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Tubercular Meningitis
Tuberculous meningitis, also known as TB meningitis or tubercular meningitis, is a specific type of bacterial meningitis caused by the ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' infection of the meninges—the system of membranes which envelop the central nervous system. Signs and symptoms Fever and headache are the cardinal features; confusion is a late feature and coma bears a poor prognosis. Meningism is absent in a fifth of patients with TB meningitis. Patients may also have focal neurological deficits. Causes ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' of the meninges is the cardinal feature and the inflammation is concentrated towards the base of the brain. When the inflammation is in the brain stem subarachnoid area, cranial nerve roots may be affected. The symptoms will mimic those of space-occupying lesions. Blood-borne spread certainly occurs, presumably by crossing the blood–brain barrier, but a proportion of patients may get TB meningitis from rupture of a cortical focus in the brain; a ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Meningitis
Meningitis is acute or chronic inflammation of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, collectively called the meninges. The most common symptoms are fever, intense headache, vomiting and neck stiffness and occasionally photophobia. Other symptoms include confusion or altered consciousness, nausea, and an inability to tolerate loud noises. Young children often exhibit only nonspecific symptoms, such as irritability, drowsiness, or poor feeding. A non-blanching rash (a rash that does not fade when a glass is rolled over it) may also be present. The inflammation may be caused by infection with viruses, bacteria, fungi or parasites. Non-infectious causes include malignancy (cancer), subarachnoid hemorrhage, chronic inflammatory disease ( sarcoidosis) and certain drugs. Meningitis can be life-threatening because of the inflammation's proximity to the brain and spinal cord; therefore, the condition is classified as a medical emergency. A lumba ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Hydrocephalus
Hydrocephalus is a condition in which cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) builds up within the brain, which can cause pressure to increase in the skull. Symptoms may vary according to age. Headaches and double vision are common. Elderly adults with normal pressure hydrocephalus (NPH) may have poor balance, difficulty controlling urination, or mental impairment. In babies, there may be a rapid increase in head size. Other symptoms may include vomiting, sleepiness, seizures, and downward pointing of the eyes. Hydrocephalus can occur due to birth defects (primary) or can develop later in life (secondary). Hydrocephalus can be classified via mechanism into communicating, noncommunicating, ''ex vacuo'', and normal pressure hydrocephalus. Diagnosis is made by physical examination and medical imaging, such as a CT scan. Hydrocephalus is typically treated through surgery. One option is the placement of a shunt system. A procedure called an endoscopic third ventriculostomy has gained ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Thalidomide
Thalidomide, sold under the brand names Contergan and Thalomid among others, is an oral administered medication used to treat a number of cancers (e.g., multiple myeloma), graft-versus-host disease, and many skin disorders (e.g., complications of leprosy such as skin lesions). Updated as required. Thalidomide has been used to treat conditions associated with HIV: aphthous ulcers, HIV-associated wasting syndrome, diarrhea, and Kaposi's sarcoma, but increases in HIV viral load have been reported. Common side effects include sleepiness, rash, and dizziness. Severe side effects include tumor lysis syndrome, blood clots, and peripheral neuropathy. Thalidomide is a known human teratogen and carries an extremely high risk of severe, life-threatening birth defects if administered or taken during pregnancy. It causes skeletal deformities such as Amelia (birth defect), amelia (absence of legs and/or arms), absence of bones, and phocomelia (malformation of the limbs). A single dose of t ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Immunomodulator
Immunotherapy or biological therapy is the treatment of disease by activating or suppressing the immune system. Immunotherapies designed to elicit or amplify an immune response are classified as ''activation immunotherapies,'' while immunotherapies that reduce or suppress are classified as '' suppression immunotherapies''. Immunotherapy is under preliminary research for its potential to treat various forms of cancer. Cell-based immunotherapies are effective for some cancers. Immune effector cells such as lymphocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells, natural killer cells, and cytotoxic T lymphocytes work together to defend the body against cancer by targeting abnormal antigens expressed on the surface of tumor cells. Vaccine-induced immunity to COVID-19 relies mostly on an immunomodulatory T-cell response. Therapies such as granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), interferons, imiquimod and cellular membrane fractions from bacteria are licensed for medical use. Others inc ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Ethambutol
Ethambutol (EMB, E) is a medication primarily used to treat tuberculosis. It is usually given in combination with other tuberculosis medications, such as isoniazid, rifampicin and pyrazinamide. It may also be used to treat ''Mycobacterium avium'' complex, and ''Mycobacterium kansasii''. It is taken by mouth. Common side effects include problems with vision, joint pain, nausea, headaches, and feeling tired. Other side effects include liver problems and allergic reactions. It is not recommended in people with optic neuritis, significant kidney problems, or under the age of five. Use during pregnancy or breastfeeding has not been found to cause harm. In the United States the FDA has raised concerns about eye issues in the baby if used during pregnancy. Ethambutol is believed to work by interfering with the bacteria's metabolism. Ethambutol was discovered in 1961. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines and is available as a generic medication. ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Pyrazinamide
