A mushroom or toadstool is the fleshy,
spore-bearing
fruiting body of a
fungus
A fungus ( : fungi or funguses) is any member of the group of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms. These organisms are classified as a kingdom, separately fr ...
, typically produced above ground, on soil, or on its
food source. ''Toadstool'' generally denotes one poisonous to humans.
The standard for the name "mushroom" is the cultivated white button mushroom, ''
Agaricus bisporus
''Agaricus bisporus'' is an edible basidiomycete mushroom native to grasslands in Eurasia and North America. It has two color states while immature – white and brown – both of which have various names, with additional names for the matur ...
''; hence the word "mushroom" is most often applied to those fungi (
Basidiomycota,
Agaricomycetes) that have a stem (
stipe), a cap (
pileus), and gills (lamellae, sing.
lamella) on the underside of the cap. "Mushroom" also describes a variety of other gilled fungi, with or without stems, therefore the term is used to describe the fleshy fruiting bodies of some
Ascomycota. These gills produce microscopic
spores that help the fungus spread across the ground or its occupant surface.
Forms deviating from the standard
morphology usually have more specific names, such as "
bolete", "
puffball", "
stinkhorn", and "
morel", and gilled mushrooms themselves are often called "
agarics" in reference to their similarity to ''
Agaricus'' or their order
Agaricales. By extension, the term "mushroom" can also refer to either the entire fungus when in culture, the
thallus (called
mycelium
Mycelium (plural mycelia) is a root-like structure of a fungus consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are found in and on soil and many other substrates. A typical single spore germinates ...
) of species forming the fruiting bodies called mushrooms, or the species itself.
Etymology
The terms "mushroom" and "toadstool" go back centuries and were never precisely defined, nor was there consensus on application. During the 15th and 16th centuries, the terms ''mushrom, mushrum, muscheron, mousheroms, mussheron, or musserouns'' were used.
The term "mushroom" and its variations may have been derived from the French word ''
mousseron'' in reference to
moss (''mousse''). Delineation between edible and poisonous fungi is not clear-cut, so a "mushroom" may be edible, poisonous, or unpalatable.
The word ''toadstool'' appeared first in
14th century England as a reference for a "stool" for
toads, possibly implying an inedible poisonous fungus.
Identification
Identifying what is and is not a mushroom requires a basic understanding of their
macroscopic structure. Most are
basidiomycetes
Basidiomycota () is one of two large divisions that, together with the Ascomycota, constitute the subkingdom Dikarya (often referred to as the "higher fungi") within the kingdom Fungi. Members are known as basidiomycetes. More specifically, Bas ...
and gilled. Their spores, called
basidiospores, are produced on the gills and fall in a fine rain of powder from under the caps as a result. At the microscopic level, the basidiospores are shot off
basidia and then fall between the gills in the dead air space. As a result, for most mushrooms, if the cap is cut off and placed gill-side-down overnight, a powdery impression reflecting the shape of the gills (or pores, or spines, etc.) is formed (when the fruit body is sporulating). The color of the powdery print, called a
spore print, is useful in both classifying and identifying mushrooms. Spore print colors include white (most common), brown, black, purple-brown, pink, yellow, and creamy, but almost never blue, green, or red.
While modern identification of mushrooms is quickly becoming molecular, the standard methods for identification are still used by most and have developed into a fine art harking back to
medieval
In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the late 5th to the late 15th centuries, similar to the post-classical period of global history. It began with the fall of the Western Roman Empire a ...
times and the
Victorian era
In the history of the United Kingdom and the British Empire, the Victorian era was the period of Queen Victoria's reign, from 20 June 1837 until her death on 22 January 1901. The era followed the Georgian period and preceded the Edwa ...
, combined with microscopic examination. The presence of juices upon breaking, bruising-reactions, odors, tastes, shades of color, habitat, habit, and season are all considered by both amateur and professional mycologists. Tasting and smelling mushrooms carries its own hazards because of poisons and
allergens
An allergen is a type of antigen that produces an abnormally vigorous immune response in which the immune system fights off a perceived threat that would otherwise be harmless to the body. Such reactions are called allergies.
In technical ter ...
. Chemical
tests
Test(s), testing, or TEST may refer to:
* Test (assessment), an educational assessment intended to measure the respondents' knowledge or other abilities
Arts and entertainment
* ''Test'' (2013 film), an American film
* ''Test'' (2014 film), ...
are also used for some genera.
