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Oikonym An oeconym, also econym, or oikonym (from , , 'house, dwelling' and , , 'name') is a specific type of toponym that designates a proper name of a house or any other residential building. In a broader sense, the term can also refer to the proper n ...
s in Western, Central,
South South is one of the cardinal directions or compass points. The direction is the opposite of north and is perpendicular to both west and east. Etymology The word ''south'' comes from Old English ''sūþ'', from earlier Proto-Germanic ''*sunþa ...
, and
Southeast Asia Southeast Asia is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, southeastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent, and northwest of the Mainland Au ...
can be grouped according to various components, reflecting common linguistic and cultural histories. Toponymic study is not as extensive as it is for placenames in Europe and Anglophone parts of the world, but the origins of many placenames can be determined with a fair degree of certainty. One complexity to the study when discussing it in English is that the
Romanization In linguistics, romanization is the conversion of text from a different writing system to the Latin script, Roman (Latin) script, or a system for doing so. Methods of romanization include transliteration, for representing written text, and tra ...
of names, during British rule and otherwise, from other languages has not been consistent.


Names after natural features

In
Rajasthan Rajasthan (; Literal translation, lit. 'Land of Kings') is a States and union territories of India, state in northwestern India. It covers or 10.4 per cent of India's total geographical area. It is the List of states and union territories of ...
, names are frequently given after rock, stone, ravine, and embankment. In the Gangetic plain, the predominant natural features are trees, grass prairies, and bodies of water. Prominent trees, visible from a long way off, would often serve as landmarks and give their name to places before there was any permanent settlement there. This was especially the case where a large tree indicated a ford across a river; for example, the name Gaighāṭ indicates a ford next to an agai tree. Tree names are especially common in areas that were historically under dense forest cover until recent centuries.


Common affixes

Common
affix In linguistics, an affix is a morpheme that is attached to a word stem to form a new word or word form. The main two categories are Morphological derivation, derivational and inflectional affixes. Derivational affixes, such as ''un-'', ''-ation' ...
es used in South Asian oikonyms can be grouped based on their linguistic origin (with examples from India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, and elsewhere such as in
Sanskrit Sanskrit (; stem form ; nominal singular , ,) is a classical language belonging to the Indo-Aryan languages, Indo-Aryan branch of the Indo-European languages. It arose in northwest South Asia after its predecessor languages had Trans-cultural ...
-influenced
Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian Ocean, Indian and Pacific Ocean, Pacific oceans. Comprising over List of islands of Indonesia, 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, ...
):


Dravidian


''wal'', ''wali'', ''wala'', ''warree'', ''vli'', ''vadi'', ''vali'', ''pady'' and ''palli''

Means
hamlet ''The Tragedy of Hamlet, Prince of Denmark'', often shortened to ''Hamlet'' (), is a Shakespearean tragedy, tragedy written by William Shakespeare sometime between 1599 and 1601. It is Shakespeare's longest play. Set in Denmark, the play (the ...
— e.g. Dombivli; Kasan Wala; Sandhilianwali;
Gujranwala Gujranwala is the List of cities in Punjab, Pakistan by population, fourth most-populous city in the Pakistani province of Punjab. Located in northern-central Punjab's Rachna Doab, it serves as the headquarters of its Gujranwala District, epony ...
; Tiruchirappalli


''Kot''

Means "fort" —
Pathankot Pathankot () is a city and the district headquarters of the Pathankot district in Punjab, India. Pathankot is the sixth most populous city of Punjab, after Ludhiana, Amritsar, Jalandhar, Patiala and Bathinda. Its local government is a municipal ...
; Sialkot


''Patnam'', ''patham'', ''pattana''

Means "city", or "city of" — e.g.
Visakhapatnam Visakhapatnam (; List of renamed places in India, formerly known as Vizagapatam, and also referred to as Vizag, Visakha, and Waltair) is the largest and most populous metropolitan city in the States and union territories of India, Indian stat ...
'


Indo-Aryan


''Alay''

Means "abode"; from Sanskrit ā-laya. e.g.
Meghalaya Meghalaya (; "the abode of clouds") is a states and union territories of India, state in northeast India. Its capital is Shillong. Meghalaya was formed on 21 January 1972 by carving out two districts from the Assam: the United Khasi Hills an ...
,
Himalaya The Himalayas, or Himalaya ( ), is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the Earth's highest peaks, including the highest, Mount Everest. More than 100 pea ...
, Lokā-laya (settlement).


