Anastrepha suspensa
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''Anastrepha suspensa'', known as the Caribbean fruit fly, the Greater Antillean fruit fly, guava fruit fly, or the Caribfly, is a species of tephritid fruit fly. As the names suggest, these flies feed on and develop in a variety of
fruit In botany, a fruit is the seed-bearing structure in flowering plants that is formed from the ovary after flowering. Fruits are the means by which flowering plants (also known as angiosperms) disseminate their seeds. Edible fruits in particu ...
s, primarily in the Caribbean. They mainly infest mature to overripe fruits. While thought to have originated in
Cuba Cuba ( , ), officially the Republic of Cuba ( es, República de Cuba, links=no ), is an island country comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located where the northern Caribbea ...
, the Caribbean fruit fly can now also be found in
Florida Florida is a state located in the Southeastern region of the United States. Florida is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the northwest by Alabama, to the north by Georgia, to the east by the Bahamas and Atlantic Ocean, and to ...
, Hispaniola, and
Puerto Rico Puerto Rico (; abbreviated PR; tnq, Boriken, ''Borinquen''), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ( es, link=yes, Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, lit=Free Associated State of Puerto Rico), is a Caribbean island and unincorporated ...
. ''Anastrepha suspensa'' is a small brown and yellow fly that is can be distinguished from similar species by the placement of the
vein Veins are blood vessels in humans and most other animals that carry blood towards the heart. Most veins carry deoxygenated blood from the tissues back to the heart; exceptions are the pulmonary and umbilical veins, both of which carry oxygenat ...
s in the
wing A wing is a type of fin that produces lift while moving through air or some other fluid. Accordingly, wings have streamlined cross-sections that are subject to aerodynamic forces and act as airfoils. A wing's aerodynamic efficiency is e ...
s. This fly is a pest species and has negative agricultural and
economic An economy is an area of the production, distribution and trade, as well as consumption of goods and services. In general, it is defined as a social domain that emphasize the practices, discourses, and material expressions associated with the ...
impacts. Due to their ability to travel great distances (over 120 km) and wide range of adaptability, ''A. suspensa'' poses risks to any fruit growing country importing fruit from the Caribbean.


Description

The adult fly is between 11 and 14 mm long and may appear yellow, orange, brown, or a combination of the three. The
seta In biology, setae (singular seta ; from the Latin word for " bristle") are any of a number of different bristle- or hair-like structures on living organisms. Animal setae Protostomes Annelid setae are stiff bristles present on the body. ...
e, or hairlike structures on insects, are red-brown to dark-brown, causing a darker overall appearance. Similar to other species in ''Anastrepha'', their
thorax The thorax or chest is a part of the anatomy of humans, mammals, and other tetrapod animals located between the neck and the abdomen. In insects, crustaceans, and the extinct trilobites, the thorax is one of the three main divisions of the cre ...
is primarily yellow to orange-brown with slender bands of color running down the thorax to the scutum. In addition, dark spots may be found on the thorax and wings of the fly. The wings often alternate between bands of yellow-brown and brown bands. It may be possible that the yellow and brown color may be adopted from bees to discourage predators, but no studies have thoroughly examined this form of mimicry. Male and female ''A. suspensa'' can easily be distinguished''.'' Female ''A. suspensa'' have a prominent ovipositor, which is the organ through which a female
insect Insects (from Latin ') are pancrustacean hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body ( head, thorax and abdomen), three ...
deposits her eggs. The ovipositor is with serrations near the tip for cutting into fruit. ''A. suspensa'' may be distinguished from other similar species of ''
Anastrepha ''Anastrepha'' is the most diverse genus in the Americas, American tropics and subtropics. Currently, it comprises more than 300 described species, including nine major pest species, such as the Mexican fruit fly (''A. ludens''), the South Americ ...
'' by characteristics of the ovipositor and wings. ''Anastrepha suspensa'' is closely related to ''
Anastrepha ludens ''Anastrepha ludens'', the Mexican fruit fly or ''Mexfly'', is a species of fly of the ''Anastrepha'' genus in the Tephritidae family (fruit flies). It is closely related to the Caribbean fruit fly ''Anastrepha suspensa'', and the papaya fruit fl ...
'' and shares many characteristics.