In general, identification to
genus
Genus ( plural genera ) is a taxonomic rank used in the biological classification of living and fossil organisms as well as viruses. In the hierarchy of biological classification, genus comes above species and below family. In binomial nom ...
can often be accomplished in the field using a local
field guide
A field guide is a book designed to help the reader identify wildlife (flora or fauna) or other objects of natural occurrence (e.g. rocks and minerals). It is generally designed to be brought into the "field" or local area where such objects e ...
. Identification to
species
In biology, a species is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A species is often defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriat ...
, however, requires more effort. A mushroom develops from a button stage into a mature structure, and only the latter can provide certain characteristics needed for the identification of the species. However, over-mature specimens lose features and cease producing spores. Many novices have mistaken humid water marks on paper for white spore prints, or discolored paper from oozing liquids on
lamella edges for colored spored prints.
Classification
Typical mushrooms are the fruit bodies of members of the order
Agaricales, whose
type genus is ''
Agaricus'' and type species is the field mushroom, ''
Agaricus campestris''. However, in modern
molecularly defined
classifications, not all members of the order Agaricales produce mushroom fruit bodies, and many other gilled fungi, collectively called mushrooms, occur in other orders of the class
Agaricomycetes. For example,
chanterelles are in the
Cantharellales
The Cantharellales are an order of fungi in the class Agaricomycetes. The order includes not only the chanterelles (Cantharellaceae), but also some of the tooth fungi (Hydnaceae), clavarioid fungi ( Aphelariaceae and Clavulinaceae), and cortici ...
, false chanterelles such as ''
Gomphus'' are in the
Gomphales
The Gomphales are an order of basidiomycete fungi. Some or all families belonging to Gomphales have been sometimes included in the order Phallales (and ''vice versa'' - they are also sometimes treated as synonyms), the now-obsolete Ramariaceae ...
,
milk-cap
Milk-cap (also milk cap, milkcap, or milky) is a common name that refers to mushroom-forming fungi of the genera '' Lactarius'', ''Lactifluus'', and '' Multifurca'', all in the family Russulaceae. The common and eponymous feature of their fruitb ...
mushrooms (''
Lactarius
''Lactarius'' is a genus of mushroom-producing, ectomycorrhizal fungi, containing several edible species. The species of the genus, commonly known as milk-caps, are characterized by the milky fluid ("latex") they exude when cut or damaged. Like ...
'', ''
Lactifluus'') and russulas (''
Russula''), as well as ''
Lentinellus'', are in the
Russulales
The Russulales are an order of the Agaricomycetes, (which include the agaric genera '' Russula'' and ''Lactarius'' and their polyporoid and corticioid relatives). According to the ''Dictionary of the Fungi'' (10th edition, 2008), the order consi ...
, while the tough, leathery genera ''
Lentinus'' and ''
Panus'' are among the
Polyporales, but ''
Neolentinus'' is in the
Gloeophyllales
The Gloeophyllales are a phylogenetically defined order of wood-decay fungi that is characterized by the ability to produce a brown rot of wood.
*
*
*
* It includes a single, identically defined family
Family (from la, familia) is a gro ...
, and the little pin-mushroom genus, ''
Rickenella
''Rickenella'' is a genus of brightly colored bryophilous agarics in the Hymenochaetales that have an omphalinoid morphology. They inhabit mosses on mossy soils, peats, tree trunks and logs in temperate regions of both the Northern and South ...
'', along with similar genera, are in the
Hymenochaetales
The Hymenochaetales are an order of fungi in the class Agaricomycetes. The order in its current sense is based on molecular research and not on any unifying morphological characteristics. According to one 2008 estimate, the Hymenochaetales con ...
.
Within the main body of mushrooms, in the Agaricales, are common fungi like the common
fairy-ring mushroom,
shiitake,
enoki
''Flammulina filiformis'' is a species of agaric (gilled mushroom) in the family Physalacriaceae. It is well known for its role in Japanese cuisine, where it is called ''enokitake'' (榎茸, エノキタケ, )
and is widely cultivated in East A ...
,
oyster mushrooms,
fly agarics and other
Amanita
The genus ''Amanita'' contains about 600 species of agarics, including some of the most toxic known mushrooms found worldwide, as well as some well-regarded edible species. This genus is responsible for approximately 95% of the fatalities resul ...
s,
magic mushrooms like species of ''
Psilocybe
''Psilocybe'' ( ) is a genus of gilled mushrooms, growing worldwide, in the family Hymenogastraceae. Most or nearly all species contain the psychedelic compounds psilocybin and psilocin.