''-aulī'', ''-olī''

These suffixes are very common, especially ''-aulī''. In many cases, they are probably derived from Sanskrit ''palli'', referring to a hamlet or small village. For example, Bārḍolī in Gujarat is attested in a Rashtrakuta-era inscription as ''Vāraḍapallikā''. Names with these suffixes may also come from Sanskrit ''valli'', meaning "section" or "part"; either origin is plausible. At some point, it seems that ''-aulī'' became regarded as a distinct
morpheme A morpheme is any of the smallest meaningful constituents within a linguistic expression and particularly within a word. Many words are themselves standalone morphemes, while other words contain multiple morphemes; in linguistic terminology, this ...
by itself, and apparently used independently as a suffix without being derived from an earlier form. For example, the names Shamsaulī and Shekhauliyā must have coined after the Muslim conquest to simply mean something like "Shams ud-Dīn's village". The form ''-aulī'' also seems to have become standardised and absorbed similar forms by analogy. For example, Dubaulī (from '' Dūbe'') is a common village name in eastern Uttar Pradesh, but it is not the regular, expected form of the name. The regular form would be Dubelī, which exists but is far less common. In most cases, the name was assimilated to ''-aulī'' by analogy with other places with names ending in ''-aulī''.


''Bāns''

Means
bamboo Bamboos are a diverse group of mostly evergreen perennial plant, perennial flowering plants making up the subfamily (biology), subfamily Bambusoideae of the grass family Poaceae. Giant bamboos are the largest members of the grass family, in th ...
, from Sanskrit
vaṃśa
'. It was historically common for villages to be surrounded by bamboo groves that were planted as a form of defence. In many cases, it can be hard to distinguish between places named with ''bāns'' from places named with ''bās'' ("dwelling"), since ''bās'' sometimes becomes nasalised and ''bāns'' sometimes becomes de-nasalised. Examples of places named with ''bāns'' are Bānsgāon and Bānsī.


''Baṛ'', ''Bargad'', ''Vaḍ''

The names ''baṛ'' and ''bargad'' both refer to the banyan tree, ultimately from Sanskrit ''vaṭa''. This is a very common place name element; according to Sankalia, many towns and villages may have originally started out as temporary shelters underneath the wide canopy of a banyan tree. As they grew into more permanent settlements, they kept the name. ''Baṛ'' has the common variations ''baḍ'' and ''baṭ''. Another variant is ''vaḍ'', as in Vaḍodarā.


''Chak''

A common prefix, especially in eastern Uttar Pradesh. The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary defines ''chak'' (चक) with several meanings, including "a piece of assigned or rent-free land"; "the detached or unconsolidated fields of a village"; and simply "a sub-division of land". It derives the term from Sanskrit
chakra
', meaning "circle". Whalley, on the other hand, preferred a derivation from Persian
chak
', noting that "Chak" is frequently followed by a Muslim name.


''Desh''

Means village, land, country; from Sanskrit देश (desa) for "
space Space is a three-dimensional continuum containing positions and directions. In classical physics, physical space is often conceived in three linear dimensions. Modern physicists usually consider it, with time, to be part of a boundless ...
" — e.g.
Bangladesh Bangladesh, officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, eighth-most populous country in the world and among the List of countries and dependencies by ...
. In
Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian Ocean, Indian and Pacific Ocean, Pacific oceans. Comprising over List of islands of Indonesia, 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, ...
it becomes ''Desa'' which is another Indonesian word for "village".


''-ehrā''

In many cases, this ending is probably a "worn-down" descendant of earlier ''-kheṛa'' ("village").


