Pluricentric language

A pluricentric language or polycentric language is a language with several interacting codified standard forms, often corresponding to different countries. Many examples of such languages can be found worldwide among the most-spoken languages, including but not limited to Chinese in Mainland China, Taiwan and Singapore;

English

in the United Kingdom, the United States, and elsewhere; and

French

in France, Canada, and elsewhere. The converse case is a monocentric language, which has only one formally standardized version. Examples include

Japanese

and Russian.
In some cases, the different standards of a pluricentric language may be elaborated until they become autonomous languages, as happened with Malaysian and

Indonesian

, and with

Hindi

and

Urdu

. The same process is under way in Serbo-Croatian.

Examples of varying degrees of pluricentrism

Arabic

Pre-Islamic Arabic can be considered a polycentric language. In Arabic-speaking countries different levels of polycentricity can be detected.

Modern Arabic

is a pluricentric language with varying branches correlating with different regions where Arabic is spoken and the type of communities speaking it. The vernacular varieties of Arabic include:
*Peninsular Arabic
** Persian Gulf Arabic (spoken around the coasts of the Persian Gulf in

Kuwait

,

Bahrain

,

Qatar

, the

United Arab Emirates

, as well as parts of

Saudi Arabia

,

Iraq

,

Iran

, and

Oman

)
**Yemeni Arabic
*Levantine Arabic (spoken in the

Levant

region)
**Syrian Arabic
**Jordanian Arabic
**Lebanese Arabic
**Palestinian Arabic,
*Maghrebi Arabic (spoken in the

Maghreb

region)
**

Moroccan Arabic

**Tunisian Arabic,
*Mesopotamian Arabic
**Baghdad Arabic,
*Egyptian Arabic,
*Sudanese Arabic, and many others.

In addition, many speakers use Modern Standard Arabic in education and formal settings. Therefore, in Arabic-speaking communities, diglossia is frequent.

Armenian

The Armenian language is a pluricentric language with the liturgical Classical Armenian and two vernacular standards, Eastern Armenian and Western Armenian. Speakers outside of the former

Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic

(including all Western Armenians as well as Eastern Armenians in Iran) use the Classical Armenian orthography, while others adopt the reformed

Armenian alphabet

.

Catalan–Valencian–Balearic

The term "Catalan–Valencian–Balearic" is seldom used (for example, in a dictionary by Antoni Maria Alcover i Sureda).

This language is internationally known as Catalan, as in Ethnologue. This is also the most commonly used name in

Catalonia

, but also in

Andorra

and the

Balearic Islands

, probably due to the prestige of the Central Catalan dialect spoken in and around

Barcelona

. However, in the Valencian Community, the official name of this language is Valencian. One reason for this is political (see Serbo-Croatian for a similar situation), but this variant does have its own literary tradition that dates back to the

Reconquista

.

Although mutually intelligible with other varieties of Catalan, Valencian has lexical peculiarities and its own spelling rules, which are set out by the

Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua

, created in 1998. However, this institution recognizes that Catalan and Valencian are varieties of the same language. For their part, there are specific varieties in the two major Balearic islands, Mallorcan (mallorquí) in

Mallorca

, Menorcan (menorquí) in

Menorca

, Eivissenc in

Eivissa

. The University of the Balearic Islands is the language regulator for these varieties.

Chinese

Until the mid-20th century, most Chinese people spoke only their local varieties of Chinese.
These varieties had diverged widely from the written form used by scholars, Literary Chinese, which was modelled on the language of the Chinese classics.
As a practical measure, officials of the

Ming

and Qing dynasties carried out the administration of the empire using a common language based on northern varieties, known as ''Guānhuà'' (官話, literally "speech of officials"), known as ''Mandarin'' in English after the officials.
Knowledge of this language was thus essential for an official career, but it was never formally defined.

In the early years of the 20th century, Literary Chinese was replaced as the written standard by written vernacular Chinese, which was based on northern dialects.
In the 1930s, a standard national language ''Guóyǔ'' (國語, literally "national language") was adopted, with its pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect, but with vocabulary also drawn from other northern varieties.
After the establishment of the

People's Republic of China

in 1949, the standard was known as ''Pǔtōnghuà'' (普通话/普通話, literally "common speech"), but was defined in the same way as ''Guóyǔ'' in the

Republic of China

now governing Taiwan. It also became one of the official languages of

Singapore

, under the name ''Huáyǔ'' (华语/華語, literally "Chinese language").