Distribution

As the common name Caribbean fruit fly suggests, ''A. suspensa'' has primarily been identified in Caribbean Islands and
Central America Central America ( es, América Central or ) is a subregion of the Americas. Its boundaries are defined as bordering the United States to the north, Colombia to the south, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. ...
in countries including the
Bahamas The Bahamas (), officially the Commonwealth of The Bahamas, is an island country within the Lucayan Archipelago of the West Indies in the North Atlantic. It takes up 97% of the Lucayan Archipelago's land area and is home to 88% of the ar ...
,
British Virgin Islands ) , anthem = "God Save the King" , song_type = Territorial song , song = " Oh, Beautiful Virgin Islands" , image_map = File:British Virgin Islands on the globe (Americas centered).svg , map_caption = , mapsize = 290px , image_map2 = Bri ...
,
Cuba Cuba ( , ), officially the Republic of Cuba ( es, República de Cuba, links=no ), is an island country comprising the island of Cuba, as well as Isla de la Juventud and several minor archipelagos. Cuba is located where the northern Caribbea ...
,
Dominican Republic The Dominican Republic ( ; es, República Dominicana, ) is a country located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles archipelago of the Caribbean region. It occupies the eastern five-eighths of the island, which it shares with ...
, Haiti,
Jamaica Jamaica (; ) is an island country situated in the Caribbean Sea. Spanning in area, it is the third-largest island of the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean (after Cuba and Hispaniola). Jamaica lies about south of Cuba, and west of His ...
, and
Puerto Rico Puerto Rico (; abbreviated PR; tnq, Boriken, ''Borinquen''), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ( es, link=yes, Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico, lit=Free Associated State of Puerto Rico), is a Caribbean island and unincorporated ...
. ''A. suspensa'' has also been found in
California California is a state in the Western United States, located along the Pacific Coast. With nearly 39.2million residents across a total area of approximately , it is the most populous U.S. state and the 3rd largest by area. It is also the m ...
and
Florida Florida is a state located in the Southeastern region of the United States. Florida is bordered to the west by the Gulf of Mexico, to the northwest by Alabama, to the north by Georgia, to the east by the Bahamas and Atlantic Ocean, and to ...
, as well as in
French Guiana French Guiana ( or ; french: link=no, Guyane ; gcr, label=French Guianese Creole, Lagwiyann ) is an overseas department/region and single territorial collectivity of France on the northern Atlantic coast of South America in the Guianas. ...
in
South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the sout ...
. Invasive, and doing significant economic harm especially to guava production, in Florida. ''A. suspensa'' prefer
tropical climate Tropical climate is the first of the five major climate groups in the Köppen climate classification identified with the letter A. Tropical climates are defined by a monthly average temperature of 18 °C (64.4 °F) or higher in the cool ...
s with consistent
precipitation In meteorology, precipitation is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor that falls under gravitational pull from clouds. The main forms of precipitation include drizzle, rain, sleet, snow, ice pellets, graupel and hail. ...
. While tropical climates may include anything greater than of precipitation annually to less than , there has been no distinct preference between these subcategories by ''A. suspensa.'' The spread of ''A. suspensa'' throughout the globe has largely been attributed to the movement of spoiled fruit that contained ''A. suspensa'' larvae The ability to fly long distances also contribute to the spread of this species.


Food resources/hosts

''Anastrepha suspensa'' have been recorded to infest and consume over 100 foods, most of which have been fruits. These fruits are almost always mature, overripe, or spoiled. These flies seem to prefer consumption of guavas, the Cayenne cherry, rose apple, tropical almonds, grapefruit, and oranges. They have also been noted to infest papaya, Natal plum,
kumquat Kumquats (; zh, 金桔), or cumquats in Australian English, are a group of small fruit-bearing trees in the flowering plant family Rutaceae. Their taxonomy is disputed. They were previously classified as forming the now-historical genus ''For ...
, mango, mombin, and an array of cherries. The data shows that the consumption of different fruit may depend on the location of the ''A. suspensa.'' Feeds on 84 plant hosts in 23 families in Florida.