''Gaṛh''

Means fortress —
Chandigarh Chandigarh is a city and union territory in northern India, serving as the shared capital of the states of Punjab and Haryana. Situated near the foothills of the Shivalik range of Himalayas, it borders Haryana to the east and Punjab in the ...
, Ramgarh


''Gaṛhī''

According to Whalley, ''Gaṛhī'' when used as a prefix probably in most cases originally referred to a village surrounded by a ditch.


''Maū'', ''-mai''

In many cases, the place name element ''Maū'' (or ''mai'') may be derived from Sanskrit
maryādā
', meaning "shore" or "bank". This name is usually given to places by a river, stream, or '' jhil'' (for example, Ḍalmaū on the Gaṅgā). Examples of these names are Arghaṭmaū ("the bank or shore where the water-wheel is"), Bhainsmai ("shore where cattle or horses graze"), or Pathrāmai ("stony shore"). In other cases, ''maū'' is a contraction of ''mahuā'': the mahua tree, '' Madhuca longifolia''. Some places have ''Maū'' as a standalone name (for example, Maū, Uttar Pradesh), while in other cases ''-maū'' is a suffix or even a prefix. The name Māwai is a variant of ''Maū''.


''Nagar''

Means city, land, country, village; from Sanskrit नगर (nagara) — e.g.
Ahmednagar Ahmednagar, officially Ahilyanagar, is a city in, and the headquarters of, the Ahmednagar district, Maharashtra, India. Ahmednagar has several dozen buildings and sites from the Nizam Shahi period. Ahmednagar Fort, once considered almost impre ...
,
Biratnagar Biratnagar () is a List of cities in Nepal, metropolitan city in Nepal, which serves as the capital of Koshi Province. With a Metropolitan Urban Agglomeration population of 244,750 as per the 2021 Nepal census, 2021 census, it is the largest c ...
. In Indonesian, the word ''Negara'' means "
country A country is a distinct part of the world, such as a state, nation, or other political entity. When referring to a specific polity, the term "country" may refer to a sovereign state, state with limited recognition, constituent country, ...
" and the word '' Nagari'' is a term used in
West Sumatra West Sumatra () is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia. It is on the west coast of the island of Sumatra and includes the Mentawai Islands off that coast. West Sumatra borders the Indian Ocean to the west, as well as the provinces of ...
referring to "village". Also used in Borneo island, e.g. Negara Brunei Darussalam Many modern names using ''nagar'' in full are relatively recent origin; older names with ''nagar'' have often been shortened to ''nār'' or ''ner''. At least in northern India, ''nagar'' is not used as a prefix. Instead, the forms ''Naglā'' or, more rarely, ''Nagrā'', are used. About 100 places also have the feminine forms ''Nagariyā'' and ''Nagariyā''.


''Nawādā''

Apparently derived from Sanskrit
nivāsa
', "dwelling", combined with the Persian name ''Nauābād'' ("new settlement"). Nawādā, along with its feminine variant Nawādiyā, is a very common village name by itself, and it is also used as a prefix for other names.


''-on''

In many cases, this ending is probably a "worn-down" descendant of earlier ''-gāon'' ("village") or ''-ban'' ("forest").


''-padra'', ''-vadra'', ''-darā''

The Sanskrit term ''padra'' denoted a roadside village or residence (related to
pad
', meaning "foot"). Beginning around the 5th century, a regular sound change took place where /p/ became /v/ between vowels, turning this suffix into ''-vadra'' in many place names. In many modern place names, ''-vadra'' has further morphed into ''-darā''. For example, Vaḍodarā is from an earlier attested form ''Vaṭapadra'', Talodrā is from ''Talapadra'' or ''Talapadraka'', and Lāṭhodrā is from ''Lāṭhivadra'' (attested in Chaulukya-era epigraphy). Similar names like Saḍodarā and Raṇodarā probably share the same origin, although their older forms are not directly attested.