Although the three standards remain close, they have diverged to some extent. Most Chinese in Taiwan and Singapore came from the southeast coast of China, where the local dialects lack the retroflex initials /tʂ tʂʰ ʂ/ found in northern dialects, so that many speakers in those places do not distinguish them from the apical sibilants /ts tsʰ s/. Similarly, retroflex codas (''erhua'') are typically avoided in Taiwan and Singapore. There are also differences in vocabulary, with

Taiwanese Mandarin

absorbing loanwords from Min Chinese, Hakka Chinese, and

Japanese

, and Singaporean Mandarin borrowing words from English, Malay, and southern varieties of Chinese.

Eastern South Slavic (Bulgarian–Macedonian–Gorani–Paulician)

Some linguists and scholars, mostly from

Bulgaria

and

Greece

, but some also from other countries,Language profile Macedonian
, UCLA International Institute consider Eastern South Slavic to be a pluricentric language with four standards:

Bulgarian

(based on the Rup, Balkan and Moesian (" Eastern Bulgarian") dialects), Macedonian (based on the Western and Central Macedonian dialects), Gorani (based on the Torlakian dialects), and Paulician (including Banat Bulgarian). Politicians and nationalists from Bulgaria are likely to refer to this entire grouping as 'Bulgarian', and to be particularly hostile to the notion that Macedonian is an autonomous language separate from Bulgarian, which North Macedonia, Macedonian politicians and nationalists tend to claim. As of 2021, the hypothesis that Eastern South Slavic, 'Greater Bulgarian', 'Bulgaro-Macedonian', or simply 'Bulgarian', is a pluricentric language with several mutually intelligible official standards in the same way that Serbo-Croatian is, and Czechoslovak language, Czechoslovak used to be, has not yet been fully developed in linguistics; it is a popular idea in Bulgarian politics, but an unpopular one in North Macedonia.

English

English is a pluricentric language, with American and British English differences, differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, spelling, etc., between each of the constituent countries of the United Kingdom, North America, the Caribbean, Ireland, English-speaking African countries, Singapore, India, and Oceania. Educated native English speakers using their version of one of the Standard English, standard forms of English are almost completely mutually intelligible, but non-standard forms present significant dialectal variations, and are marked by reduced intelligibility.

British and American English are the two most commonly taught varieties in the education systems where English is taught as a foreign language, second language. British English tends to predominate in other parts of Europe and the former British colonies of the West Indies, Africa, and Asia, where English is not the first language of the majority of the population. In contrast, American English tends to dominate instruction in Latin America, Liberia, and East Asia.

Due to globalization and the resulting spread of the language in recent decades, English is becoming increasingly decentralized, with daily use and statewide study of the language in schools growing in most regions of the world. However, in the global context, the number of native speakers of English (a concept that is increasingly being challenged) is much smaller than the number of non-native speakers of English of reasonable competence. In 2018, it was estimated that for every native speaker of English, there are six non-native speakers of reasonable competence, raising the questions of English as a lingua franca as the most widely spoken form of the language.

Philippine English (which is predominantly spoken as a second language) has been primarily influenced by American English. The rise of the call center industry in the Philippines has encouraged some Filipino people, Filipinos to accent reduction, "polish" or neutralize their accents to make them more closely resemble the accents of their client countries.

Countries such as Australian English, Australia, New Zealand English, New Zealand, and Canadian English, Canada have their own well-established varieties of English which are the standard within those countries but are far more rarely taught overseas to second language learners.

English was historically pluricentric when it was used across the independent kingdoms of Kingdom of England, England and Kingdom of Scotland, Scotland prior to the Acts of Union 1707, Acts of Union in 1707. English English and Scottish English are now subsections of British English.

French

In the modern era, there are several major loci of the French language, including Standard French (also known as Parisian French), Canadian French (including Quebec French and Acadian French), American French (for instance, Louisiana French), Haitian French, and African French.

Until the early 20th century, the French language was highly variable in pronunciation and vocabulary within France, with varying dialects and degrees of intelligibility, the langues d'oïl. However, government policy made it so that the dialect of Paris would be the method of instruction in schools, and other dialects, like Norman dialect, Norman, which has influence from Scandinavian languages, were neglected. Controversy still remains in France over the fact that the government recognizes them as languages of France, but provides no monetary support for them nor has the Constitutional Council of France ratified the Charter for Regional or Minority Languages.