Pyrazinamide is a medication used to treat tuberculosis. For active tuberculosis, it is often used with rifampicin, isoniazid, and either streptomycin or ethambutol. It is not generally recommended for the treatment of latent tuberculosis. It is taken Oral administration, by mouth. Common side effects include nausea, loss of appetite, muscle and joint pains, and rash. More serious side effects include gout, liver toxicity, and sensitivity to sunlight. It is not recommended in those with significant liver disease or porphyria. It is unclear if use during pregnancy is safe but it is likely okay during breastfeeding. Pyrazinamide is in the antimycobacterial class of medications. How it works is not entirely clear. Pyrazinamide was first made in 1936, but did not come into wide use until 1972. It is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. Pyrazinamide is available as a generic medication. Medical uses Pyrazinamide ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Rifampicin
Rifampicin, also known as rifampin, is an ansamycin antibiotic used to treat several types of bacterial infections, including tuberculosis (TB), ''Mycobacterium avium'' complex, leprosy, and Legionnaires' disease. It is almost always used together with other antibiotics with two notable exceptions: when given as a "preferred treatment that is strongly recommended" for latent TB infection; and when used as post-exposure prophylaxis to prevent ''Haemophilus influenzae'' type b and meningococcal disease in people who have been exposed to those bacteria. Before treating a person for a long period of time, measurements of liver enzymes and blood counts are recommended. Rifampicin may be given either by mouth or intravenously. Common side effects include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and loss of appetite. It often turns urine, sweat, and tears a red or orange color. Liver problems or allergic reactions may occur. It is part of the recommended treatment of active tuberculosis during ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Isoniazid
Isoniazid, also known as isonicotinic acid hydrazide (INH), is an antibiotic used for the treatment of tuberculosis. For active tuberculosis, it is often used together with rifampicin, pyrazinamide, and either streptomycin or ethambutol. For latent tuberculosis, it is often used alone. It may also be used for atypical types of mycobacteria, such as '' M. avium'', '' M. kansasii'', and '' M. xenopi''. It is usually taken by mouth, but may be used by injection into muscle. History After F. Raschig developed a method to synthesize hydrazine, Hans Meyer and his doctoral student at the German University in Prague Josef Mally studied hydrazides of pyridinecarboxylic acids. By reacting ethyl isonicotinate with hydrazine hydrate they obtained a compound which, after a recrystallization, had a melting point of 163°C. Despite their results published in 1912, its pharmaceutical properties weren't investigated for decades. In the 1940s French physicians discovered that nicotina ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Polymerase Chain Reaction
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a method widely used to make millions to billions of copies of a specific DNA sample rapidly, allowing scientists to amplify a very small sample of DNA (or a part of it) sufficiently to enable detailed study. PCR was invented in 1983 by American biochemist Kary Mullis at Cetus Corporation. Mullis and biochemist Michael Smith (chemist), Michael Smith, who had developed other essential ways of manipulating DNA, were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1993. PCR is fundamental to many of the procedures used in genetic testing and research, including analysis of Ancient DNA, ancient samples of DNA and identification of infectious agents. Using PCR, copies of very small amounts of DNA sequences are exponentially amplified in a series of cycles of temperature changes. PCR is now a common and often indispensable technique used in medical laboratory research for a broad variety of applications including biomedical research and forensic ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
ELISPOT
The enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot (ELISpot) is a type of assay that focuses on quantitatively measuring the frequency of cytokine secretion for a single cell. The ELISpot Assay is also a form of immunostaining since it is classified as a technique that uses antibodies to detect a protein analyte, with the word analyte referring to any biological or chemical substance being identified or measured. The FluoroSpot Assay is a variation of the ELISpot assay. The FluoroSpot Assay uses fluorescence in order to analyze multiple analytes, meaning it can detect the secretion of more than one type of protein. History Cecil Czerkinsky first described ELISpot in 1983 as a new way to quantify the production of an antigen-specific immunoglobulin by hybridoma cells. In 1988, Czerkinsky developed an ELISA spot assay that quantified the secretion of a lymphokine by T cells. In the same year, dual-color ELISpot was combined with computer imaging for the first time, which allowed for the enum ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Acid-fast Bacilli
Acid-fastness is a physical property of certain bacterial and Eukaryote, eukaryotic cell (biology), cells, as well as some Sub-cellular, sub-cellular structures, specifically their resistance to decolorization by acids during laboratory staining procedures. Once stained as part of a sample, these organisms can resist the acid and/or ethanol-based decolorization procedures common in many staining protocols, hence the name ''acid-fast''. The mechanisms of acid-fastness vary by species although the most well-known example is in the genus ''Mycobacterium'', which includes the species responsible for tuberculosis and leprosy. The acid-fastness of ''Mycobacteria'' is due to the high mycolic acid content of their cell walls, which is responsible for the staining pattern of poor absorption followed by high retention. Some bacteria may also be partially acid-fast, such as ''Nocardia''. Acid-fast organisms are difficult to characterize using standard microbiological techniques, though they ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
