was at first merely a help ...
(b. 1240) *
March 10 Events Pre-1600 * 241 BC – First Punic War: Battle of the Aegates: The Romans sink the Carthaginian fleet bringing the First Punic War to an end. * 298 – Roman Emperor Maximian concludes his campaign in North Africa and makes ...
Arghun Khan, Mongol ruler of the
Ilkhanate The Ilkhanate or Il-khanate was a Mongol khanate founded in the southwestern territories of the Mongol Empire. It was ruled by the Il-Khans or Ilkhanids (), and known to the Mongols as ''Hülegü Ulus'' (). The Ilkhanid realm was officially known ...
(b. 1258) *
March 16 Events Pre-1600 * 1190 – Massacre of Jews at Clifford's Tower, York. * 1244 – Over 200 Cathars who refuse to recant are burnt to death after the Fall of Montségur. * 1355 – Amidst the Red Turban Rebellions, Han Lin'er, ...
Alauddin Sabir Kaliyari Khwāja Sultan-ul-Arifeen Sayyid Alauddin Ali Ahmed “Sabir” (1196–1291) also known as Sabir Kaliyari (; ), was an Indian Sunni Muslim preacher and Sufi saint of the 13th century. He was a nephew and successor to Baba Fareed, great grandso ...
, Indian
Sufi Sufism ( or ) is a mysticism, mystic body of religious practice found within Islam which is characterized by a focus on Islamic Tazkiyah, purification, spirituality, ritualism, and Asceticism#Islam, asceticism. Practitioners of Sufism are r ...
preacher (b.
1196 Year 1196 ( MCXCVI) was a leap year starting on Monday of the Julian calendar. Events By place Byzantine Empire * December – Emperor Alexios III (Angelos) is threatened by Emperor Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor, who demands 5,000 ...
) *
May 11 Events Pre-1600 * 330 – Constantine the Great dedicates the much-expanded and rebuilt city of Byzantium, changing its name to New Rome and declaring it the new capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. *868 – A copy of the Diamond Sūtr ...
Thomas Ingoldsthorpe Thomas Ingoldsthorpe (or Thomas of Ingoldisthorpe) was a medieval Bishop of Rochester. Ingoldsthorpe was from Ingoldisthorpe in Norfolk.May 18 Events Pre-1600 * 332 – Emperor Constantine the Great announces free distributions of food to the citizens in Constantinople. * 872 – Louis II of Italy is crowned for the second time as Holy Roman Emperor at Rome, at the age of 47 ...
Matthew of Clermont, French nobleman and Marshal *
May 25 Events Pre-1600 * 567 BC – Servius Tullius, the king of Rome, celebrates a triumph for his victory over the Etruscans. * 240 BC – First recorded perihelion passage of Halley's Comet. * 1085 – Alfonso VI of Castile takes ...
Bengt Birgersson, Swedish duke and bishop (b. 1254) *
June 5 Events Pre-1600 * 830 – Theodora is crowned Byzantine empress and marries then emperor Theophilos in the Hagia Sophia. She is credited with restoring orthodoxy and the icons. * 1086 – Tutush, brother of Seljuk sultan Malik Sh ...
John I John I may refer to: People Religious figures * John I (bishop of Jerusalem) * John Chrysostom (349 – c. 407), Patriarch of Constantinople * John I of Antioch (died 441) * Pope John I of Alexandria, Coptic Pope from 496 to 505 * Pope John I, P ...
, German nobleman (
House of Ascania The House of Ascania () was a dynasty of German rulers. It is also known as the House of Anhalt, which refers to its longest-held possession, Principality of Anhalt, Anhalt. The Ascanians are named after Ascania (or Ascaria) Castle, known as ' ...
) (b.
1260 Year 1260 ( MCCLX) was a leap year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar. Events By place Africa * October 24 – Saif ad-Din Qutuz, Mamluk sultan of Egypt, is assassinated by Baibars, who seizes power for himself. * The civil se ...
) *
June 18 Events Pre-1600 * 618 – Li Yuan becomes Emperor Gaozu of Tang, initiating three centuries of Tang dynasty rule over China. * 656 – Ali becomes Caliph of the Rashidun Caliphate. * 860 – Siege of Constantinople (860), Byzantine� ...