North American French is the result of French colonization of the New World between the 17th and 18th centuries. In many cases, it contains vocabulary and dialectal quirks not found in Standard Parisian French owing to history: most of the original settlers of Quebec, Acadia, and later what would become Louisiana and northern New England French, New England came from Northern and Northwest France, and would have spoken dialects like Norman, Poitevin dialect, Poitevin, and Angevin dialect, Angevin with far fewer speaking the dialect of Paris. This, plus isolation from developments in France, most notably the drive for standardization by Académie française, L'Académie française, make North American dialects of the language quite distinct. Acadian French, that which is spoken in New Brunswick, Canada, contains many vocabulary words that are much older than anything found in modern France, much of it having roots in the 17th century, and a distinct intonation. Québécois, the largest of the dialects, has a distinct pronunciation that is not found in Europe in any measure and a greater difference in vowel pronunciation, and syntax tends to vary greatly. Cajun French has some distinctions not found in Canada in that there is more vocabulary derived from both local Native American and African dialects and a pronunciation of the letter r that has disappeared in France entirely. It is rolled, and with heavier contact with the English language than any of the above the pronunciation has shifted to harder sounding consonants in the 20th century. Cajun French equally has been an oral language for generations and it is only recently that its syntax and features been adapted to French orthography.

Minor standards can also be found in Belgian French, Belgium and Swiss French, Switzerland, with particular influence of Germanic languages on grammar and vocabulary, sometimes through the influence of local dialects. In Belgium, for example, various Germanic influences in spoken French are evident in Wallonia (for example, to ''blink'' in English, and ''blinken'' in German and Dutch, ''blinquer'' in Walloon language, Walloon and local French, ''cligner'' in standard French). ''Ring'' (''rocade'' or ''périphérique'' in standard French) is a common word in the three national languages for beltway or ring road. Also, in Belgium and Switzerland, there are noted differences in the number system when compared to standard Parisian or Canadian French, notably in the use of ''septante'', ''octante/huitante'' and ''nonante'' for the numbers 70, 80 and 90. In other standards of French, these numbers are usually denoted ''soixante-dix'' (sixty-ten), ''quatre-vingts'' (four-twenties) and ''quatre-vingt-dix'' (four-twenties-and-ten).
French varieties spoken in Oceania are also influenced by local languages. New Caledonian French is influenced by Kanak languages in its vocabulary and grammatical structure.
African French is another variety.

German

Standard German is often considered an asymmetric pluricentric language; German Standard German, the standard used in Germany is often considered dominant, mostly because of the sheer number of its speakers and their frequent lack of awareness of the Austrian Standard German and Swiss Standard German varieties. Although there is a uniform stage pronunciation based on a manual by Theodor Siebs that is used in theatres, and, nowadays to a lesser extent, in radio and television news all across German-speaking countries, this is not true for the standards applied at public occasions in Austria, South Tyrol and Switzerland, which differ in pronunciation, vocabulary, and sometimes even grammar. In Switzerland, the letter ß has been removed from the alphabet, with ''ss'' as its replacement. Sometimes this even applies to news broadcasts in Bavaria, a German state with a strong separate cultural identity. The varieties of Standard German used in those regions are to some degree influenced by the respective dialects (but by no means identical to them), by specific cultural traditions (e.g. in culinary vocabulary, which differs markedly across the German-speaking area of Europe), and by different terminology employed in law and administration. A list of Austrian terms for certain food items has even been incorporated into EU law, even though it is clearly incomplete.

Hindustani

The Hindi Belt, Hindi languages are a large dialect continuum defined as a unit culturally. Medieval Hindustani language, Hindustani (then known as ''Hindi'' or ''Hindavi'') was based on a register of the Delhi dialect and has two modern literary forms, Hindi, Standard Hindi and Urdu, Standard Urdu. Additionally, there are historical literary standards, such as the closely related Braj Bhasha and the more distant Awadhi language, Awadhi, as well as recently established standard languages based on what were once considered Hindi dialects: Maithili language, Maithili and Dogri language, Dogri. Other varieties, such as Rajasthani languages, Rajasthani, are often considered distinct languages but have no standard form. Caribbean Hindi and Fijian Hindi also differ significantly from the Sanskritized standard

Hindi

spoken in India.

Malay

From a purely linguistic viewpoint, Malaysian and

Indonesian

are two normative varieties of the same language (Malay). Both lects have the same dialectal basis, and linguistic sources still tend to treat the standards as different forms of a single language. In popular parlance, however, the two idioms are often thought of as distinct tongues in their own rights due to the growing divergence between them and for politically motivated reasons. Nevertheless, they retain a high degree of mutual intelligibility despite a number of differences in vocabulary and grammar. The Malay language itself has many local dialects and creolized versions, whereas the "Indonesian language", the standardized variety in Indonesia acting as a ''lingua franca'' of the country, has received a great number of international and local influences.

