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Spiroketals
In chemistry, spiroketals are structural motifs composed of two Heterocyclic compound, heterocycles sharing one central carbon which makes them a subclass of spiro compound. Their structural specificity lays on the presence of one oxygen atom in each ring, in alpha of the spiro carbon. Although there are no rules about the size of each ring, the most widely encountered spiroketal are composed of five and six membered rings. Occurrence in nature Many natural products of biological interest contain [6,5]- and [6,6]-spiroketal moieties that can adopt various configurations. The first example of a spiroketals in the literature appeared before 1970, such as the triterpenoid saponins and sapogenins. Then several works described the presence of spiroketals in various compounds. Like diarrheic shellfish poisoning (DSP) class of toxins containing in the okadaic acid and ancanthafolicin. The most noticeable occurring spiroketals are the whole range of fruit fly pheromones. Pharmacolog ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Okadaic Acid
Okadaic acid, C44H68O13, is a toxin produced by several species of dinoflagellates. It is known to accumulate in both marine sponges and shellfish. One of the primary causes of diarrhetic shellfish poisoning, okadaic acid is a potent inhibitor of specific protein phosphatases, and has a variety of negative effects on cells. A polyketide, polyether derivative of a C38 fatty acid, okadaic acid and other members of its family have illuminated many biological processes both with respect to dinoflagellate polyketide synthesis as well as the role of protein phosphatases in cell growth. History As early as 1961, reports of gastrointestinal disorders following the consumption of cooked mussels appeared in both the Netherlands and Los Lagos. Attempts were made to determine the source of the symptoms; however, they failed to elucidate the true culprit, instead implicating a species of microplanctonic dinoflagellates. In the summers of the late 1970s, a series of food poisoning outbrea ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Heterocyclic Compound
A heterocyclic compound or ring structure is a cyclic compound that has atoms of at least two different elements as members of its ring(s). Heterocyclic organic chemistry is the branch of organic chemistry dealing with the synthesis, properties, and applications of organic heterocycles. Examples of heterocyclic compounds include all of the nucleic acids, the majority of drugs, most biomass (cellulose and related materials), and many natural and synthetic dyes. More than half of known compounds are heterocycles. 59% of US FDA-approved drugs contain nitrogen heterocycles. Classification The study of organic heterocyclic chemistry focuses especially on organic unsaturated derivatives, and the preponderance of work and applications involves unstrained organic 5- and 6-membered rings. Included are pyridine, thiophene, pyrrole, and furan. Another large class of organic heterocycles refers to those fused to benzene rings. For example, the fused benzene derivatives of py ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Avermectin
The avermectins are a group of 16-membered Macrolide, macrocyclic lactone derivatives with potent anthelmintic and Insecticide, insecticidal properties. These naturally occurring compounds are generated as fermentation products by ''Streptomyces avermitilis'', a soil actinomycete. Eight different avermectins were isolated in four pairs of homologue compounds (A1, A2, B1, B2), with a major (a-component) and minor (b-component) component usually in ratios of 80:20 to 90:10. Avermectin B1, a mixture of B1a and B1b, is the drug and pesticide abamectin. Other anthelmintics derived from the avermectins include ivermectin, selamectin, doramectin, eprinomectin. Half of the 2015 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine was awarded to William C. Campbell (scientist), William C. Campbell and Satoshi Ōmura for discovering avermectin, "the derivatives of which have radically lowered the incidence of Onchocerciasis, river blindness and lymphatic filariasis, as well as showing efficacy against an ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Stereochemistry
Stereochemistry, a subdiscipline of chemistry, studies the spatial arrangement of atoms that form the structure of molecules and their manipulation. The study of stereochemistry focuses on the relationships between stereoisomers, which are defined as having the same molecular formula and sequence of bonded atoms (constitution) but differing in the geometric positioning of the atoms in space. For this reason, it is also known as Three-dimensional space, 3D chemistry—the prefix "stereo-" means "three-dimensionality". Stereochemistry applies to all kinds of compounds and ions, Organic chemistry, organic and Inorganic chemistry, inorganic species alike. Stereochemistry affects Biochemistry, biological, Physical chemistry, physical, and supramolecular chemistry. Stereochemistry reactivity (chemistry), reactivity of the molecules in question (dynamic stereochemistry). History In 1815, Jean-Baptiste Biot's observation of optical activity marked the beginning of organic stereochemistr ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis (; ) is any chemical reaction in which a molecule of water breaks one or more chemical bonds. The term is used broadly for substitution reaction, substitution, elimination reaction, elimination, and solvation reactions in which water is the nucleophile. Biological hydrolysis is the cleavage of Biomolecule, biomolecules where a water molecule is consumed to effect the separation of a larger molecule into component parts. When a carbohydrate is broken into its component sugar molecules by hydrolysis (e.g., sucrose being broken down into glucose and fructose), this is recognized as saccharification. Hydrolysis reactions can be the reverse of a condensation reaction in which two molecules join into a larger one and eject a water molecule. Thus hydrolysis adds water to break down, whereas condensation builds up by removing water. Types Usually hydrolysis is a chemical process in which a molecule of water is added to a substance. Sometimes this addition causes both the su ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Tofogliflozin