Life history

Like all Diptera, ''A. suspensa'' undergoes 4 main lifestages:
egg An egg is an organic vessel grown by an animal to carry a possibly fertilized egg cell (a zygote) and to incubate from it an embryo within the egg until the embryo has become an animal fetus that can survive on its own, at which point the a ...
,
larva A larva (; plural larvae ) is a distinct juvenile form many animals undergo before metamorphosis into adults. Animals with indirect development such as insects, amphibians, or cnidarians typically have a larval phase of their life cycle. ...
(with 3
instar An instar (, from the Latin '' īnstar'', "form", "likeness") is a developmental stage of arthropods, such as insects, between each moult (''ecdysis''), until sexual maturity is reached. Arthropods must shed the exoskeleton in order to grow or ...
s or substages),
pupa A pupa ( la, pupa, "doll"; plural: ''pupae'') is the life stage of some insects undergoing transformation between immature and mature stages. Insects that go through a pupal stage are holometabolous: they go through four distinct stages in thei ...
, and adult.


Egg

''Anastrepha suspensa'' females lay about 200 eggs on the exterior of mature and rotting fruit. The eggs are laid and will hatch in
flavedo Fruit anatomy is the plant anatomy of the internal structure of fruit. Fruits are the mature ovary or ovaries of one or more flowers. They are found in three main anatomical categories: aggregate fruits, multiple fruits, and simple fruits. Aggr ...
part of the fruit. ''A. suspensa'' eggs are elliptical in shape. The color of these eggs ranges from pale to gleaming white. The anterior end of the egg contains a micropyle, which is an opening for the sperm to enter. On the same end of the egg there is a characteristic polygonal pattern in the surface architecture of the
chorion The chorion is the outermost fetal membrane around the embryo in mammals, birds and reptiles (amniotes). It develops from an outer fold on the surface of the yolk sac, which lies outside the zona pellucida (in mammals), known as the vitell ...
.


Larva

The larvae which hatch from the eggs are vermiform
maggot A maggot is the larva of a fly (order Diptera); it is applied in particular to the larvae of Brachycera flies, such as houseflies, cheese flies, and blowflies, rather than larvae of the Nematocera, such as mosquitoes and crane flies. ...
s, similar to other fruit flies. They possess an elongated and cylindrical shape. These larvae progress through 3 instars, or stages between
molting In biology, moulting (British English), or molting (American English), also known as sloughing, shedding, or in many invertebrates, ecdysis, is the manner in which an animal routinely casts off a part of its body (often, but not always, an outer ...
. First instar larvae appear clear to pale white. During this period, the mouth hooks are formed and become the main feature. These two sets of thin brown hooks are located on the
ventral Standard anatomical terms of location are used to unambiguously describe the anatomy of animals, including humans. The terms, typically derived from Latin or Greek roots, describe something in its standard anatomical position. This position prov ...
surface of the larvae. The color of second
instar An instar (, from the Latin '' īnstar'', "form", "likeness") is a developmental stage of arthropods, such as insects, between each moult (''ecdysis''), until sexual maturity is reached. Arthropods must shed the exoskeleton in order to grow or ...
larvae begins to change towards a pale cream color. In this stage, the larvae will begin to develop features like the anterior spiracles to allow oxygen to enter the respiratory system. They will also start to develop small oral ridges and black mouth hooks. Third instar larvae transition from a cream to a light yellow color and are about 8 to 10 mm in length. During this the time, the overall body surface becomes rough and the morphology of the larvae solidifies. The mouth hooks have now transformed into a single pair of sharp, black teeth that are strongly sclerotized. The oral ridges become more distinct, and there are creeping welts that begin to form. Due to the close resemblance of ''A. suspensa ''and other species in ''Anastrepha,'' it can be difficult the accurately identify ''A. suspensa'' larvae''.'' Larvae and pupae advance from the flavedo towards the center and
pulp Pulp may refer to: * Pulp (fruit), the inner flesh of fruit Engineering * Dissolving pulp, highly purified cellulose used in fibre and film manufacture * Pulp (paper), the fibrous material used to make paper * Molded pulp, a packaging material ...
sections of the fruit as it matures because of the increased sweetness. This then leads to more rapid development. Larvae may feed on the fruit constantly over a 24 hour period. No group sociality has been observed apart from feeding on the same areas.