Taxonomy
Taxonomic history
A 2002 study of the m ...
'',
paddy straw mushrooms,
shaggy manes, etc.
An atypical mushroom is the
lobster mushroom
''Hypomyces lactifluorum'', the lobster mushroom, contrary to its common name, is not a mushroom, but rather a parasitic ascomycete fungus that grows on certain species of mushrooms, turning them a reddish orange color that resembles the outer sh ...
, which is a deformed, cooked-lobster-colored
parasitized fruitbody of a ''Russula'' or ''Lactarius'', colored and deformed by the mycoparasitic
Ascomycete ''
Hypomyces lactifluorum
''Hypomyces lactifluorum'', the lobster mushroom, contrary to its common name, is not a mushroom, but rather a parasitic ascomycete fungus that grows on certain species of mushrooms, turning them a reddish orange color that resembles the outer sh ...
''.
Other mushrooms are not gilled, so the term "mushroom" is loosely used, and giving a full account of their classifications is difficult. Some have pores underneath (and are usually called
boletes), others have spines, such as the
hedgehog mushroom and other
tooth fungi
The hydnoid fungi are a group of fungi in the Basidiomycota with basidiocarps (fruit bodies) producing spores on pendant, tooth-like or spine-like projections. They are colloquially called tooth fungi. Originally such fungi were referred to the ge ...
, and so on. "Mushroom" has been used for
polypores,
puffballs,
jelly fungi,
coral fungi,
bracket fungi
Polypores are a group of fungi that form large fruiting bodies with pores or tubes on the underside (see Delimitation for exceptions). They are a morphological group of basidiomycetes-like gilled mushrooms and hydnoid fungi, and not all polypo ...
,
stinkhorns, and
cup fungi
The Pezizaceae (commonly referred to as cup fungi) are a family of fungi in the Ascomycota which produce mushrooms that tend to grow in the shape of a "cup". Spores are formed on the inner surface of the fruit body (mushroom). The cup shape typ ...
. Thus, the term is more one of common application to
macroscopic fungal fruiting bodies than one having precise
taxonomic meaning. Approximately 14,000 species of mushrooms are described.
Morphology
A mushroom develops from a nodule, or pinhead, less than two millimeters in diameter, called a
primordium, which is typically found on or near the surface of the
substrate. It is formed within the
mycelium
Mycelium (plural mycelia) is a root-like structure of a fungus consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are found in and on soil and many other substrates. A typical single spore germinates ...
, the mass of threadlike
hyphae that make up the fungus. The primordium enlarges into a roundish structure of interwoven hyphae roughly resembling an egg, called a "button". The button has a cottony roll of mycelium, the
universal veil, that surrounds the developing fruit body. As the egg expands, the universal veil ruptures and may remain as a cup, or
volva, at the base of the
stalk, or as warts or volval patches on the cap. Many mushrooms lack a universal veil, therefore they do not have either a volva or volval patches. Often, a second layer of tissue, the
partial veil, covers the bladelike
gills that bear
spores. As the cap expands, the veil breaks, and remnants of the partial veil may remain as a ring, or
annulus
Annulus (or anulus) or annular indicates a ring- or donut-shaped area or structure. It may refer to:
Human anatomy
* ''Anulus fibrosus disci intervertebralis'', spinal structure
* Annulus of Zinn, a.k.a. annular tendon or ''anulus tendineus com ...
, around the middle of the stalk or as fragments hanging from the margin of the cap. The ring may be skirt-like as in some species of ''
Amanita
The genus ''Amanita'' contains about 600 species of agarics, including some of the most toxic known mushrooms found worldwide, as well as some well-regarded edible species. This genus is responsible for approximately 95% of the fatalities resul ...
'', collar-like as in many species of ''
Lepiota'', or merely the faint remnants of a cortina (a partial veil composed of filaments resembling a spiderweb), which is typical of the genus ''
Cortinarius''. Mushrooms lacking partial veils do not form an annulus.
The stalk (also called the stipe, or stem) may be central and support the cap in the middle, or it may be off-center and/or lateral, as in species of ''
Pleurotus'' and ''
Panus''. In other mushrooms, a stalk may be absent, as in the polypores that form shelf-like brackets.
Puffballs lack a stalk, but may have a supporting base. Other mushrooms, such as
truffles,
jellies,
earthstars, and
bird's nests, usually do not have stalks, and a specialized mycological vocabulary exists to describe their parts.