Tofogliflozin (INN, USAN, codenamed CSG452) is a drug developed for the treatment of diabetes mellitus type 2 and was originally co-developed by Chugai Pharma in collaboration with Kowa and Sanofi. It is an inhibitor of subtype 2 sodium-glucose transport protein (SGLT2), which is responsible for at least 90% of the glucose reabsorption in the kidney. As of 2014, tofogliflozin was approved for use in Japan and is marketed under the brand names Apleway and Deberza. It has not been approved for use outside of Japan. See also * Gliflozin SGLT2 inhibitors (also called gliflozins or flozins) are a class of medications that inhibit sodium-glucose transport proteins in the nephron (the functional units of the kidney), unlike SGLT1 inhibitors that perform a similar function in the i ... References SGLT2 inhibitors Experimental diabetes drugs Glucosides Spiro compounds Isobenzofurans {{gastrointestinal-drug-stub ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Gamma-aminobutyric Acid
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid, γ-aminobutyric acid) is the chief inhibitory neurotransmitter in the developmentally mature mammalian central nervous system. Its principal role is reducing neuronal excitability throughout the nervous system. GABA is sold as a dietary supplement in many countries. It has been traditionally thought that exogenous GABA (i.e., taken as a supplement) does not cross the blood–brain barrier, but data obtained from more recent research (2010s) in rats describes the notion as being unclear. The carboxylate form of GABA is γ-aminobutyrate. Function Neurotransmitter Two general classes of GABA receptor are known: * GABAA receptor, GABAA in which the receptor is part of a ligand-gated ion channel complex * GABAB receptor, GABAB metabotropic receptors, which are G protein-coupled receptors that open or close ion channels via intermediaries (G proteins) Neurons that produce GABA as their output are called GABAergic neurons, and have chiefly inhibito ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Arthropod
Arthropods ( ) are invertebrates in the phylum Arthropoda. They possess an arthropod exoskeleton, exoskeleton with a cuticle made of chitin, often Mineralization (biology), mineralised with calcium carbonate, a body with differentiated (Metamerism (biology), metameric) Segmentation (biology), segments, and paired jointed appendages. In order to keep growing, they must go through stages of moulting, a process by which they shed their exoskeleton to reveal a new one. They form an extremely diverse group of up to ten million species. Haemolymph is the analogue of blood for most arthropods. An arthropod has an open circulatory system, with a body cavity called a haemocoel through which haemolymph circulates to the interior Organ (anatomy), organs. Like their exteriors, the internal organs of arthropods are generally built of repeated segments. They have ladder-like nervous systems, with paired Anatomical terms of location#Dorsal and ventral, ventral Ventral nerve cord, nerve cord ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Nematode
The nematodes ( or ; ; ), roundworms or eelworms constitute the phylum Nematoda. Species in the phylum inhabit a broad range of environments. Most species are free-living, feeding on microorganisms, but many are parasitic. Parasitic worms (helminths) are the cause of soil-transmitted helminthiases. They are classified along with arthropods, tardigrades and other moulting animals in the clade Ecdysozoa. Unlike the flatworms, nematodes have a tubular digestive system, with openings at both ends. Like tardigrades, they have a reduced number of Hox genes, but their sister phylum Nematomorpha has kept the ancestral protostome Hox genotype, which shows that the reduction has occurred within the nematode phylum. Nematode species can be difficult to distinguish from one another. Consequently, estimates of the number of nematode species are uncertain. A 2013 survey of animal biodiversity suggested there are over 25,000. Estimates of the total number of extant species are su ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Tofogliflozin Skeletal 3D
Tofogliflozin (INN, USAN, codenamed CSG452) is a drug developed for the treatment of diabetes mellitus type 2 and was originally co-developed by Chugai Pharma in collaboration with Kowa and Sanofi. It is an inhibitor of subtype 2 sodium-glucose transport protein (SGLT2), which is responsible for at least 90% of the glucose reabsorption in the kidney. As of 2014, tofogliflozin was approved for use in Japan and is marketed under the brand names Apleway and Deberza. It has not been approved for use outside of Japan. See also * Gliflozin SGLT2 inhibitors (also called gliflozins or flozins) are a class of medications that inhibit sodium-glucose transport proteins in the nephron (the functional units of the kidney), unlike SGLT1 inhibitors that perform a similar function in the i ... References SGLT2 inhibitors Experimental diabetes drugs Glucosides Spiro compounds Isobenzofurans {{gastrointestinal-drug-stub ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Drug Design
Drug design, often referred to as rational drug design or simply rational design, is the invention, inventive process of finding new medications based on the knowledge of a biological target. The drug is most commonly an organic compound, organic small molecule that activates or inhibits the function of a biomolecule such as a protein, which in turn results in a therapeutic effect, therapeutic benefit to the patient. In the most basic sense, drug design involves the design of molecules that are complementary in shape and electric charge, charge to the biomolecular target with which they interact and therefore will bind to it. Drug design frequently but not necessarily relies on molecular modelling, computer modeling techniques. This type of modeling is sometimes referred to as computer-aided drug design. Finally, drug design that relies on the knowledge of the three-dimensional structure of the biomolecular target is known as structure-based drug design. In addition to small molec ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
