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Algebra () is one of the broad areas of
mathematics Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics ...
. Roughly speaking, algebra is the study of
mathematical symbol A mathematical symbol is a figure or a combination of figures that is used to represent a mathematical object, an action on mathematical objects, a relation between mathematical objects, or for structuring the other symbols that occur in a formul ...
s and the rules for manipulating these symbols in formulas; it is a unifying thread of almost all of mathematics. Elementary algebra deals with the manipulation of variables (commonly represented by Roman letters) as if they were numbers and is therefore essential in all applications of mathematics.
Abstract algebra In mathematics, more specifically algebra, abstract algebra or modern algebra is the study of algebraic structures. Algebraic structures include groups, rings, fields, modules, vector spaces, lattices, and algebras over a field. The ter ...
is the name given, mostly in
education Education is a purposeful activity directed at achieving certain aims, such as transmitting knowledge or fostering skills and character traits. These aims may include the development of understanding, rationality, kindness, and honesty ...
, to the study of algebraic structures such as
groups A group is a number of persons or things that are located, gathered, or classed together. Groups of people * Cultural group, a group whose members share the same cultural identity * Ethnic group, a group whose members share the same ethnic ide ...
, rings, and fields (the term is no more in common use outside educational context).
Linear algebra Linear algebra is the branch of mathematics concerning linear equations such as: :a_1x_1+\cdots +a_nx_n=b, linear maps such as: :(x_1, \ldots, x_n) \mapsto a_1x_1+\cdots +a_nx_n, and their representations in vector spaces and through matrice ...
, which deals with linear equations and linear mappings, is used for modern presentations of
geometry Geometry (; ) is, with arithmetic, one of the oldest branches of mathematics. It is concerned with properties of space such as the distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is c ...
, and has many practical applications (in
weather forecasting Weather forecasting is the application of science and technology to predict the conditions of the atmosphere for a given location and time. People have attempted to predict the weather informally for millennia and formally since the 19th cen ...
, for example). There are many areas of mathematics that belong to algebra, some having "algebra" in their name, such as
commutative algebra Commutative algebra, first known as ideal theory, is the branch of algebra that studies commutative rings, their ideals, and modules over such rings. Both algebraic geometry and algebraic number theory build on commutative algebra. Prom ...
, and some not, such as Galois theory. The word ''algebra'' is not only used for naming an area of mathematics and some subareas; it is also used for naming some sorts of algebraic structures, such as an algebra over a field, commonly called an ''algebra''. Sometimes, the same phrase is used for a subarea and its main algebraic structures; for example,
Boolean algebra In mathematics and mathematical logic, Boolean algebra is a branch of algebra. It differs from elementary algebra in two ways. First, the values of the variables are the truth values ''true'' and ''false'', usually denoted 1 and 0, whereas i ...
and a
Boolean algebra In mathematics and mathematical logic, Boolean algebra is a branch of algebra. It differs from elementary algebra in two ways. First, the values of the variables are the truth values ''true'' and ''false'', usually denoted 1 and 0, whereas i ...
. A mathematician specialized in algebra is called an algebraist.


Etymology

The word ''algebra'' comes from the ar, الجبر, lit=reunion of broken parts,
bonesetting Traditional bone-setting is a type of a folk medicine in which practitioners engaged in joint manipulation. Before the advent of chiropractors, osteopaths and physical therapists, bone-setters were the main providers of this type of treatment. ...
, translit=al-jabr from the title of the early 9th century book '' cIlm al-jabr wa l-muqābala'' "The Science of Restoring and Balancing" by the Persian mathematician and astronomer al-Khwarizmi. In his work, the term ''al-jabr'' referred to the operation of moving a term from one side of an equation to the other, المقابلة ''al-muqābala'' "balancing" referred to adding equal terms to both sides. Shortened to just ''algeber'' or ''algebra'' in Latin, the word eventually entered the English language during the 15th century, from either Spanish, Italian, or
Medieval Latin Medieval Latin was the form of Literary Latin used in Roman Catholic Western Europe during the Middle Ages. In this region it served as the primary written language, though local languages were also written to varying degrees. Latin functioned ...
. It originally referred to the surgical procedure of setting broken or dislocated bones. The mathematical meaning was first recorded (in English) in the 16th century.