The way the gills attach to the top of the stalk is an important feature of mushroom morphology. Mushrooms in the genera ''
Agaricus'', ''
Amanita
The genus ''Amanita'' contains about 600 species of agarics, including some of the most toxic known mushrooms found worldwide, as well as some well-regarded edible species. This genus is responsible for approximately 95% of the fatalities resul ...
'', ''
Lepiota'' and ''
Pluteus'', among others, have free gills that do not extend to the top of the stalk. Others have
decurrent gills that extend down the stalk, as in the genera ''
Omphalotus'' and ''
Pleurotus''. There are a great number of variations between the extremes of free and decurrent, collectively called attached gills. Finer distinctions are often made to distinguish the types of attached gills: adnate gills, which adjoin squarely to the stalk; notched gills, which are notched where they join the top of the stalk; adnexed gills, which curve upward to meet the stalk, and so on. These distinctions between attached gills are sometimes difficult to interpret, since gill attachment may change as the mushroom matures, or with different environmental conditions.
Microscopic features
A
hymenium is a layer of microscopic spore-bearing cells that covers the surface of gills. In the nongilled mushrooms, the hymenium lines the inner surfaces of the tubes of
boletes and polypores, or covers the teeth of spine fungi and the branches of corals. In the Ascomycota, spores develop within microscopic elongated, sac-like cells called
asci ASCI or Asci may refer to:
* Advertising Standards Council of India
* Asci, the plural of ascus, in fungal anatomy
* Accelerated Strategic Computing Initiative
* American Society for Clinical Investigation
* Argus Sour Crude Index
* Association of ...
, which typically contain eight spores in each ascus. The
Discomycetes
Discomycetes is a former taxonomic class of Ascomycete fungi which contains all of the cup, sponge and brain fungi and some club-like fungi. It includes typical cup fungi like the scarlet elf cup and the orange peel fungus, and fungi with fruit ...
, which contain the cup, sponge, brain, and some club-like fungi, develop an exposed layer of asci, as on the inner surfaces of
cup fungi
The Pezizaceae (commonly referred to as cup fungi) are a family of fungi in the Ascomycota which produce mushrooms that tend to grow in the shape of a "cup". Spores are formed on the inner surface of the fruit body (mushroom). The cup shape typ ...
or within the pits of
morels. The
Pyrenomycetes, tiny dark-colored fungi that live on a wide range of substrates including soil, dung, leaf litter, and decaying wood, as well as other fungi, produce minute, flask-shaped structures called
perithecia, within which the asci develop.
[ Ammirati ''et al''., pp. 25–34.]
In the basidiomycetes, usually four spores develop on the tips of thin projections called
sterigmata, which extend from club-shaped cells called a
basidia. The fertile portion of the
Gasteromycetes, called a
gleba, may become powdery as in the puffballs or slimy as in the
stinkhorns. Interspersed among the asci are threadlike sterile cells called
paraphyses. Similar structures called
cystidia often occur within the hymenium of the Basidiomycota. Many types of cystidia exist, and assessing their presence, shape, and size is often used to verify the identification of a mushroom.
The most important microscopic feature for identification of mushrooms is the spores. Their color, shape, size, attachment, ornamentation, and reaction to
chemical tests often can be the crux of an identification. A spore often has a protrusion at one end, called an apiculus, which is the point of attachment to the basidium, termed the apical
germ pore, from which the hypha emerges when the spore germinates.
Growth
Many species of mushrooms seemingly appear overnight, growing or expanding rapidly. This phenomenon is the source of several common expressions in the
English language
English is a West Germanic language of the Indo-European language family, with its earliest forms spoken by the inhabitants of early medieval England. It is named after the Angles, one of the ancient Germanic peoples that migrated to the ...
including "to mushroom" or "mushrooming" (expanding rapidly in size or scope) and "to pop up like a mushroom" (to appear unexpectedly and quickly). In reality, all species of mushrooms take several days to form primordial mushroom fruit bodies, though they do expand rapidly by the absorption of fluids.