Malayalam

Malayalam is a pluricentric language with historically more than one written form. Malayalam script is officially recognized, but there are other standardized varieties such as Arabi Malayalam of Muslim Mappila, Mappila Muslims, Karshoni of Saint Thomas Christians and Judeo-Malayalam of Cochin Jews.

Persian

The Persian language has three standard varieties with official status in

Iran

(locally known as Farsi), Afghanistan (officially known as Dari language, Dari), and Tajikistan (officially known as Tajik language, Tajik). The standard forms of the three are based on the Tehrani accent, Tehrani, Kabuli, and Dushanbe varieties, respectively.

The Persian alphabet is used for both Farsi (Iranian) and Dari (Afghan). Traditionally, Tajiki is also written with Tajik alphabet#Persian alphabet, Perso-Arabic script. In order to increase literacy, a Tajik alphabet#Latin, Latin alphabet (based on the Common Turkic Alphabet) was introduced in 1917. Later in the late 1930s, the Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic promoted the use of Tajik alphabet#Cyrillic, Cyrillic alphabet, which remains the most widely used system today. Attempts to reintroduce the Perso-Arabic script were made.

The language spoken by Bukharan Jews is called Bukhori dialect, Bukhori (or Bukharian), and is written in Hebrew alphabet.

Portuguese

Apart from the Reintegrationism, Galician question, Portuguese language, Portuguese varies mainly between Brazilian Portuguese and European Portuguese (also known as "Lusitanian Portuguese", "Iberian Portuguese", "Standard Portuguese" or even "reduplication, Portuguese Portuguese"). Both varieties have undergone significant and divergent developments in phonology and the grammar of their pronominal systems. The result is that communication between the two varieties of the language without previous exposure can be occasionally difficult, although speakers of European Portuguese tend to understand Brazilian Portuguese better than vice versa, due to the heavy exposure to music, soap operas etc. from Brazil. Word ordering can be dramatically different between European and Brazilian Portuguese.

Brazilian and European Portuguese currently have two distinct, albeit similar, spelling standards. A Portuguese Language Orthographic Agreement of 1990, unified orthography for the two varieties (including a limited number of words with dual spelling) has been approved by the national legislatures of Brazil and Portugal and is now official; see Spelling reforms of Portuguese for additional details. Formal written standards remain grammatically close to each other, despite some minor syntactic differences.

African Portuguese and Portuguese language in Asia, Asian Portuguese are based on the standard European dialect, but have undergone their own phonetic and grammatical developments, sometimes reminiscent of the spoken Brazilian variant. A number of creole language, creoles of Portuguese have developed in African countries, for example in Guinea-Bissau and on the island of São Tomé.

Serbo-Croatian

Serbo-Croatian is a pluricentric language with four standards (Bosnian, Croatian, Montenegrin, and Serbian) promoted in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Montenegro, and Serbia. These standards do differ slightly, but do not hinder mutual intelligibility. Rather, as all four standardised varieties are based on the prestige Shtokavian dialect, major differences in intelligibility are identified not on the basis of standardised varieties, but rather dialects, like Kajkavian and Chakavian. Lexical and grammatical differences between the ethnic variants are reportedly limited, even when compared with those between closely related Slavic languages (such as standard Czech and Slovak, Bulgarian and Macedonian). The Montenegrin standard is largely based on the Serbian, while Bosnian is a compromise between Croatian and Serbian ones; Croatian and Serbian standards show 95% mutual intelligibility. Shtokavian is largely mutually unintelligible with Kajkavian (which is closer to Slovene language, Slovene) and only partially intelligible with Chakavian.

Spanish

Spanish language, Spanish has both national and regional linguistic norms, which vary in terms of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation, but all varieties are mutually intelligible and the same Spanish orthography, orthographic rules are shared throughout.

In Spain, Standard Spanish is based upon the speech of educated speakers from Madrid. All varieties spoken in the Iberian Peninsula are grouped as Peninsular Spanish. Canarian Spanish (spoken in the Canary Islands), along with Spanish language in the Americas, Spanish spoken in the Americas (including Spanish language in the United States, Spanish spoken in the United States, Central American Spanish, Mexican Spanish, Andean Spanish, and Caribbean Spanish), are particularly related to Andalusian Spanish.