Different meanings of "algebra"

The word "algebra" has several related meanings in mathematics, as a single word or with qualifiers. * As a single word without an article, "algebra" names a broad part of mathematics. * As a single word with an article or in the plural, "an algebra" or "algebras" denotes a specific mathematical structure, whose precise definition depends on the context. Usually, the structure has an addition, multiplication, and scalar multiplication (see Algebra over a field). When some authors use the term "algebra", they make a subset of the following additional assumptions: associative, commutative, unital, and/or finite-dimensional. In
universal algebra Universal algebra (sometimes called general algebra) is the field of mathematics that studies algebraic structures themselves, not examples ("models") of algebraic structures. For instance, rather than take particular groups as the object of study ...
, the word "algebra" refers to a generalization of the above concept, which allows for n-ary operations. * With a qualifier, there is the same distinction: ** Without an article, it means a part of algebra, such as
linear algebra Linear algebra is the branch of mathematics concerning linear equations such as: :a_1x_1+\cdots +a_nx_n=b, linear maps such as: :(x_1, \ldots, x_n) \mapsto a_1x_1+\cdots +a_nx_n, and their representations in vector spaces and through matrice ...
, elementary algebra (the symbol-manipulation rules taught in elementary courses of mathematics as part of primary and
secondary education Secondary education or post-primary education covers two phases on the International Standard Classification of Education scale. Level 2 or lower secondary education (less commonly junior secondary education) is considered the second and final ph ...
), or
abstract algebra In mathematics, more specifically algebra, abstract algebra or modern algebra is the study of algebraic structures. Algebraic structures include groups, rings, fields, modules, vector spaces, lattices, and algebras over a field. The ter ...
(the study of the algebraic structures for themselves). ** With an article, it means an instance of some algebraic structure, like a Lie algebra, an associative algebra, or a
vertex operator algebra In mathematics, a vertex operator algebra (VOA) is an algebraic structure that plays an important role in two-dimensional conformal field theory and string theory. In addition to physical applications, vertex operator algebras have proven usefu ...
. ** Sometimes both meanings exist for the same qualifier, as in the sentence: ''
Commutative algebra Commutative algebra, first known as ideal theory, is the branch of algebra that studies commutative rings, their ideals, and modules over such rings. Both algebraic geometry and algebraic number theory build on commutative algebra. Prom ...
is the study of commutative rings, which are commutative algebras over the integers''.


Algebra as a branch of mathematics

Algebra began with computations similar to those of arithmetic, with letters standing for numbers. This allowed proofs of properties that are true no matter which numbers are involved. For example, in the
quadratic equation In algebra, a quadratic equation () is any equation that can be rearranged in standard form as ax^2 + bx + c = 0\,, where represents an unknown value, and , , and represent known numbers, where . (If and then the equation is linear, not qu ...
:ax^2+bx+c=0, a, b, c can be any numbers whatsoever (except that a cannot be 0), and the
quadratic formula In elementary algebra, the quadratic formula is a formula that provides the solution(s) to a quadratic equation. There are other ways of solving a quadratic equation instead of using the quadratic formula, such as factoring (direct factoring, ...
can be used to quickly and easily find the values of the unknown quantity x which satisfy the equation. That is to say, to find all the solutions of the equation. Historically, and in current teaching, the study of algebra starts with the solving of equations, such as the quadratic equation above. Then more general questions, such as "does an equation have a
solution Solution may refer to: * Solution (chemistry), a mixture where one substance is dissolved in another * Solution (equation), in mathematics ** Numerical solution, in numerical analysis, approximate solutions within specified error bounds * Solutio ...
?", "how many solutions does an equation have?", "what can be said about the nature of the solutions?" are considered. These questions led extending algebra to non-numerical objects, such as permutations, vectors, matrices, and polynomials. The structural properties of these non-numerical objects were then formalized into algebraic structures such as
groups A group is a number of persons or things that are located, gathered, or classed together. Groups of people * Cultural group, a group whose members share the same cultural identity * Ethnic group, a group whose members share the same ethnic ide ...
, rings, and fields. Before the 16th century, mathematics was divided into only two subfields, arithmetic and
geometry Geometry (; ) is, with arithmetic, one of the oldest branches of mathematics. It is concerned with properties of space such as the distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is c ...
. Even though some methods, which had been developed much earlier, may be considered nowadays as algebra, the emergence of algebra and, soon thereafter, of infinitesimal calculus as subfields of mathematics only dates from the 16th or 17th century. From the second half of the 19th century on, many new fields of mathematics appeared, most of which made use of both arithmetic and geometry, and almost all of which used algebra. Today, algebra has grown considerably and includes many branches of mathematics, as can be seen in the
Mathematics Subject Classification The Mathematics Subject Classification (MSC) is an alphanumerical classification scheme collaboratively produced by staff of, and based on the coverage of, the two major mathematical reviewing databases, Mathematical Reviews and Zentralblatt MATH ...
where none of the first level areas (two digit entries) are called ''algebra''. Today algebra includes section 08-General algebraic systems, 12- Field theory and polynomials, 13-
Commutative algebra Commutative algebra, first known as ideal theory, is the branch of algebra that studies commutative rings, their ideals, and modules over such rings. Both algebraic geometry and algebraic number theory build on commutative algebra. Prom ...
, 15- Linear and multilinear algebra; matrix theory, 16- Associative rings and algebras, 17- Nonassociative rings and algebras, 18- Category theory; homological algebra, 19- K-theory and 20-
Group theory In abstract algebra, group theory studies the algebraic structures known as groups. The concept of a group is central to abstract algebra: other well-known algebraic structures, such as rings, fields, and vector spaces, can all be seen ...
. Algebra is also used extensively in 11- Number theory and 14- Algebraic geometry.