The
cultivated mushroom, as well as the common
field mushroom, initially form a minute
fruiting body, referred to as the pin stage because of their small size. Slightly expanded, they are called buttons, once again because of the relative size and shape. Once such stages are formed, the mushroom can rapidly pull in water from its
mycelium
Mycelium (plural mycelia) is a root-like structure of a fungus consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are found in and on soil and many other substrates. A typical single spore germinates ...
and expand, mainly by inflating preformed
cells
Cell most often refers to:
* Cell (biology), the functional basic unit of life
Cell may also refer to:
Locations
* Monastic cell, a small room, hut, or cave in which a religious recluse lives, alternatively the small precursor of a monastery w ...
that took several days to form in the
primordia
A primordium (; plural: primordia; synonym: anlage) in embryology, is an organ or tissue in its earliest recognizable stage of development. Cells of the primordium are called primordial cells. A primordium is the simplest set of cells capable o ...
.
Similarly, there are other mushrooms, like ''
Parasola plicatilis'' (formerly ''
Coprinus plicatlis''), that grow rapidly overnight and may disappear by late afternoon on a hot day after rainfall.
The primordia form at ground level in lawns in humid spaces under the
thatch and after heavy rainfall or in
dewy conditions balloon to full size in a few hours, release spores, and then collapse. They "mushroom" to full size.
Not all mushrooms expand overnight; some grow very slowly and add tissue to their fruiting bodies by growing from the edges of the colony or by inserting
hyphae. For example, ''
Pleurotus nebrodensis
''Pleurotus nebrodensis'', commonly known as "fungus of Basil" or " macchia carduncieddu(?)", is a fungus that was declared by the IUCN as critically endangered in 2006. This fungus only grows on limestone in northern Sicily in association w ...
'' grows slowly, and because of this combined with human collection, it is now
critically endangered.
Though mushroom fruiting bodies are short-lived, the underlying
mycelium
Mycelium (plural mycelia) is a root-like structure of a fungus consisting of a mass of branching, thread-like hyphae. Fungal colonies composed of mycelium are found in and on soil and many other substrates. A typical single spore germinates ...
can itself be long-lived and massive. A colony of ''
Armillaria solidipes
''Armillaria ostoyae'' (synonym ''Armillaria solidipes'') is a species of fungus (mushroom), pathogenic to trees, in the family Physalacriaceae. In the western United States, it is the most common variant of the group of species under the na ...
'' (formerly known as ''Armillaria ostoyae'') in
Malheur National Forest in the
United States
The United States of America (U.S.A. or USA), commonly known as the United States (U.S. or US) or America, is a country Continental United States, primarily located in North America. It consists of 50 U.S. state, states, a Washington, D.C., ...
is estimated to be 2,400 years old, possibly older, and spans an estimated . Most of the fungus is underground and in decaying wood or dying tree roots in the form of white mycelia combined with black shoelace-like
rhizomorphs that bridge colonized separated woody substrates.
Nutrition
Raw
brown mushrooms are 92% water, 4%
carbohydrates, 2%
protein
Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, res ...
and less than 1%
fat. In a 100 gram (3.5 ounce) amount, raw mushrooms provide 22
calories
The calorie is a unit of energy. For historical reasons, two main definitions of "calorie" are in wide use. The large calorie, food calorie, or kilogram calorie was originally defined as the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of ...
and are a rich source (20% or more of the
Daily Value, DV) of
B vitamins, such as
riboflavin,
niacin
Niacin, also known as nicotinic acid, is an organic compound and a form of vitamin B3, an essential human nutrient. It can be manufactured by plants and animals from the amino acid tryptophan. Niacin is obtained in the diet from a variet ...
and
pantothenic acid,
selenium (37% DV) and
copper
Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from la, cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pink ...
(25% DV), and a moderate source (10-19% DV) of
phosphorus
Phosphorus is a chemical element with the symbol P and atomic number 15. Elemental phosphorus exists in two major forms, white phosphorus and red phosphorus, but because it is highly reactive, phosphorus is never found as a free element on Ea ...
,
zinc
Zinc is a chemical element with the symbol Zn and atomic number 30. Zinc is a slightly brittle metal at room temperature and has a shiny-greyish appearance when oxidation is removed. It is the first element in group 12 (IIB) of the periodi ...
and
potassium
Potassium is the chemical element with the symbol K (from Neo-Latin '' kalium'') and atomic number19. Potassium is a silvery-white metal that is soft enough to be cut with a knife with little force. Potassium metal reacts rapidly with atmos ...
(table). They have minimal or no
vitamin C and
sodium
Sodium is a chemical element with the symbol Na (from Latin ''natrium'') and atomic number 11. It is a soft, silvery-white, highly reactive metal. Sodium is an alkali metal, being in group 1 of the periodic table. Its only stable ...
content.