The United States is now the world's second-largest Spanish-speaking country after Mexico in total number of speakers (L1 and L2 speakers). A report said there are 41 million L1 Spanish speakers and another 11.6 million L2 speakers in the U.S. This puts the US ahead of Colombia (48 million) and Spain (46 million) and second only to Mexico (121 million).

The Spanish of Latin Americans has a growing influence on the language across the globe through music, culture and television produced using the language of the largely bilingual speech community of US Latinos.

In Argentina and Uruguay the Spanish standard is based on the local dialects of Buenos Aires and Montevideo. This is known as Rioplatense Spanish, (from Rio de la Plata (River Plate)) and is distinguishable from other standard Spanish dialects by voseo. In Colombia, Colombian Spanish#Rolo dialect, Rolo (a name for the dialect of Bogotá) is valued for its clear pronunciation. The Judeo-Spanish (also known as ''Ladino''; not to be confused with ''Latino'') spoken by Sephardi Jews can be found in Israel and elsewhere; it is usually considered a separate language.

Swedish

Two varieties exist, though only one written standard remains (regulated by the Swedish Academy of Sweden): ''Rikssvenska'' (literally "Realm Swedish"), the official language of Sweden, and ''Finlandssvenska'' (in Finland known as "Högsvenska", 'High Swedish'), which, alongside Finnish, is the other official language of Finland. There are differences in vocabulary and grammar, with the variety used in Finland remaining a little more conservative. The most marked differences are in pronunciation and intonation: Whereas Swedish speakers usually pronounce before front vowels as , this sound is usually pronounced by a Swedo-Finn as ; in addition, the two tones that are characteristic of Swedish (and Norwegian) are absent from most Finnish dialects of Swedish, which have an intonation reminiscent of Finnish and thus sound more monotonous when compared to ''Rikssvenska''.

There are dialects that could be considered different languages due to long periods of isolation and geographical separation from the central dialects of Svealand and Götaland that came to constitute the base for the standard ''Rikssvenska''. Dialects such as Elfdalian, Jamtlandic dialects, Jamtlandic, Westrobothnian and Gutnish all differ as much, or more, from standard Swedish than the standard varieties of Danish language, Danish. Some of them have a standardized orthography, but the Swedish government has not granted any of them official recognition as regional languages and continues to look upon them as dialects of Swedish. Most of them are severely endangered and spoken by elderly people in the countryside. In the case of Westrobothnian, the pejorative "bondska" is widespread, derived from the word for peasant and literally meaning "farmish", thus leading people to believe that it has something to do with peasantry or farming although the dialects have been spoken in all parts of society for over 1000 years.

Tamil

The vast majority of Tamil language, Tamil speakers reside in southern India, where it is the official language of Tamil Nadu and of Puducherry (union territory), Puducherry, and one of 22 languages listed in the Eighth Schedule to the Constitution of India.
It is also one of two official languages in Sri Lanka, one of four official languages in

Singapore

, and is used as the medium of instruction in government-aided Tamil primary schools in Malaysia.
Other parts of the world have Tamil-speaking populations, but are not loci of planned development.

Tamil is diglossic, with the literary variant used in books, poetry, speeches and news broadcasts while the spoken variant is used in everyday speech, online messaging and movies.
While there are significant differences in the standard spoken forms of the different countries, the literary register is mostly uniform, with some differences in semantics that are not perceived by native speakers.
There has been no attempt to compile a dictionary of Sri Lankan Tamil.

As a result of the Pure Tamil Movement, Indian Tamil tends to avoid loanwords to a greater extent than Sri Lankan Tamil.
Coinages of new technical terms also differ between the two.
Tamil policy in Singapore and Malaysia tends to follow that of Tamil Nadu regarding linguistic purism and technical coinages.

There are some spelling differences, particularly in the greater use of Grantha script, Grantha letters to write loanwords and foreign names in Sri Lanka, Singapore and Malaysia.
The Tamil Nadu simplified Tamil script, script reform of 1978 has been accepted in Singapore and Malaysia, but not Sri Lanka.