History

The use of the word "algebra" for denoting a part of mathematics dates probably from the 16th century. The word is derived from the Arabic word ''al-jabr'' that appears in the title of the treatise ''
Al-Kitab al-muhtasar fi hisab al-gabr wa-l-muqabala ''The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing'' ( ar, كتاب المختصر في حساب الجبر والمقابلة, ; la, Liber Algebræ et Almucabola), also known as ''Al-Jabr'' (), is an Arabic mathematical treati ...
'' (''The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing''), written circa 820 by Al-Kwarizmi. ''Al-jabr'' referred to a method for transforming equations by subtracting like terms from both sides, or passing one term from one side to the other, after changing its sign. Therefore, ''algebra'' referred originally to the manipulation of equations, and, by extension, to the theory of equations. This is still what historians of mathematics generally mean by ''algebra''. In mathematics, the meaning of ''algebra'' has evolved after the introduction by François Viète of symbols ( variables) for denoting unknown or incompletely specified numbers, and the resulting use of the mathematical notation for equations and formulas. So, algebra became essentially the study of the action of
operation Operation or Operations may refer to: Arts, entertainment and media * ''Operation'' (game), a battery-operated board game that challenges dexterity * Operation (music), a term used in musical set theory * ''Operations'' (magazine), Multi-Man ...
s on expressions involving variables. This includes but is not limited to the theory of equations. At the beginning of the 20th century, algebra evolved further by considering operations that act not only on numbers but also on elements of so-called mathematical structures such as groups, fields and vector spaces. This new algebra was called ''
modern algebra In mathematics, more specifically algebra, abstract algebra or modern algebra is the study of algebraic structures. Algebraic structures include groups, rings, fields, modules, vector spaces, lattices, and algebras over a field. The term ''a ...
'' by van der Waerden in his eponymous treatise, whose name has been changed to ''Algebra'' in later editions.