Pupa

After completing growth as a larva, the immature ''A. suspensa'' transition into a pupa. The pupae are fully encompassed by the hardened skin of the 3rd larval instar which forms a covering called a puparium. The pupae possess an ellipsoid shape and appear golden to reddish-brown. During this phase, there are visible spiracles on the anterior surface that allow for respiration. After completing pupation, the adult fly breaks out of the puparium.


Adult behavior


Mating

While mating studies were conducted during spring and summer, this species does not undergo winter
diapause In animal dormancy, diapause is the delay in development in response to regular and recurring periods of adverse environmental conditions.Tauber, M.J., Tauber, C.A., Masaki, S. (1986) ''Seasonal Adaptations of Insects''. Oxford University Press I ...
, so mating behavior may occur throughout the year. During the early morning, males and females often interact on host fruit like guava and Cayenne cherries. The males will be feeding and courting, and the females will be feeding and ovipositing. As
temperature Temperature is a physical quantity that expresses quantitatively the perceptions of hotness and coldness. Temperature is measurement, measured with a thermometer. Thermometers are calibrated in various Conversion of units of temperature, temp ...
and
light Light or visible light is electromagnetic radiation that can be perceived by the human eye. Visible light is usually defined as having wavelengths in the range of 400–700 nanometres (nm), corresponding to frequencies of 750–420 te ...
increase as the morning progresses, males and females will both move to areas under shaded leaves. In afternoon and late afternoon, males compete for single-leaf territories. Since territorial fights are a crucial component to mating; flies that were larger could claim larger territories, demonstrated higher levels of fitness, and had better matting success. In these claimed areas, the males puff to release
sex Sex is the trait that determines whether a sexually reproducing animal or plant produces male or female gametes. Male plants and animals produce smaller mobile gametes (spermatozoa, sperm, pollen), while females produce larger ones ( ova, of ...
pheromone A pheromone () is a secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting like hormones outside the body of the secreting individual, to affect the behavio ...
s from glands near their
anal canal The anal canal is the part that connects the rectum to the anus, located below the level of the pelvic diaphragm. It is located within the anal triangle of the perineum, between the right and left ischioanal fossa. As the final functional seg ...
as scent markings and sing
song A song is a musical composition intended to be performed by the human voice. This is often done at distinct and fixed pitches (melodies) using patterns of sound and silence. Songs contain various forms, such as those including the repetit ...
s to attract
female Female ( symbol: ♀) is the sex of an organism that produces the large non-motile ova (egg cells), the type of gamete (sex cell) that fuses with the male gamete during sexual reproduction. A female has larger gametes than a male. Females ...
s. These pheremones are used as scent markings. Male ''A. suspensa'' make two distinct sounds towards females: the calling song and the precopulatory song. Both of these sounds are created through rapid wing
vibration Vibration is a mechanical phenomenon whereby oscillations occur about an equilibrium point. The word comes from Latin ''vibrationem'' ("shaking, brandishing"). The oscillations may be periodic, such as the motion of a pendulum—or random, su ...
s by the male fly''.'' Male fitness can be communicated through the songs as larger males produce more intense songs. Male size seems to be negatively correlated with frequency of calling songs, but there is no correlation between male size and frequency of precopulatory songs. Females are attracted to areas where the calling song is broadcast, but more research is needed to determine if calling males have higher mating success than males that do not call. Since unsuccessful precopulatory songs were not as loud and had a broader bandwidth than that of successful songs, it is believed that the precopulatory song may be the last acoustic opportunity for males to display their fitness to the female. This could explain greater mating success for better males giving precopulatory songs due to increased female compliance once a male has mounted. However, longer precopulatory songs correlate with shorter matings. This is thought to occur because longer precopulatory songs are employed by males with mates that are less sexually responsive; therefore, the longer song may be just enough to lead to mating. Since larger males coupled longer, it is believed that the increased strength that comes with size helps in a conflict of interest when it comes to mating between males and females.