Alfonso III (or II; "the Liberal"), king of
Aragon Aragon ( , ; Spanish and ; ) is an autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. In northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces of Spain, ...
(b.
1265 Year 1265 ( MCCLXV) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar. Events By place Europe * January 20 – In Westminster, the first elected English parliament (called Montfort's Parliament) conducts its first meeting i ...
) *
June 25 Events Pre-1600 * 524 – The Franks are defeated by the Burgundians in the Battle of Vézeronce. * 841 – In the Battle of Fontenay-en-Puisaye, forces led by Charles the Bald and Louis the German defeat the armies of Lothair I of ...
Eleanor of Provence Eleanor of Provence ( 1223 – 24/25 June 1291) was a Provence, Provençal noblewoman who became List of English royal consorts, Queen of England as the wife of King Henry III of England, Henry III from 1236 until his death in 1272. She served ...
, queen consort of
England England is a Countries of the United Kingdom, country that is part of the United Kingdom. It is located on the island of Great Britain, of which it covers about 62%, and List of islands of England, more than 100 smaller adjacent islands. It ...
(b.
1223 Year 1223 (MCCXXIII) was a common year starting on Sunday of the Julian calendar. Events January–March * January 4 – Germanus II of Constantinople, Germanus II takes office as Patriarch of Constantinople, leader of the Eastern O ...
) *
June 27 Events Pre-1600 * 1358 – The Republic of Ragusa is founded. * 1497 – Cornish rebels Michael An Gof and Thomas Flamank are executed at Tyburn, London, England. * 1499 – Amerigo Vespucci sights what is now Amapá State in B ...
Tanhum of Jerusalem, Outremer lexicographer (b.
1220 Year 1220 ( MCCXX) was a leap year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. Events By place Fifth Crusade * July – The Crusaders, led by the Knights Hospitaller, raid Burlus, located in the Nile Delta in Egypt. The town is ...
) * July –
Muzaffar al-Din Hajjaj Muzaffar al-Din Hajjaj was a nominal Qutlughkhanid prince of Kerman, a son of Qutb al-Din Mohammad and Kutlugh Turkan. Life Muzaffar al-Din Hajjaj was a minor when his father Qutb al-Din Mohammad died in 1257. Kerman nobles assembled and as ...
, Qutlughkhanid prince and co-ruler (b. 1247) *
July 12 Events Pre-1600 * 70 – The armies of Titus attack the walls of Jerusalem after a six-month siege. Three days later they breach the walls, which enables the army to destroy the Second Temple. * 927 – King Constantine II o ...
Herman VII, Margrave of Baden-Baden ("the Rouser"), German nobleman (b. 1266) *
July 15 Events Pre-1600 * 484 BC – Dedication of the Temple of Castor and Pollux in ancient Rome * 70 – First Jewish–Roman War: Titus and his armies breach the walls of Jerusalem. ( 17th of Tammuz in the Hebrew calendar). * 756 &ndas ...
Rudolf I, king of
Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...
(
House of Habsburg The House of Habsburg (; ), also known as the House of Austria, was one of the most powerful Dynasty, dynasties in the history of Europe and Western civilization. They were best known for their inbreeding and for ruling vast realms throughout ...
) (b. 1218) *
August 16 Events Pre-1600 * 1 BC – Wang Mang consolidates his power in China and is declared marshal of state. Emperor Ai of Han, who died the previous day, had no heirs. * 942 – Start of the four-day Battle of al-Mada'in, between the H ...
Frederick Tuta, German nobleman and
regent In a monarchy, a regent () is a person appointed to govern a state because the actual monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge their powers and duties, or the throne is vacant and a new monarch has not yet been dete ...
(b.
1269 Year 1269 (Roman numerals, MCCLXIX) was a common year starting on Tuesday of the Julian calendar. Events By place Europe * June 16 – Battle of Colle Val d'Elsa: Guelph forces (2,200 men) led by King Charles I of Anjou defeat th ...
) *
October 8 Events Pre-1600 * 316 – Constantine I Battle of Cibalae, defeats Roman Emperor Licinius, who loses his European territories. * 451 – The first session of the Council of Chalcedon begins. * 876 – Frankish forces led by Louis ...