Early history

The roots of algebra can be traced to the ancient Babylonians, who developed an advanced arithmetical system with which they were able to do calculations in an
algorithm In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm () is a finite sequence of rigorous instructions, typically used to solve a class of specific problems or to perform a computation. Algorithms are used as specifications for performing ...
ic fashion. The Babylonians developed formulas to calculate solutions for problems typically solved today by using linear equations,
quadratic equation In algebra, a quadratic equation () is any equation that can be rearranged in standard form as ax^2 + bx + c = 0\,, where represents an unknown value, and , , and represent known numbers, where . (If and then the equation is linear, not qu ...
s, and indeterminate linear equations. By contrast, most Egyptians of this era, as well as Greek and Chinese mathematics in the 1st millennium BC, usually solved such equations by geometric methods, such as those described in the '' Rhind Mathematical Papyrus'', Euclid's ''Elements'', and '' The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art''. The geometric work of the Greeks, typified in the ''Elements'', provided the framework for generalizing formulae beyond the solution of particular problems into more general systems of stating and solving equations, although this would not be realized until mathematics developed in medieval Islam. By the time of
Plato Plato ( ; grc-gre, Πλάτων ; 428/427 or 424/423 – 348/347 BC) was a Greek philosopher born in Athens during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. He founded the Platonist school of thought and the Academy, the first institution ...
, Greek mathematics had undergone a drastic change. The Greeks created a geometric algebra where terms were represented by sides of geometric objects, usually lines, that had letters associated with them.See , ''Europe in the Middle Ages'', p. 258: "In the arithmetical theorems in Euclid's ''Elements'' VII–IX, numbers had been represented by line segments to which letters had been attached, and the geometric proofs in al-Khwarizmi's ''Algebra'' made use of lettered diagrams; but all coefficients in the equations used in the ''Algebra'' are specific numbers, whether represented by numerals or written out in words. The idea of generality is implied in al-Khwarizmi's exposition, but he had no scheme for expressing algebraically the general propositions that are so readily available in geometry." Diophantus (3rd century AD) was an
Alexandria Alexandria ( or ; ar, ٱلْإِسْكَنْدَرِيَّةُ ; grc-gre, Αλεξάνδρεια, Alexándria) is the second largest city in Egypt, and the largest city on the Mediterranean coast. Founded in by Alexander the Great, Alexandri ...
n Greek mathematician and the author of a series of books called '' Arithmetica''. These texts deal with solving algebraic equations, and have led, in number theory, to the modern notion of Diophantine equation. Earlier traditions discussed above had a direct influence on the Persian mathematician
Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī Muhammad ( ar, مُحَمَّد;  570 – 8 June 632 CE) was an Arab religious, social, and political leader and the founder of Islam. According to Islamic doctrine, he was a prophet divinely inspired to preach and confirm the mono ...
(–850). He later wrote '' The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing'', which established algebra as a mathematical discipline that is independent of
geometry Geometry (; ) is, with arithmetic, one of the oldest branches of mathematics. It is concerned with properties of space such as the distance, shape, size, and relative position of figures. A mathematician who works in the field of geometry is c ...
and arithmetic. The Hellenistic mathematicians
Hero of Alexandria Hero of Alexandria (; grc-gre, Ἥρων ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς, ''Heron ho Alexandreus'', also known as Heron of Alexandria ; 60 AD) was a Greek mathematician and engineer who was active in his native city of Alexandria, Roman Egypt. H ...
and Diophantus as well as Indian mathematicians such as Brahmagupta, continued the traditions of Egypt and Babylon, though Diophantus' ''Arithmetica'' and Brahmagupta's '' Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta'' are on a higher level. For example, the first complete arithmetic solution written in words instead of symbols, including zero and negative solutions, to quadratic equations was described by Brahmagupta in his book ''Brahmasphutasiddhanta,'' published in 628 AD.Bradley, Michael. ''The Birth of Mathematics: Ancient Times to 1300'', p. 86 (Infobase Publishing 2006). Later, Persian and
Arab The Arabs (singular: Arab; singular ar, عَرَبِيٌّ, DIN 31635: , , plural ar, عَرَب, DIN 31635: , Arabic pronunciation: ), also known as the Arab people, are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in Western Asia, ...
mathematicians developed algebraic methods to a much higher degree of sophistication. Although Diophantus and the Babylonians used mostly special ''ad hoc'' methods to solve equations, Al-Khwarizmi's contribution was fundamental. He solved linear and quadratic equations without algebraic symbolism, negative numbers or zero, thus he had to distinguish several types of equations. In the context where algebra is identified with the theory of equations, the Greek mathematician Diophantus has traditionally been known as the "father of algebra" and in the context where it is identified with rules for manipulating and solving equations, Persian mathematician al-Khwarizmi is regarded as "the father of algebra".See , page 263–277: "In a sense, al-Khwarizmi is more entitled to be called "the father of algebra" than Diophantus because al-Khwarizmi is the first to teach algebra in an elementary form and for its own sake, Diophantus is primarily concerned with the theory of numbers". It is open to debate whether Diophantus or al-Khwarizmi is more entitled to be known, in the general sense, as "the father of algebra". Those who support Diophantus point to the fact that the algebra found in ''Al-Jabr'' is slightly more elementary than the algebra found in ''Arithmetica'' and that ''Arithmetica'' is syncopated while ''Al-Jabr'' is fully rhetorical. Those who support Al-Khwarizmi point to the fact that he introduced the methods of " reduction" and "balancing" (the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation, that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation) which the term ''al-jabr'' originally referred to,See , ''The Arabic Hegemony'', p. 229: "It is not certain just what the terms ''al-jabr'' and ''muqabalah'' mean, but the usual interpretation is similar to that implied in the translation above. The word ''al-jabr'' presumably meant something like "restoration" or "completion" and seems to refer to the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation; the word ''muqabalah'' is said to refer to "reduction" or "balancing" – that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation". and that he gave an exhaustive explanation of solving quadratic equations, supported by geometric proofs while treating algebra as an independent discipline in its own right. His algebra was also no longer concerned "with a series of problems to be resolved, but an exposition which starts with primitive terms in which the combinations must give all possible prototypes for equations, which henceforward explicitly constitute the true object of study". He also studied an equation for its own sake and "in a generic manner, insofar as it does not simply emerge in the course of solving a problem, but is specifically called on to define an infinite class of problems". Another Persian mathematician Omar Khayyam is credited with identifying the foundations of algebraic geometry and found the general geometric solution of the cubic equation. His book ''Treatise on Demonstrations of Problems of Algebra'' (1070), which laid down the principles of algebra, is part of the body of Persian mathematics that was eventually transmitted to Europe. Yet another Persian mathematician, Sharaf al-Dīn al-Tūsī, found algebraic and numerical solutions to various cases of cubic equations. He also developed the concept of a function. The Indian mathematicians Mahavira and Bhaskara II, the Persian mathematician Al-Karaji,See , ''The Arabic Hegemony'', p. 239: "Abu'l Wefa was a capable algebraist as well as a trigonometer. ... His successor al-Karkhi evidently used this translation to become an Arabic disciple of Diophantus – but without Diophantine analysis! ... In particular, to al-Karkhi is attributed the first numerical solution of equations of the form ax2n + bxn = c (only equations with positive roots were considered)," and the Chinese mathematician Zhu Shijie, solved various cases of cubic, quartic,
quintic In algebra, a quintic function is a function of the form :g(x)=ax^5+bx^4+cx^3+dx^2+ex+f,\, where , , , , and are members of a field, typically the rational numbers, the real numbers or the complex numbers, and is nonzero. In other words, a ...
and higher-order polynomial equations using numerical methods. In the 13th century, the solution of a cubic equation by Fibonacci is representative of the beginning of a revival in European algebra. Abū al-Ḥasan ibn ʿAlī al-Qalaṣādī (1412–1486) took "the first steps toward the introduction of algebraic symbolism". He also computed Σ''n''2, Σ''n''3 and used the method of successive approximation to determine square roots.