Oviposition

The eggs may be deposited in groups or as individuals based on the
size Size in general is the magnitude or dimensions of a thing. More specifically, ''geometrical size'' (or ''spatial size'') can refer to linear dimensions ( length, width, height, diameter, perimeter), area, or volume. Size can also be m ...
of the fruit. As a form of egg guarding and to prevent overpopulation in a fruit, ''A. suspensa'' females have deposit
pheromone A pheromone () is a secreted or excreted chemical factor that triggers a social response in members of the same species. Pheromones are chemicals capable of acting like hormones outside the body of the secreting individual, to affect the behavio ...
s from
anal Anal may refer to: Related to the anus *Related to the anus of animals: ** Anal fin, in fish anatomy ** Anal vein, in insect anatomy ** Anal scale, in reptile anatomy *Related to the human anus: ** Anal sex, a type of sexual activity involving s ...
membranes that deter repeated attempts of oviposition in a fruit. This water-soluble pheromone may deter additional oviposition attempts by ''A. suspensa'' for at least 6 days. The plant compounds
naringin Naringin is a flavanone-7-''O''- glycoside between the flavanone naringenin and the disaccharide neohesperidose. The flavonoid naringin occurs naturally in citrus fruits, especially in grapefruit, where naringin is responsible for the fruit' ...
and
quinine Quinine is a medication used to treat malaria and babesiosis. This includes the treatment of malaria due to '' Plasmodium falciparum'' that is resistant to chloroquine when artesunate is not available. While sometimes used for nocturnal le ...
inhibit oviposition, reducing the areas in which ''A. suspensa'' may inhabit and reproduce.