''Pahāṛ'' and ''Pahār''

''Pahāṛ'', with the
retroflex A retroflex () or cacuminal () consonant is a coronal consonant where the tongue has a flat, concave, or even curled shape, and is articulated between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate. They are sometimes referred to as cerebral consona ...
''ṛ'', means a hill, cliff, or overhanging river bank. ''Pahār'' with a non-retroflex ''r'' is a personal name, derived from Sanskrit
prahāra
'. It can be hard to tell these place name elements apart because they can be easily confused in other scripts.


''Paṭṭī''

From Hindi
paṭṭī
', meaning "strip", itself derived from Sanskrit ''paṭṭikā''. As a place name element, it is used in the sense of "a strip of land". In some cases it refers to a share of land held in joint tenure by a ''pattidar'' (literally "shareholder").


''Pilkhu'', ''Pilkhan'', ''Pākaṛ'', ''Pākhaṛ''

These are all names for the pilkhan tree, one of several varieties of fig tree viewed as sacred in Hinduism. The forms ''pilkhu'' and ''pilkhan'' come from Sanskrit ''plakṣā'', while ''pākaṛ'' and ''pākhaṛ'' come from Sanskrit
#Sanskrit parkaṭī
'. One place with this name is Pilkhuwā.


''Pind''

literally "lump" or a small altar of sand


''Pīpal''

The pīpal tree, '' Ficus religiosa'', is a common place name element.


''Pur'', ''Purī''

Means village, town, state, country; from Sanskri
पुर
(''pura'') — e.g. Jamalpur;
Kanpur Kanpur (Hindustani language, Hindustani: ), originally named Kanhapur and formerly anglicized as Cawnpore, is the second largest city of the Indian States and union territories of India, state of Uttar Pradesh after Lucknow. It was the primary ...
; Khanpur. In
Southeast Asia Southeast Asia is the geographical United Nations geoscheme for Asia#South-eastern Asia, southeastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent, and northwest of the Mainland Au ...
n and some south Asian countries, it is known as ''pura'', e.g.
Anuradhapura Anuradhapura (, ; , ) is a major city located in the north central plain of Sri Lanka. It is the capital city of North Central Province, Sri Lanka, North Central Province and the capital of Anuradhapura District. The city lies north of the cur ...
, Singapura, and
Indonesia Indonesia, officially the Republic of Indonesia, is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian Ocean, Indian and Pacific Ocean, Pacific oceans. Comprising over List of islands of Indonesia, 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, ...
n cities such as Jayapura, Siak Sri Indrapura, etc. In Indonesia, '' pura'' also refers to a Hindu temple. In ancient times, the word ''pura'' strictly referred to a fort, but its meaning was gradually broadened to include any town regardless of its particular function. By the early medieval period, ''pura'' was often used to denote a commercial centre – especially in southern India, where the typical form was ''puram''. In many cases, old names originally ending in ''-pura'' have become shortened to ''-or'' over the centuries. In the case of Mangrol (originally ''Maṅgalapura''), the suffix has become ''-rol'' instead. The variant ''purā'' often originally referred to a suburb, or to a Muslim colony. ''Pur'' is not used as a prefix. Instead, the form ''Purā'' is used. In west-central Uttar Pradesh, around
Kanpur Kanpur (Hindustani language, Hindustani: ), originally named Kanhapur and formerly anglicized as Cawnpore, is the second largest city of the Indian States and union territories of India, state of Uttar Pradesh after Lucknow. It was the primary ...
and Etawah, the prefix takes the form ''Purwā''. Farther east, toward Basti, it takes the form ''Pure''. The feminine form ''Purī'' is rarely found as a prefix.


''Semal'', ''semar'', ''simra'', ''sambal''

Many places are named after the semal tree. There are many variations of this place name. One place with this name is Sambhal, where the form ''sambal'' ended up becoming aspirated.