Modern history

François Viète's work on new algebra at the close of the 16th century was an important step towards modern algebra. In 1637,
René Descartes René Descartes ( or ; ; Latinized: Renatus Cartesius; 31 March 1596 – 11 February 1650) was a French philosopher, scientist, and mathematician, widely considered a seminal figure in the emergence of modern philosophy and science. Ma ...
published '' La Géométrie'', inventing analytic geometry and introducing modern algebraic notation. Another key event in the further development of algebra was the general algebraic solution of the cubic and quartic equations, developed in the mid-16th century. The idea of a
determinant In mathematics, the determinant is a scalar value that is a function of the entries of a square matrix. It characterizes some properties of the matrix and the linear map represented by the matrix. In particular, the determinant is nonzero if a ...
was developed by Japanese mathematician
Seki Kōwa , Selin, Helaine. (1997). ''Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures,'' p. 890 also known as ,Selin, was a Japanese mathematician and author of the Edo period. Seki laid foundations for the subs ...
in the 17th century, followed independently by Gottfried Leibniz ten years later, for the purpose of solving systems of simultaneous linear equations using matrices.
Gabriel Cramer Gabriel Cramer (; 31 July 1704 – 4 January 1752) was a Genevan mathematician. He was the son of physician Jean Cramer and Anne Mallet Cramer. Biography Cramer showed promise in mathematics from an early age. At 18 he received his doctorat ...
also did some work on matrices and determinants in the 18th century. Permutations were studied by Joseph-Louis Lagrange in his 1770 paper "''Réflexions sur la résolution algébrique des équations'' devoted to solutions of algebraic equations, in which he introduced Lagrange resolvents. Paolo Ruffini was the first person to develop the theory of permutation groups, and like his predecessors, also in the context of solving algebraic equations.
Abstract algebra In mathematics, more specifically algebra, abstract algebra or modern algebra is the study of algebraic structures. Algebraic structures include groups, rings, fields, modules, vector spaces, lattices, and algebras over a field. The ter ...
was developed in the 19th century, deriving from the interest in solving equations, initially focusing on what is now called Galois theory, and on constructibility issues. George Peacock was the founder of axiomatic thinking in arithmetic and algebra. Augustus De Morgan discovered relation algebra in his ''Syllabus of a Proposed System of Logic''. Josiah Willard Gibbs developed an algebra of vectors in three-dimensional space, and Arthur Cayley developed an algebra of matrices (this is a noncommutative algebra).