Vitamin D
The
vitamin D
Vitamin D is a group of Lipophilicity, fat-soluble secosteroids responsible for increasing intestinal absorption of calcium, magnesium, and phosphate, and many other biological effects. In humans, the most important compounds in this group ar ...
content of a mushroom depends on
postharvest handling, in particular the unintended exposure to sunlight. The
US Department of Agriculture provided evidence that UV-exposed mushrooms contain substantial amounts of vitamin D. When exposed to
ultraviolet
Ultraviolet (UV) is a form of electromagnetic radiation with wavelength from 10 nm (with a corresponding frequency around 30 PHz) to 400 nm (750 THz), shorter than that of visible light, but longer than X-rays. UV radiation ...
(UV) light, even after harvesting,
ergosterol in mushrooms is converted to
vitamin D2,
a process now used intentionally to supply fresh vitamin D mushrooms for the
functional food grocery market.
[ In a comprehensive safety assessment of producing vitamin D in fresh mushrooms, researchers showed that artificial UV light technologies were equally effective for vitamin D production as in mushrooms exposed to natural sunlight, and that UV light has a long record of safe use for production of vitamin D in food.]
Human use
Edible mushrooms
Mushrooms are used extensively in cooking, in many cuisines (notably Chinese, Korean, European, and Japanese). Humans have valued them as food since antiquity.
Most mushrooms sold in supermarkets
A supermarket is a self-service shop offering a wide variety of food, beverages and household products, organized into sections. This kind of store is larger and has a wider selection than earlier grocery stores, but is smaller and more l ...
have been commercially grown on mushroom farm
Fungiculture is the microbiological culture, cultivation of fungi such as mushrooms. Cultivating fungi can yield foods (which include mostly Edible mushroom, mushrooms), medicinal mushrooms, medicine, MycoWorks#Technology, construction material ...
s. The most popular of these, ''Agaricus bisporus
''Agaricus bisporus'' is an edible basidiomycete mushroom native to grasslands in Eurasia and North America. It has two color states while immature – white and brown – both of which have various names, with additional names for the matur ...
'', is considered safe for most people to eat because it is grown in controlled, sterilized environments. Several varieties of ''A. bisporus'' are grown commercially, including whites, crimini, and portobello. Other cultivated species available at many grocers include '' Hericium erinaceus'', shiitake, maitake (hen-of-the-woods), '' Pleurotus'', and enoki
''Flammulina filiformis'' is a species of agaric (gilled mushroom) in the family Physalacriaceae. It is well known for its role in Japanese cuisine, where it is called ''enokitake'' (榎茸, エノキタケ, )
and is widely cultivated in East A ...
. In recent years, increasing affluence in developing countries has led to a considerable growth in interest in mushroom cultivation, which is now seen as a potentially important economic activity for small farmers.
China
China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is the world's List of countries and dependencies by population, most populous country, with a Population of China, population exceeding 1.4 billion, slig ...
is a major edible mushroom producer. The country produces about half of all cultivated mushrooms, and around of mushrooms are consumed per person per year by 1.4 billion people. In 2014, Poland
Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It is divided into 16 administrative provinces called voivodeships, covering an area of . Poland has a population of over 38 million and is the fifth-most populou ...
was the world's largest mushroom exporter, reporting an estimated annually.
Separating edible from poisonous species requires meticulous attention to detail; there is no single trait by which all toxic mushrooms can be identified, nor one by which all edible mushrooms can be identified. People who collect mushrooms for consumption are known as mycophagists, and the act of collecting them for such is known as mushroom hunting, or simply "mushrooming". Even edible mushrooms may produce allergic
Allergies, also known as allergic diseases, refer a number of conditions caused by the hypersensitivity of the immune system to typically harmless substances in the environment. These diseases include hay fever, food allergies, atopic der ...
reactions in susceptible individuals, from a mild asthma
Asthma is a long-term inflammatory disease of the airways of the lungs. It is characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction, and easily triggered bronchospasms. Symptoms include episodes of wheezing, co ...
tic response to severe anaphylactic shock. Even the cultivated ''A. bisporus'' contains small amounts of hydrazines, the most abundant of which is agaritine
Agaritine is an aromatic hydrazine-derivative mycotoxin in mushroom species of the genus ''Agaricus''. It is an α-aminoacid and a derivative of phenylhydrazine.