''-vāḍā''

According to Sankalia, this suffix has two possible origins: from ''-pāṭaka'', which originally designated "a large, but private house, or settlement within a village"; and ''-vāṭaka'', which denoted "a temporarily enclosed place, such as a garden, plantation, or an enclosure of a (low caste) village consisting of boundary trees". The shortened form ''pāḍā'' appears early on in Ardhamāgadhī Prakrit, and in early Jain literature refers to a suburb of a larger town. In Gujarat, the present form ''-vāḍā'' first appears in inscriptions dating to the Chaulukya period. ''-Vāḍā'' continued to be used productively to form new place names; it would have been originally given to private settlements "characterised either by a personal name or a prominent physiographical feature". Modern names ending in ''-vāḍā'' are descended from either ancient names that originally ended in either ''-pāṭaka'' or ''-vāṭaka'', or more recent names that originally ended in ''-vāḍā''. An example is Delvāḍā. This name is attested in a Maitraka inscription as ''Devakula-pāṭaka'', which would have later been contracted to *''Devalvāḍā'' and then ''Deülavāḍā'' (which is attested in a Chaulukya inscription) before finally reaching the present form. In Maharasthra, the term '' vāḍā'' refers to a built-up area, with or without an enclosure, belonging to a private citizen.


''-vasaṇa''

From Sanskrit, meaning "dwelling" or "residence" (of either an individual or a group). This suffix is especially common in northern Gujarat. Some places, such as Jetalvasana, contain the entire suffix without any modification. Others, like Chadasana, Jhulasan, Lunasan, Nandasan, and Ranasan (all of which are mentioned in medieval inscriptions with the suffix ''-vasaṇa''), have had the suffix modified to ''-saṇ(ā)'' or ''-san(ā)'' over time.


''-wāṛī''

From Sanskrit
vāṭikā
', meaning "orchard" or "garden". Commonly paired with tree names, e.g. Siswārī. Some examples with tribal names are also found; these are probably references to an individual person; examples are Bharwārī and Lodhwārī.


Persian or Arabic


''Ābād/abat/apat''

(): - -abad is a Persian "dwelling of" or "town of", combined with a person's or group's name (usually the founder or primary inhabitant(s)) — e.g.
Hyderabad Hyderabad is the capital and largest city of the Indian state of Telangana. It occupies on the Deccan Plateau along the banks of the Musi River (India), Musi River, in the northern part of Southern India. With an average altitude of , much ...
;
Islamabad Islamabad (; , ; ) is the capital city of Pakistan. It is the country's tenth-most populous city with a population of over 1.1 million and is federally administered by the Pakistani government as part of the Islamabad Capital Territory. Bu ...
; Mirza Abad; Ashgabat; Leninabad; Vagharshapat; Sardarabad; Sardarapat . Being a generic and an ambiguous term referring to small isolated farms, village (but not city) on one hand, and towns and cities, on the other hand. See also abadi (settlement).


''Bandar''

Means "port" ( wikt:بندر) — e.g. Bandar Abbas; see


''Dasht''

Means field, desert ( wikt:دشت) — e.g. Hulandasht; see


''Ihtimalī'' and ''Ghair Ihtimalī''

From Perso-Arabic
iḥtimāl
', meaning "probability". In historical South Asian revenue terminology, ''Ihtimali'' referred to flood-prone lands along river banks or in low-lying areas. ''Ghair Ihtimali'' meant the opposite, i.e. not liable to flooding during the rainy season. These were used in place names to distinguish two villages with the same name, such as Todarpur Ihtimali and Todarpur Ghair Ihtimali in present-day Aligarh district, India.


''Khās''

From Arabic
khāṣṣ
', meaning "selected" or "private". In India, it was historically used to refer to a place managed directly by the government or by a jagirdar, without any intermediaries. For example, Jamal Mohd Siddiqi identifies six places with "''khās''" in their name in present-day Aligarh district, India. All six were founded by Rajput chiefs during the Mughal period, and they all occupy a prominent position on high ground. ''Khās'' is also sometimes used in cases where there are two villages with the same name; in this case, ''khās'' is affixed to the older and/or larger one.