Areas of mathematics with the word algebra in their name

Some subareas of algebra have the word algebra in their name;
linear algebra Linear algebra is the branch of mathematics concerning linear equations such as: :a_1x_1+\cdots +a_nx_n=b, linear maps such as: :(x_1, \ldots, x_n) \mapsto a_1x_1+\cdots +a_nx_n, and their representations in vector spaces and through matrice ...
is one example. Others do not:
group theory In abstract algebra, group theory studies the algebraic structures known as groups. The concept of a group is central to abstract algebra: other well-known algebraic structures, such as rings, fields, and vector spaces, can all be seen ...
, ring theory, and field theory are examples. In this section, we list some areas of mathematics with the word "algebra" in the name. * Elementary algebra, the part of algebra that is usually taught in elementary courses of mathematics. *
Abstract algebra In mathematics, more specifically algebra, abstract algebra or modern algebra is the study of algebraic structures. Algebraic structures include groups, rings, fields, modules, vector spaces, lattices, and algebras over a field. The ter ...
, in which algebraic structures such as
groups A group is a number of persons or things that are located, gathered, or classed together. Groups of people * Cultural group, a group whose members share the same cultural identity * Ethnic group, a group whose members share the same ethnic ide ...
, rings and fields are axiomatically defined and investigated. *
Linear algebra Linear algebra is the branch of mathematics concerning linear equations such as: :a_1x_1+\cdots +a_nx_n=b, linear maps such as: :(x_1, \ldots, x_n) \mapsto a_1x_1+\cdots +a_nx_n, and their representations in vector spaces and through matrice ...
, in which the specific properties of linear equations, vector spaces and matrices are studied. *
Boolean algebra In mathematics and mathematical logic, Boolean algebra is a branch of algebra. It differs from elementary algebra in two ways. First, the values of the variables are the truth values ''true'' and ''false'', usually denoted 1 and 0, whereas i ...
, a branch of algebra abstracting the computation with the truth values ''false'' and ''true''. *
Commutative algebra Commutative algebra, first known as ideal theory, is the branch of algebra that studies commutative rings, their ideals, and modules over such rings. Both algebraic geometry and algebraic number theory build on commutative algebra. Prom ...
, the study of commutative rings. * Computer algebra, the implementation of algebraic methods as
algorithm In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm () is a finite sequence of rigorous instructions, typically used to solve a class of specific problems or to perform a computation. Algorithms are used as specifications for performing ...
s and
computer program A computer program is a sequence or set of instructions in a programming language for a computer to Execution (computing), execute. Computer programs are one component of software, which also includes software documentation, documentation and oth ...
s. * Homological algebra, the study of algebraic structures that are fundamental to study
topological space In mathematics, a topological space is, roughly speaking, a geometrical space in which closeness is defined but cannot necessarily be measured by a numeric distance. More specifically, a topological space is a set whose elements are called poin ...
s. *
Universal algebra Universal algebra (sometimes called general algebra) is the field of mathematics that studies algebraic structures themselves, not examples ("models") of algebraic structures. For instance, rather than take particular groups as the object of study ...
, in which properties common to all algebraic structures are studied. * Algebraic number theory, in which the properties of numbers are studied from an algebraic point of view. * Algebraic geometry, a branch of geometry, in its primitive form specifying curves and surfaces as solutions of polynomial equations. * Algebraic combinatorics, in which algebraic methods are used to study combinatorial questions. * Relational algebra: a set of finitary relations that is
closed Closed may refer to: Mathematics * Closure (mathematics), a set, along with operations, for which applying those operations on members always results in a member of the set * Closed set, a set which contains all its limit points * Closed interval, ...
under certain operators. Many mathematical structures are called algebras: * Algebra over a field or more generally algebra over a ring.
Many classes of algebras over a field or over a ring have a specific name: ** Associative algebra ** Non-associative algebra ** Lie algebra ** Composition algebra ** Hopf algebra ** C*-algebra ** Symmetric algebra ** Exterior algebra ** Tensor algebra * In measure theory, ** Sigma-algebra ** Algebra over a set * In category theory **
F-algebra In mathematics, specifically in category theory, ''F''-algebras generalize the notion of algebraic structure. Rewriting the algebraic laws in terms of morphisms eliminates all references to quantified elements from the axioms, and these algebrai ...
and F-coalgebra **
T-algebra In category theory, a branch of mathematics, a monad (also triple, triad, standard construction and fundamental construction) is a monoid in the category of endofunctors. An endofunctor is a functor mapping a category to itself, and a monad is ...
* In
logic Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the science of deductively valid inferences or of logical truths. It is a formal science investigating how conclusions follow from prem ...
, ** Relation algebra, a residuated Boolean algebra expanded with an involution called converse. **
Boolean algebra In mathematics and mathematical logic, Boolean algebra is a branch of algebra. It differs from elementary algebra in two ways. First, the values of the variables are the truth values ''true'' and ''false'', usually denoted 1 and 0, whereas i ...
, a complemented distributive lattice. ** Heyting algebra


Elementary algebra

Elementary algebra is the most basic form of algebra. It is taught to students who are presumed to have no knowledge of
mathematics Mathematics is an area of knowledge that includes the topics of numbers, formulas and related structures, shapes and the spaces in which they are contained, and quantities and their changes. These topics are represented in modern mathematics ...
beyond the basic principles of arithmetic. In arithmetic, only
number A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, and label. The original examples are the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth. Numbers can be represented in language with number words. More universally, individual number ...
s and their arithmetical operations (such as +, −, ×, ÷) occur. In algebra, numbers are often represented by symbols called variables (such as ''a'', ''n'', ''x'', ''y'' or ''z''). This is useful because: * It allows the general formulation of arithmetical laws (such as ''a'' + ''b'' = ''b'' + ''a'' for all ''a'' and ''b''), and thus is the first step to a systematic exploration of the properties of the
real number system In mathematics, a real number is a number that can be used to measure a ''continuous'' one- dimensional quantity such as a distance, duration or temperature. Here, ''continuous'' means that values can have arbitrarily small variations. Eve ...
. * It allows the reference to "unknown" numbers, the formulation of equations and the study of how to solve these. (For instance, "Find a number ''x'' such that 3''x'' + 1 = 10" or going a bit further "Find a number ''x'' such that ''ax'' + ''b'' = ''c''". This step leads to the conclusion that it is not the nature of the specific numbers that allow us to solve it, but that of the operations involved.) * It allows the formulation of
functional Functional may refer to: * Movements in architecture: ** Functionalism (architecture) ** Form follows function * Functional group, combination of atoms within molecules * Medical conditions without currently visible organic basis: ** Functional sy ...
relationships. (For instance, "If you sell ''x'' tickets, then your profit will be 3''x'' − 10 dollars, or ''f''(''x'') = 3''x'' − 10, where ''f'' is the function, and ''x'' is the number to which the function is applied".)