Natural enemies and control

For ''A. suspensa,'' there are a few natural enemies like ''P. cindemmaiae and E. annulipes'' which are parasitoids whose larvae live in and feed upon the fly larvae as their
host A host is a person responsible for guests at an event or for providing hospitality during it. Host may also refer to: Places * Host, Pennsylvania, a village in Berks County People *Jim Host (born 1937), American businessman * Michel Host ...
, eventually killing the fly. Historically, these parasitoids have been introduced by
human Humans (''Homo sapiens'') are the most abundant and widespread species of primate, characterized by bipedalism and exceptional cognitive skills due to a large and complex brain. This has enabled the development of advanced tools, cultu ...
s in Puerto Rico and Florida to help combat against ''A. suspensa''''.'' Research has focused on classical
biological control Biological control or biocontrol is a method of controlling pests, such as insects, mites, weeds, and plant diseases, using other organisms. It relies on predation, parasitism, herbivory, or other natural mechanisms, but typically also i ...
of ''A. suspensa'', where natural enemies are introduced, and less on natural parasites and
predators Predation is a biological interaction where one organism, the predator, kills and eats another organism, its prey. It is one of a family of common feeding behaviours that includes parasitism and micropredation (which usually do not kill th ...
. There have been an array of species like ''A. indica, D. anastrephilus,'' and ''T. daci'' that attack ''A. suspensa'' as larvae. Due to the large
economic An economy is an area of the production, distribution and trade, as well as consumption of goods and services. In general, it is defined as a social domain that emphasize the practices, discourses, and material expressions associated with the ...
damage that ''A. suspensa'' is capable of inflicting, there have been extensive studies on biological control of ''A. suspensa''. An example of this biological control is the endoparasitoid
braconid wasp The Braconidae are a family of parasitoid wasps. After the closely related Ichneumonidae, braconids make up the second-largest family in the order Hymenoptera, with about 17,000 recognized species and many thousands more undescribed. One analysis ...
, ''
Diachasmimorpha longicaudata ''Diachasmimorpha longicaudata'' is a solitary species of parasitoid wasp and an endoparasitoid of tephritid fruit fly larvae. ''D. longicaudata'' is native to many countries in Southeast Asia and subtropical regions and has also been introduc ...
'', which caused a 40% reduction in ''A. suspensa'' populations in research studies. The small
wasps A wasp is any insect of the narrow-waisted suborder Apocrita of the order Hymenoptera which is neither a bee nor an ant; this excludes the broad-waisted sawflies (Symphyta), which look somewhat like wasps, but are in a separate suborder. ...
lay eggs in ''A. suspensa'' larvae. When the fly enters the pupal stage the eggs of the wasp hatch and begin to feed on the larvae. The ''A. suspensa'' pupa is often killed before it can develop into an adult. Earliest methods of control for ''A. suspensa'' to protect fruits were as simple as using hot water; recent solutions are much more intricate. Recent studies in Florida have focused on biological control of ''A. suspensa'' using
entomopathogenic nematode Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPN) are a group of nematodes (thread worms), that cause death to insects. The term ''entomopathogenic'' has a Greek origin, with ''entomon'', meaning ''insect'', and ''pathogenic'', which means ''causing disease''. Th ...
s. There have also been studies using
imidacloprid Imidacloprid is a systemic insecticide belonging to a class of chemicals called the neonicotinoids which act on the central nervous system of insects. The chemical works by interfering with the transmission of stimuli in the insect nervous system ...
-treated spheres for control and eradication of ''A. suspensa'' in areas where it may be difficult to spread a large range of insecticides. Chemical bait -
torula Torula (''Cyberlindnera jadinii'') is a species of yeast. Use Torula, in its inactive form (usually labeled as torula yeast), is widely used as a flavoring in processed foods and pet foods. It is often grown on wood liquor, a byproduct of Paper ...
yeast and
borax Borax is a salt ( ionic compound), a hydrated borate of sodium, with chemical formula often written . It is a colorless crystalline solid, that dissolves in water to make a basic solution. It is commonly available in powder or granular for ...
- in a
McPhail trap Insect traps are used to monitor or directly reduce populations of insects or other arthropods, by trapping individuals and killing them. They typically use food, visual lures, chemical attractants and pheromones as bait and are installed so that ...
is currently popular. Various bait+insecticide combinations are common in the eradication program in Florida.
Kairomone A kairomone (a coinage using the Greek καιρός ''opportune moment'', paralleling pheromone"kairomone, n.". OED Online. September 2012. Oxford University Press. http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/241005?redirectedFrom=kairomone (accessed 3 Octo ...