''Kuy''

Means "neighborhood" ( wikt:کوی) — e.g. Kordkuy; see


''Mazar''

(in various languages) shrine, grave, tomb, etc. (from wikt:مزار), cf. " Mazar (mausoleum)". The placename usually refers to a grave of a saint, ruler, etc.: Mazar-i-Sharif; see


''Mazra'' or ''Majra''

Derived from Arabic
mazraʕ
', which originally refers to a farm field. In parts of India, though, the term refers to a hamlet or cluster of houses that is separate from, but subordinate to, a larger village. (The reason for the hamlet's separation is so that farmers can be closer to their crops.) Places with ''Majra'' in their name typically originated in this manner and later became independent villages of their own.


''Milk''

Derived from Arabic
milk
', meaning "possession" or "property". Like ''chak'', it was historically used to designate a rent-free piece of land. ''Milk'' in particular usually designated land held by Muslim zamindars.


''Munzabtah''

Derived from Perso-Arabic ''munzabt'', meaning "confiscated". For example, the village of Raipur Munzabtah in Aligarh district got its name because it was confiscated by the British government after its ''pattidar'' participated in the Indian Rebellion of 1857.


''Mutafarriqat''

From Arabic
mutafarriqāt
', literally meaning "miscellaneous". This was used historically to denote a fiscal or administrative unit consisting of various scattered pieces of land. Villages called "mutafarriqat" are so named because they belonged to such a unit.


''Nisfi''

Derived from Arabic
niṣf
', meaning "half". For example, the village of Marhauli Nisfi Ashrafabad in present-day Aligarh district was formed by taking out a half portion from Ashrafabad.


''Raiyyat''

From Perso-Arabic
ra'iyyat
', meaning "subjects, peasants, cultivators". It is used, for example, in the name of Lalpur Raiyyatpur in present-day Aligarh district, which likely originated as a settlement of peasants under the zamindar of nearby Lalpur.


''Shahr, shehr''

Means "city" — e.g. Bulandshahr


'' Kale'', '' Kaleh'', '' Qala'', '' Qalat'', '' Qila''

Means fort, fortress, castle; see also " Qalat (fortress)" — e.g. Makhachkala,
Akhalkalaki Akhalkalaki ( ka, ახალქალაქი, tr ; ) is a town in Georgia (country), Georgia's southern region of Samtskhe–Javakheti and the administrative centre of the Akhalkalaki Municipality. Akhalkalaki lies on the edge of the Javakheti ...
, Solzha-Ghala, Dzaudzhikau


''Ganj'', ''gunj'', ''gunge''

Persian-Urdu, taken to mean neighborhood in Indian context. For example, Daryaganj, Sunamganj


''Basti''

Refers to a granted habitat, also sanctuary from the Persian suffix, ''bastī''''— e.g.'' Basti Maluk, Azam Basti


''Nahr''

wikt:نهر, river, e.g., Nahr-e Mian; see


''Nahri''

Means (irrigation) canal


''Dera''

Means "tent" — e.g. Dera Ghazi Khan, Dera Ismail Khan


''-gerd/-kert''

Examples: Darabgerd, Dastagird, Dastjerd, Khosrowjerd, Farhadgerd, Stepanakert, Tigranakert


''-Stan, Estan''

Means "a place abounding in...", "place of..." Quote= ستان (p. V2-0030) ستان (۲) Suffix meaning 'a place abounding in'. Ex. گلستان a flower or rose-garden. Syn. زار See گازار Note. This suffix is pronounced stan or setan after a vowel, as in بوستان boostan, a garden, and هندوستان hendoostan, India; and estan after a consonant. Ex. گلستان golestan, and ترکستان torkestan. However, for poetic license, after a consonant also, it may be pronounced setan. Ex. گلستان golsetan — e.g.
Afghanistan Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central Asia and South Asia. It is bordered by Pakistan to the Durand Line, east and south, Iran to the Afghanistan–Iran borde ...
;
Pakistan Pakistan, officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by population, fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million, having the Islam by country# ...


See also

* Place names in India, for a more in-depth explanation of various place names in India.


References


Sources

* * * *


Further reading

* {{DEFAULTSORT:Western and South Asia, Oikonyms in * Oikonyms Oikonyms Oikonyms * Names of places in India Names of places in Pakistan