Polynomials

A polynomial is an expression that is the sum of a finite number of non-zero terms, each term consisting of the product of a constant and a finite number of variables raised to whole number powers. For example, ''x''2 + 2''x'' − 3 is a polynomial in the single variable ''x''. A polynomial expression is an expression that may be rewritten as a polynomial, by using commutativity, associativity and distributivity of addition and multiplication. For example, (''x'' − 1)(''x'' + 3) is a polynomial expression, that, properly speaking, is not a polynomial. A polynomial function is a function that is defined by a polynomial, or, equivalently, by a polynomial expression. The two preceding examples define the same polynomial function. Two important and related problems in algebra are the factorization of polynomials, that is, expressing a given polynomial as a product of other polynomials that cannot be factored any further, and the computation of
polynomial greatest common divisor In algebra, the greatest common divisor (frequently abbreviated as GCD) of two polynomials is a polynomial, of the highest possible degree, that is a factor of both the two original polynomials. This concept is analogous to the greatest common ...
s. The example polynomial above can be factored as (''x'' − 1)(''x'' + 3). A related class of problems is finding algebraic expressions for the
roots A root is the part of a plant, generally underground, that anchors the plant body, and absorbs and stores water and nutrients. Root or roots may also refer to: Art, entertainment, and media * ''The Root'' (magazine), an online magazine focusing ...
of a polynomial in a single variable.


Education

It has been suggested that elementary algebra should be taught to students as young as eleven years old, though in recent years it is more common for public lessons to begin at the eighth grade level (≈ 13 y.o. ±) in the United States. However, in some US schools, algebra instruction starts in ninth grade.


Abstract algebra

Abstract algebra extends the familiar concepts found in elementary algebra and arithmetic of
number A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, and label. The original examples are the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth. Numbers can be represented in language with number words. More universally, individual number ...
s to more general concepts. Here are the listed fundamental concepts in abstract algebra. Sets: Rather than just considering the different types of
number A number is a mathematical object used to count, measure, and label. The original examples are the natural numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and so forth. Numbers can be represented in language with number words. More universally, individual number ...
s, abstract algebra deals with the more general concept of ''sets'': collections of objects called elements. All collections of the familiar types of numbers are sets. Other examples of sets include the set of all two-by-two matrices, the set of all second-degree polynomials (''ax''2 + ''bx'' + ''c''), the set of all two dimensional vectors of a plane, and the various finite groups such as the cyclic groups, which are the groups of integers
modulo In computing, the modulo operation returns the remainder or signed remainder of a division, after one number is divided by another (called the '' modulus'' of the operation). Given two positive numbers and , modulo (often abbreviated as ) is ...
''n''.
Set theory Set theory is the branch of mathematical logic that studies sets, which can be informally described as collections of objects. Although objects of any kind can be collected into a set, set theory, as a branch of mathematics, is mostly concern ...
is a branch of
logic Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It includes both formal and informal logic. Formal logic is the science of deductively valid inferences or of logical truths. It is a formal science investigating how conclusions follow from prem ...
and not technically a branch of algebra. Binary operations: The notion of addition (+) is generalized to the notion of ''binary operation'' (denoted here by ∗). The notion of binary operation is meaningless without the set on which the operation is defined. For two elements ''a'' and ''b'' in a set ''S'', ''a'' ∗ ''b'' is another element in the set; this condition is called closure. Addition (+), subtraction (−), multiplication (×), and division (÷) can be binary operations when defined on different sets, as are addition and multiplication of matrices, vectors, and polynomials. Identity elements: The numbers zero and one are generalized to give the notion of an ''identity element'' for an operation. Zero is the identity element for addition and one is the identity element for multiplication. For a general binary operator ∗ the identity element ''e'' must satisfy ''a'' ∗ ''e'' = ''a'' and ''e'' ∗ ''a'' = ''a'', and is necessarily unique, if it exists. This holds for addition as ''a'' + 0 = ''a'' and 0 + ''a'' = ''a'' and multiplication ''a'' × 1 = ''a'' and 1 × ''a'' = ''a''. Not all sets and operator combinations have an identity element; for example, the set of positive natural numbers (1, 2, 3, ...) has no identity element for addition. Inverse elements: The negative numbers give rise to the concept of ''inverse elements''. For addition, the inverse of ''a'' is written −''a'', and for multiplication the inverse is written ''a''−1. A general two-sided inverse element ''a''−1 satisfies the property that ''a'' ∗ ''a''−1 = ''e'' and ''a''−1 ∗ ''a'' = ''e'', where ''e'' is the identity element. Associativity: Addition of integers has a property called associativity. That is, the grouping of the numbers to be added does not affect the sum. For example: . In general, this becomes (''a'' ∗ ''b'') ∗ ''c'' = ''a'' ∗ (''b'' ∗ ''c''). This property is shared by most binary operations, but not subtraction or division or octonion multiplication. Commutativity: Addition and multiplication of real numbers are both commutative. That is, the order of the numbers does not affect the result. For example: 2 + 3 = 3 + 2. In general, this becomes ''a'' ∗ ''b'' = ''b'' ∗ ''a''. This property does not hold for all binary operations. For example, matrix multiplication and quaternion multiplication are both non-commutative.