Henry I of Werle Henry I (died 8 October 1291) was a Prince of Mecklenburg-Werle and Mecklenburg-Güstrow. Biography He was the son of Prince Nicholas I of Werle, Nicholas I of Mecklenburg-Werle and his wife Princess Jutta of Anhalt the daughter of Henry I, Count ...
, German nobleman, prince and knight (b. 1245) *
December 11 Events Pre-1600 * 220 – Emperor Xian of Han is forced to abdicate the throne by Cao Cao's son Cao Pi, ending the Han dynasty. * 361 – Julian enters Constantinople as sole Roman Emperor. * 861 – Assassination of the Abba ...
Francesco Lippi, Italian monk and
hermit A hermit, also known as an eremite (adjectival form: hermitic or eremitic) or solitary, is a person who lives in seclusion. Eremitism plays a role in a variety of religions. Description In Christianity, the term was originally applied to a Chr ...
(b.
1211 Year 1211 ( MCCXI) was a common year starting on Saturday of the Julian calendar. Events By place Byzantine Empire * June 17 – Battle of Antioch on the Meander: Seljuk forces led by Sultan Kaykhusraw I are initially victoriou ...
) * Alfonso de Castilla y Molina, Castilian nobleman and prince (''
infante Infante (, ; f. ''infanta''), also anglicised as "infant" or translated as "prince", is the title and rank given in the Iberian kingdoms of Spain (including the predecessor kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, Navarre, and León) and Portugal to the ...
'') (b. 1286) * Badr al-Din Solamish, Mamluk ruler of
Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
and
Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...
(b.
1272 Year 1272 (Roman numerals, MCCLXXII) was a leap year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar. Events By place Europe * February – Charles I of Anjou, king of Kingdom of Sicily, Sicily, occupies the city of Durrës, and estab ...
) * Guy de Montfort, English nobleman and
Vicar-General A vicar general (previously, archdeacon) is the principal deputy of the bishop or archbishop of a diocese or an archdiocese for the exercise of administrative authority and possesses the title of local ordinary. As vicar of the bishop, the vicar ...
(b.
1244 Year 1244 (Roman numerals, MCCXLIV) was a leap year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar. Events By place Europe * March 16 – Siege of Montségur: French forces capture and destroy Château de Montségur in Languedoc, after ...
) * Hong Ta-gu (or Jun-gi), Korean ruler and military leader (b. 1244) * Niall Culanach O'Neill (or Culanagh), Irish king of
Tír Eoghain Tír Eoghain (), also known as Tyrone, was a kingdom and later earldom of Gaelic Ireland, comprising parts of present-day County Tyrone, County Armagh, County Londonderry and County Donegal (Raphoe). The kingdom represented the core homeland of ...
, killed (b.
1231 Year 1231 ( MCCXXXI) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. Events By place Europe * Emperor Frederick II promulgates the Constitutions of Melfi (''Liber Augustalis''), a collection of laws for Sicily, as we ...
) * Nuño González II, Castilian nobleman and knight (
House of Lara The House of Lara (Spanish: ''Casa de Lara'') is a noble family from the medieval Kingdom of Castile. Two of its branches, one of the Dukes of Nájera and one of the Marquises of Aguilar de Campoo were considered Grandees of Spain. The Lara fami ...
) * Philip Marmion, 5th Baron Marmion of Tamworth, Norman King's Champion, High Sheriff and knight *
William de Braose, 1st Baron Braose William de Braose, (''alias'' Breuse, Brewes, Brehuse, Briouze, Brewose etc.; –1291) was the first Baron Braose, as well as Lordship of Gower, Lord of Gower and Bramber, Lord of Bramber.Cokayne ''Complete Peerage'' Volume II p. 302 Fam ...
, Norman nobleman (
House of Braose The House of Braose (''alias'' Breuse, Brewes, Brehuse,Richardson ''Magna Carta Ancestry'' pp. 136–137 Briouze, Brewose etc., List of Latinised names, Latinised to de Braiosa) was a prominent family of Anglo-Normans, Anglo-Norman nobility, n ...
) (b. 1224) *
Guillaume de Beaujeu Guillaume de Beaujeu, aka William of Beaujeu ( 1230 – 1291) was the 21st Grand Master of the Knights Templar, from 1273 until his death during the Siege of Acre (1291), siege of Acre in 1291. He was the last Grand Master to preside in Palestin ...
, French nobleman and Grand Master (b. 1230)


References

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