Others

* Standard Irish language, Irish (Gaeilge), Scottish Gaelic and possibly Manx language, Manx can be viewed as three standards arisen through divergence from the Early Modern Irish, Classical Gaelic norm via orthographic reforms.
* Komi language, Komi, a Uralic languages, Uralic language spoken in northeastern European Russia, has official standards for its Komi-Zyrian language, Komi-Zyrian and Komi-Permyak language, Komi-Permyak dialects.
* Korean language, Korean: North and South (to some extent—differences are growing; see North–South differences in the Korean language and Korean dialects)
* Kurdish language has two main literary norms: Kurmanji (Northern Kurdish) and Sorani (Central Kurdish). The Zaza–Gorani languages, spoken by some Kurds, are occasionally considered to be Kurdish as well, despite not being mutually intelligible.
*For most of its history, Hebrew did not have a center. The grammar and lexicon were dominated by the canonical texts, but when the pronunciation was standardised for the first time, its users were already scattered. Therefore, three main forms of pronunciations developed, particularly for the purpose of prayer: Ashkenazi Jews, Ashkenazi, Sephardi Jews, Sephardi, and Yemenite Hebrew, Temani. When Hebrew was revived as a spoken language, there was a discussion about which pronunciation should be used. Ultimately, the Sephardi pronunciation was chosen even though most of the speakers at the time were of Ashkenazi background, because it was considered more authentic. The standard Israeli pronunciation of today is not Identical to the Sephardi, but is somewhat of a merger with Ashkenazi influences and interpretation. The Ashkenazi pronunciation is still used in Israel by Haredi Judaism, Haredim in prayer and by Jewish communities outside of Israel.
* Norwegian language, Norwegian consists of a multitude of vernacular, spoken dialects displaying a great deal of variation in pronunciation and (to a somewhat lesser extent) vocabulary, with no officially recognized "standard spoken Norwegian" (but see Urban East Norwegian). All Norwegian dialects are mutually intelligible to a certain extent. There are two written standards: Bokmål, "book language", based on Danish (Danish and Norwegian Bokmål are mutually intelligible languages with significant differences primarily in pronunciation rather than vocabulary or grammar), and Nynorsk, "New Norwegian", based primarily on rural Western and rural inland Norwegian dialects.
*Pashto has three official standard varieties: Central Pashto, which is the most prestigious standard dialect (also used in Kabul), Northern Pashto, and Southern Pashto.
* Romance languages
** Romanian language, Romanian in Romania and that in Moldova during the Soviet era, but nowadays Romania and Moldova use the same standard of Romanian language, Romanian.
** Romansh language, Romansh, with five written standards (from southwest to northeast: Sursilvan, Sutsilvan, Surmiran, Puter, Vallader) as well as a Romansh language#Standardization, "compromise" form.
** Sardinian language, Sardinian consists of a Sardinian language#Varieties, conglomerate of spoken dialects, displaying a significant degree of variation in phonetics and sometimes vocabulary. The Spanish subdivision of Sardinia into two administrative areas led to the emergence of two separate orthographies, Logudorese dialect, Logudorese and Campidanese dialect, Campidanese, as standardized varieties of the same language.
* Ukrainian language, Ukrainian and Rusyn language, Rusyn (Prešov, Lemkos#Language, Lemko, Pannonian Rusyn language, Pannonian) are either considered to be standardized varieties of the Ruthenian language, same language or separate languages.
* Dutch language, Dutch is considered pluricentric with recognised varieties in Suriname, ABC islands (Leeward Antilles), ABC Islands, Belgium and the Netherlands, and also with the Afrikaans varieties of South Africa and Namibia.
* The Albanian language has two main varieties Gheg and Tosk. Gheg is spoken to the north and Tosk spoken to the south of the Shkumbin river. Standard Albanian is a standardised form of spoken Albanian based on Tosk.
* Belarusian language features two orthographic standards: official Belarusian, sometimes referred to as ''narkomaŭka'', and Taraškievica, also known as "classical orthography". The division stems from Belarusian_orthography_reform_of_1933, 1933 reform believed by some to be an attempt to artificially similarize Belarusian and Russian languages. Originally these standards differed only in written form, but due to Taraškievica being widely used among Belarusian diaspora it grew some distinct orthoepic features, as well as diffencies in vocabulary.

See also

*Abstand and ausbau languages
*Binary distribution
*Dialect continuum
*Diasystem
*Diglossia
*Digraphia
*Language secessionism
*Lingua franca
*Macrolanguage
*Mutual intelligibility
*Standard language
*Variety (linguistics)
*World language

References

Bibliography

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* Clyne, Michael G.; & Kipp, Sandra. (1999). ''Pluricentric languages in an immigrant context: Spanish, Arabic and Chinese''. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. .
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Further reading

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External links

* [http://www.pluricentriclanguages.org/ International working group on Non-Dominant Varieties of pluricentric languages]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pluricentric Language
Language varieties and styles
Standard languages
Sociolinguistics