Groups

Combining the above concepts gives one of the most important structures in mathematics: a group. A group is a combination of a set ''S'' and a single binary operation ∗, defined in any way you choose, but with the following properties: * An identity element ''e'' exists, such that for every member ''a'' of ''S'', ''e'' ∗ ''a'' and ''a'' ∗ ''e'' are both identical to ''a''. * Every element has an inverse: for every member ''a'' of ''S'', there exists a member ''a''−1 such that ''a'' ∗ ''a''−1 and ''a''−1 ∗ ''a'' are both identical to the identity element. * The operation is associative: if ''a'', ''b'' and ''c'' are members of ''S'', then (''a'' ∗ ''b'') ∗ ''c'' is identical to ''a'' ∗ (''b'' ∗ ''c''). If a group is also commutative – that is, for any two members ''a'' and ''b'' of ''S'', ''a'' ∗ ''b'' is identical to ''b'' ∗ ''a'' – then the group is said to be
abelian Abelian may refer to: Mathematics Group theory * Abelian group, a group in which the binary operation is commutative ** Category of abelian groups (Ab), has abelian groups as objects and group homomorphisms as morphisms * Metabelian group, a grou ...
. For example, the set of integers under the operation of addition is a group. In this group, the identity element is 0 and the inverse of any element ''a'' is its negation, −''a''. The associativity requirement is met, because for any integers ''a'', ''b'' and ''c'', (''a'' + ''b'') + ''c'' = ''a'' + (''b'' + ''c'') The non-zero rational numbers form a group under multiplication. Here, the identity element is 1, since 1 × ''a'' = ''a'' × 1 = ''a'' for any rational number ''a''. The inverse of ''a'' is , since ''a'' × = 1. The integers under the multiplication operation, however, do not form a group. This is because, in general, the multiplicative inverse of an integer is not an integer. For example, 4 is an integer, but its multiplicative inverse is , which is not an integer. The theory of groups is studied in
group theory In abstract algebra, group theory studies the algebraic structures known as groups. The concept of a group is central to abstract algebra: other well-known algebraic structures, such as rings, fields, and vector spaces, can all be seen ...
. A major result of this theory is the classification of finite simple groups, mostly published between about 1955 and 1983, which separates the finite simple groups into roughly 30 basic types. Semi-groups, quasi-groups, and
monoid In abstract algebra, a branch of mathematics, a monoid is a set equipped with an associative binary operation and an identity element. For example, the nonnegative integers with addition form a monoid, the identity element being 0. Monoid ...
s are algebraic structures similar to groups, but with less constraints on the operation. They comprise a set and a closed binary operation but do not necessarily satisfy the other conditions. A semi-group has an ''associative'' binary operation but might not have an identity element. A
monoid In abstract algebra, a branch of mathematics, a monoid is a set equipped with an associative binary operation and an identity element. For example, the nonnegative integers with addition form a monoid, the identity element being 0. Monoid ...
is a semi-group which does have an identity but might not have an inverse for every element. A quasi-group satisfies a requirement that any element can be turned into any other by either a unique left-multiplication or right-multiplication; however, the binary operation might not be associative. All groups are monoids, and all monoids are semi-groups.


Rings and fields

Groups just have one binary operation. To fully explain the behaviour of the different types of numbers, structures with two operators need to be studied. The most important of these are rings and fields. A ring has two binary operations (+) and (×), with × distributive over +. Under the first operator (+) it forms an ''abelian group''. Under the second operator (×) it is associative, but it does not need to have an identity, or inverse, so division is not required. The additive (+) identity element is written as 0 and the additive inverse of ''a'' is written as −''a''. Distributivity generalises the ''distributive law'' for numbers. For the integers and and × is said to be ''distributive'' over +. The integers are an example of a ring. The integers have additional properties which make it an integral domain. A field is a ''ring'' with the additional property that all the elements excluding 0 form an ''abelian group'' under ×. The multiplicative (×) identity is written as 1 and the multiplicative inverse of ''a'' is written as ''a''−1. The rational numbers, the real numbers and the complex numbers are all examples of fields.


See also

* Algebra tile * Outline of algebra *
Outline of linear algebra This is an outline of topics related to linear algebra, the branch of mathematics concerning linear equations and linear maps and their representations in vector spaces and through matrices. Linear equations Linear equation *System of linear equ ...


References


Citations


Works cited

* * *


Further reading

* * * * * * * *


External links


Khan Academy: Conceptual videos and worked examples

Khan Academy: Origins of Algebra, free online micro lectures

Algebrarules.com: An open source resource for learning the fundamentals of Algebra

4000 Years of Algebra
lecture by Robin Wilson, at Gresham College, October 17, 2007 (available for MP3 and MP4 download, as well as a text file). * {{Authority control