s for ''A. suspensa'' include
ammonium carbonate Ammonium carbonate is a salt with the chemical formula (NH4)2CO3. Since it readily degrades to gaseous ammonia and carbon dioxide upon heating, it is used as a leavening agent and also as smelling salt. It is also known as baker's ammonia and is ...
+
3-methyl-1-butanol Isoamyl alcohol is a colorless liquid with the formula , specifically (H3C–)2CH–CH2–CH2–OH. It is one of several isomers of amyl alcohol (pentanol). It is also known as isopentyl alcohol, isopentanol, or (in the IUPAC recommended nomencla ...
(cultured from ''
Enterobacter agglomerans ''Pantoea agglomerans'' is a Gram-negative bacterium that belongs to the family Erwiniaceae. It was formerly called ''Enterobacter agglomerans'', or ''Erwinia herbicola'' and is a ubiquitous bacterium commonly isolated from plant surfaces, seeds ...
'') for females only; common for monitoring in Florida. Being able to use dry baits has greatly improved trapping of ''A. suspensa''. Phagostimulants do exist although their effectiveness is unassessed. Sucrose varies in attractiveness and amount consumed, by age. Other kairomones include:
Enzymatic Enzymes () are proteins that act as biological catalysts by accelerating chemical reactions. The molecules upon which enzymes may act are called substrates, and the enzyme converts the substrates into different molecules known as products. ...
hydrolysate Hydrolysate refers to any product of hydrolysis. Protein hydrolysate has special application in sports medicine because its consumption allows amino acids to be absorbed by the body more rapidly than intact proteins, thus maximizing nutrient delive ...
s of
casein Casein ( , from Latin ''caseus'' "cheese") is a family of related phosphoproteins ( αS1, aS2, β, κ) that are commonly found in mammalian milk, comprising about 80% of the proteins in cow's milk and between 20% and 60% of the proteins in hum ...
,
yeast Yeasts are eukaryotic, single-celled microorganisms classified as members of the fungus kingdom. The first yeast originated hundreds of millions of years ago, and at least 1,500 species are currently recognized. They are estimated to constit ...
, and
soy The soybean, soy bean, or soya bean (''Glycine max'') is a species of legume native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean, which has numerous uses. Traditional unfermented food uses of soybeans include soy milk, from which tofu and ...
; the amino acids arginine,
glutamine Glutamine (symbol Gln or Q) is an α-amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. Its side chain is similar to that of glutamic acid, except the carboxylic acid group is replaced by an amide. It is classified as a charge-neutral ...
, phenylalanine;
ammonium acetate Ammonium acetate, also known as spirit of Mindererus in aqueous solution, is a chemical compound with the formula NH4CH3CO2. It is a white, hygroscopic solid and can be derived from the reaction of ammonia and acetic acid. It is available commerci ...
, 3-phenylpropyl, 2-methylpropanoate; Staley protein bait number 7, a hydrolyzed corn gluten known to emit 43 volatiles; various standard food components known to act as phagostimulants (
alanine Alanine (symbol Ala or A), or α-alanine, is an α-amino acid that is used in the biosynthesis of proteins. It contains an amine group and a carboxylic acid group, both attached to the central carbon atom which also carries a methyl group side ...
, arginine,
glycine Glycine (symbol Gly or G; ) is an amino acid that has a single hydrogen atom as its side chain. It is the simplest stable amino acid ( carbamic acid is unstable), with the chemical formula NH2‐ CH2‐ COOH. Glycine is one of the proteinog ...
, isoleucine, lysine); casein hydrolysate + sodium hydroxide or
ammonium hydroxide Ammonia solution, also known as ammonia water, ammonium hydroxide, ammoniacal liquor, ammonia liquor, aqua ammonia, aqueous ammonia, or (inaccurately) ammonia, is a solution of ammonia in water. It can be denoted by the symbols NH3(aq). Although ...
for protein; NuLure +
sodium borate Sodium borate is a generic name for any salt of sodium with an anion consisting of boron and oxygen, and possibly hydrogen, or any hydrate thereof. It can be seen as a hydrated sodium salt of the appropriate boroxy acid, although the latter may n ...
, or Torula +
borate A borate is any of several boron oxyanions, negative ions consisting of boron and oxygen, such as orthoborate , metaborate , or tetraborate ; or any salt with such anions, such as sodium metaborate, and disodium tetraborate . The name also re ...
, for basic proteins; yeast hydrolysate, regurgitated drops, and cut guava fruits, for protein; Brewer's yeast hydrolysate for protein; maize/corn steepwater + sodium borate, for basic proteins; fruits from ''A. suspensas normal hosts, for farnesol, α-phellandrene,
3-carene 3-Carene is a bicyclic monoterpene consisting of fused cyclohexene and cyclopropane rings. It occurs as a constituent of turpentine, with a content as high as 42% depending on the source. Carene has a sweet and pungent odor, best described as a ...
; corn hydrolysate for protein; NuLure alone, for protein; and chicken feces, yielding ammonia and other unknown compounds.