Occurrence
Agaritine is present as a natural phytochemical in fresh samples of at le ...
(a mycotoxin and carcinogen
A carcinogen is any substance, radionuclide, or radiation that promotes carcinogenesis (the formation of cancer). This may be due to the ability to damage the genome or to the disruption of cellular metabolic processes. Several radioactive sub ...
). However, the hydrazines are destroyed by moderate heat when cooking.
A number of species of mushrooms are poisonous; although some resemble certain edible species, consuming them could be fatal. Eating mushrooms gathered in the wild is risky and should only be undertaken by individuals knowledgeable in mushroom identification. Common best practice is for wild mushroom pickers to focus on collecting a small number of visually distinctive, edible mushroom species that cannot be easily confused with poisonous varieties. Common mushroom hunting advice is that if a mushroom cannot be positively identified, it should be considered poisonous and not eaten.
Toxic mushrooms
Many mushroom species produce secondary metabolites that can be toxic, mind-altering, antibiotic, antiviral, or bioluminescent. Although there are only a small number of deadly species, several others can cause particularly severe and unpleasant symptoms. Toxicity likely plays a role in protecting the function of the basidiocarp: the mycelium has expended considerable energy and protoplasmic material to develop a structure to efficiently distribute its spores. One defense against consumption and premature destruction is the evolution of chemicals that render the mushroom inedible, either causing the consumer to vomit the meal (see emetics), or to learn to avoid consumption altogether. In addition, due to the propensity of mushrooms to absorb heavy metals, including those that are radioactive, as late as 2008, European mushrooms may have included toxicity from the 1986 Chernobyl disaster and continued to be studied.
Psychoactive mushrooms
Mushrooms with psychoactive properties have long played a role in various native medicine traditions in cultures all around the world. They have been used as sacrament in rituals aimed at mental and physical healing, and to facilitate visionary states. One such ritual is the ''velada
Velada is a municipality located in the province of Toledo, Castile-La Mancha, Spain. According to the 2006 census (INE), the municipality has a population of 2,436 inhabitants.
Name
''Velada'' comes from "'" ('to stay awake at night'/'to be ...
'' ceremony. A practitioner of traditional mushroom use is the '' shaman'' or ''curandera
A ''curandero'' (, healer; f. , also spelled , , f. ) is a traditional native healer or shaman found primarily in Latin America and also in the United States. A curandero is a specialist in traditional medicine whose practice can either cont ...
'' (priest-healer).
Psilocybin mushrooms, also referred to as psychedelic mushrooms, possess psychedelic properties. Commonly known as "magic mushrooms" or shrooms", they are openly available in smart shop
A smart shop (or smartshop) is a retail establishment that specializes in the sale of psychoactive substances, usually including psychedelics, as well as related literature and paraphernalia. The name derives from the name " smart drugs", a clas ...
s in many parts of the world, or on the black market
A black market, underground economy, or shadow economy is a clandestine market or series of transactions that has some aspect of illegality or is characterized by noncompliance with an institutional set of rules. If the rule defines the ...
in those countries that have outlawed their sale. Psilocybin mushrooms have been reported as facilitating profound and life-changing insights often described as mystical experiences
Scholarly approaches to mysticism include typologies of mysticism and the explanation of mystical states. Since the 19th century, mystical experience has evolved as a distinctive concept. It is closely related to " mysticism" but lays sole emphas ...
. Recent scientific work has supported these claims, as well as the long-lasting effects of such induced spiritual experiences.
Psilocybin, a naturally occurring chemical in certain psychedelic mushrooms such as '' Psilocybe cubensis'', is being studied for its ability to help people suffering from psychological disorders, such as obsessive–compulsive disorder. Minute amounts have been reported to stop cluster
may refer to:
Science and technology Astronomy
* Cluster (spacecraft), constellation of four European Space Agency spacecraft
* Asteroid cluster, a small asteroid family
* Cluster II (spacecraft), a European Space Agency mission to study th ...
and migraine headaches. A double-blind study, done by the Johns Hopkins Hospital, showed psychedelic mushrooms could provide people an experience with substantial personal meaning and spiritual significance. In the study, one third of the subjects reported ingestion of psychedelic mushrooms was the single most spiritually significant event of their lives. Over two-thirds reported it among their five most meaningful and spiritually significant events. On the other hand, one-third of the subjects reported extreme anxiety
Anxiety is an emotion which is characterized by an unpleasant state of inner turmoil and includes feelings of dread over anticipated events. Anxiety is different than fear in that the former is defined as the anticipation of a future threat wh ...
. However, the anxiety went away after a short period of time. Psilocybin mushrooms have also shown to be successful in treating addiction, specifically with alcohol and cigarettes.
A few species in the genus ''Amanita
The genus ''Amanita'' contains about 600 species of agarics, including some of the most toxic known mushrooms found worldwide, as well as some well-regarded edible species. This genus is responsible for approximately 95% of the fatalities resul ...
'', most recognizably '' A. muscaria'', but also '' A. pantherina'', among others, contain the psychoactive compound muscimol. The muscimol-containing chemotaxonomic group of ''Amanitas'' contains no amatoxins Amatoxin is the collective name of a subgroup of at least nine related toxic compounds found in three genera of poisonous mushrooms (''Amanita'', ''Galerina'' and ''Lepiota'') and one species (Conocybe filaris) of the genus ''Conocybe''. Amatoxins a ...
or phallotoxins, and as such are not hepatoxic
Hepatotoxicity (from ''hepatic toxicity'') implies chemical-driven liver damage. Drug-induced liver injury is a cause of acute and chronic liver disease caused specifically by medications and the most common reason for a drug to be withdrawn fro ...
, though if not properly cured will be non-lethally neurotoxic due to the presence of ibotenic acid. The ''Amanita'' intoxication is similar to Z-drugs in that it includes CNS depressant and sedative- hypnotic effects, but also dissociation and delirium in high doses.
Folk medicine
Some mushrooms are used in folk medicine. In a few countries, extracts, such as polysaccharide-K, schizophyllan, polysaccharide peptide, or lentinan, are government-registered adjuvant cancer therapies,[ but clinical evidence for efficacy and safety of these extracts in humans has not been confirmed.] Although some mushroom species or their extracts may be consumed for therapeutic effects, some regulatory agencies, such as the US Food and Drug Administration
The United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA or US FDA) is a federal agency of the Department of Health and Human Services. The FDA is responsible for protecting and promoting public health through the control and supervision of food ...
, regard such use as a dietary supplement, which does not have government approval or common clinical use as a prescription drug.[
]
Other uses
Mushrooms can be used for dyeing wool
Wool is the textile fibre obtained from sheep and other mammals, especially goats, rabbits, and camelids. The term may also refer to inorganic materials, such as mineral wool and glass wool, that have properties similar to animal wool. ...
and other natural fibers. The chromophores of mushroom dyes Mushrooms can be used to create color dyes via color-extraction with a solvent (often ammonia) as well as particulation of raw material. The shingled hedgehog mushroom and related species contain blue-green pigments, which are used for dyeing wool ...
are organic compounds and produce strong and vivid colors, and all colors of the spectrum can be achieved with mushroom dyes. Before the invention of synthetic dye
A dye is a colored substance that chemically bonds to the substrate to which it is being applied. This distinguishes dyes from pigments which do not chemically bind to the material they color. Dye is generally applied in an aqueous solution and ...
s, mushrooms were the source of many textile dyes.
Some fungi, types of polypores loosely called mushrooms, have been used as fire starters (known as tinder fungi).
Mushrooms and other fungi play a role in the development of new biological remediation techniques (e.g., using mycorrhizae to spur plant growth) and filtration technologies (e.g. using fungi to lower bacterial levels in contaminated water).
There is an ongoing research in the field of genetic engineering aimed towards creation of the enhanced qualities of mushrooms for such domains as nutritional value enhancement, as well as medical use.
See also
* Fungiculture
Fungiculture is the cultivation of fungi such as mushrooms. Cultivating fungi can yield foods (which include mostly mushrooms), medicine, construction materials and other products. A ''mushroom farm'' is involved in the business of growing ...
* List of psilocybin mushroom species
* Largest fungal fruit bodies
The largest mushrooms and conks are the largest known individual fruit bodies. These are known as ''sporocarps'', or, more specifically, ''basidiocarps'' and ''ascocarps'' for the Basidiomycota and Ascomycota respectively. These fruit bodies have ...
* Lists of fungal species
* Mushroom poisoning
* Mushrooms in art
References
Literature cited
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External links
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Identification
Mushroom Observer
a collaborative mushroom recording and identification project
An Aid to Mushroom Identification
Simon's Rock College
Online Edible Wild Mushroom Field Guide
{{Authority control
Basidiomycota
Edible fungi
Fungus common names
Non-timber forest products
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