Physiology

Studies on ''A. suspensa'' physiology have greatly matched the physiology of other species in ''Anastrepha''.


Flight

It has been shown that flight in ''A. suspensa'' may be influenced by age, size, sex, and weight. On average, adult ''A. suspensa'' can fly 120 kilometers, which allows for the spreading of the species. Studies have examined the effect of gamma irradiation on flies at different stages of their life to make them sterility (physiology), sterile. It was observed that females that were treated with gamma irradiation fly farther and faster early in their life than untreated females but slower later in their lives. This difference may be due to affecting the female's role in reproduction. For males, being sterilized by Gamma ray, gamma irradiation did not produce significant differences. Gamma radiation also changed the waveform of the sound created by the wings of the flies. By sterilizing the pupae, it was observed that wing beat frequency decreased.


Light and vision

While most studies on ''A. suspensa'' have been in a laboratory setting, the results have been telling for the set-up of visual perception, vision in ''A. suspensa''. Research has shown clear inclinations for ''A. suspensa'' towards objects that are colored orange. This preference is then followed by yellow and yellow-green. Colors that did not greatly attract ''A. suspensa'' were dark green, red, blue, white, and black. Based on these preferences, it was hypothesized that the photoreceptor cell, photoreceptors in ''A. suspensa'' respond specifically to 580-590 nm visible light range. Responses to this light range seems to correspond with fruit seeking. Other studies have discussed the strong sense of vision for ''A. suspensa'' and how this has allowed for conducting experiments with clear cages to further test the behavior of the flies.


Sound and hearing

In the process of creating a better way to search fruits for the presence of ''A. suspensa'' larva than cutting the fruit, scientists discovered that ''A. suspensa'' larvae and pupae create sounds while chewing. While the interactions based on sound between organisms at this age have not been studies, the sounds are important for scientists in understanding the life cycle in terms of feeding with ''A. suspensa''''.''


Gustation

Since larvae burrow beneath the surface of fruits that they occupy, it is difficult to observe feeding behavior of these early stages of the flies. In adult ''A. suspensa'', it has been noted that food coloring does not affect the fitness parameters of the flies. Additionally, it was learned that ''A. suspensa'' ingested both liquids and solid particles. This information elucidated a feeding Mechanism (biology), mechanism similar to that of the Mediterranean fly.


Microbiome

While ''A. suspensa'' has not been identified with gut Microbiota, microbiome directly, there are indirect interactions. It has been studied and noted that ''A. suspensa'' interact with different bacteria microbial violates. It has been noted specifically in ''E. agglomerans'' and other Enterobacteriaceae that ''A. suspensa'' females are attracted to their volatile Chemical substance, chemicals. Despite this preliminary study, there is not enough evidence to fully support direct ties and interactions between these bacteria and ''A. suspensa''.


Mutualism

Based on research that has been conducted in ''A. suspensa'', there are no clear cases of mutualism (biology), mutualism with either plants, animals, or microbes. These flies resemble partially Parasitism, parasitic relationship with fruits and they may be influencing the ability of ''A. suspensa'' to maintain mutualistic relationships. Even though typically ''A. suspensa'' infest spoiled and rotten fruit, they may be influencing the ability for the fruit to disperse its seeds by making it less appealing to animals. At the same time, ''A. suspensa'' larva reap the benefits of the fruit for growth.


Interactions with humans

Historically, adult ''A. suspensa'' are considered the most serious Tephritidae, fruit fly pests tropical fruit fly pests. Due to their large array of host fruits ranging from guava to oranges, the economic damage is expansive. ''A. suspensa'' are believed to be highly invasive due their potential to their broad native range and strong ability to adapt to different Natural environment, environments. These interactions are amplified by the high likelihood of entry into different Country, countries through legal and illegal means. ''A. suspensa'' are also difficult to detect and to control without causing expansive damage, making them very costly combat. In order to inhibit the spread of the flies, many countries like Bermuda, Brazil, China, Colombia, Japan, New Zealand, the Philippines, Thailand, and the United States have adopted strict protocols to maintain fly-free zones when importing fruit.


Conservation

Since ''A. suspensa'' is seen as an agricultural and Economy, economic threat, there are no cases of Conservation biology, conservation of ''A. suspensa''. The parasitic nature of the fly has allowed ''A. suspensa'' to expand into various habitats. There is a case on how ''A. suspensa'' used to reside in California; however, it no longer is spotted in the Southern California region, indicating unexplained habitat loss.


References


Further reading

* * {{Taxonbar, from=Q13487672 Trypetinae Insects described in 1862 Taxa named by Hermann Loew