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Second-order Conditioning
In classical conditioning, second-order conditioning or higher-order conditioning is a form of learning in which the first Stimulus (psychology), stimulus is classically conditioned to an unconditioned stimulus, then a second stimulus is classically conditioned to the first, thereby conditioning it back to the original unconditioned stimulus. For example, an animal might first learn to associate a bell with food (first-order conditioning), but then learn to associate a light with the bell (second-order conditioning), associating the light to food (unconditioned stimulus). Honeybees show second-order conditioning during proboscis extension reflex conditioning.Bitterman et al. 1983. Classical Conditioning of Proboscis Extension in Honeybees (''Apis mellifera''). J. Comp. Psych. 97: 107-119. Second-order conditioning (SOC) occurs in three phases. In the first training phase, a conditioned stimulus, (CS1) is followed by an unconditioned stimulus (US). In the second phase, a second-orde ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Second-order Conditioning Cat And Can Opener And Door Sound
Second-order may refer to: Mathematics * Second order approximation, an approximation that includes quadratic terms * Second-order arithmetic, an axiomatization allowing quantification of sets of numbers * Second-order differential equation, a differential equation in which the highest derivative is the second * Second-order logic, an extension of predicate logic * Second-order perturbation, in perturbation theory Science and technology * Second-order cybernetics, the recursive application of cybernetics to itself and the reflexive practice of cybernetics according to this critique. * Second-order fluid, an extension of fluid dynamics * Second order Fresnel lens, a size of lighthouse lens * Second-order reaction, a reaction in which the rate is proportional to the square of a reactant's concentration Psychology and philosophy * Second-order conditioning In classical conditioning, second-order conditioning or higher-order conditioning is a form of learning in which the first ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning (also respondent conditioning and Pavlovian conditioning) is a behavioral procedure in which a biologically potent Stimulus (physiology), stimulus (e.g. food, a puff of air on the eye, a potential rival) is paired with a neutral stimulus (e.g. the sound of a Triangle (musical instrument), musical triangle). The term ''classical conditioning'' refers to the process of an automatic, conditioned response that is paired with a specific stimulus. It is essentially equivalent to a signal. The Russian physiology, physiologist Ivan Pavlov studied classical conditioning with detailed experiments with dogs, and published the experimental results in 1897. In the study of digestion, Pavlov observed that the experimental dogs salivated when fed red meat. Pavlovian conditioning is distinct from operant conditioning (instrumental conditioning), through which the strength of a voluntary behavior is modified, either by reinforcement or by Punishment (psychology), punishment ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Learning
Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, value (personal and cultural), values, Attitude (psychology), attitudes, and preferences. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, non-human animals, and some machine learning, machines; there is also evidence for some kind of learning in certain plants. Some learning is immediate, induced by a single event (e.g. being burned by a Heat, hot stove), but much skill and knowledge accumulate from repeated experiences. The changes induced by learning often last a lifetime, and it is hard to distinguish learned material that seems to be "lost" from that which cannot be retrieved. Human learning starts at birth (it might even start before) and continues until death as a consequence of ongoing interactions between people and their environment. The nature and processes involved in learning are studied in many established fields (including educational psychology, neuropsychology, experimental psycho ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Stimulus (psychology)
In psychology, a stimulus is any object or event that elicits a sensory or behavioral response in an organism. In this context, a distinction is made between the ''distal stimulus'' (the external, perceived object) and the ''proximal stimulus'' (the stimulation of sensory organs). *In perceptual psychology, a stimulus is an energy change (e.g., light or sound) which is registered by the senses (e.g., vision, hearing, taste, etc.) and constitutes the basis for perception. *In behavioral psychology (i.e., classical conditioning, classical and operant conditioning, operant conditioning), a stimulus constitutes the basis for behavior. The stimulus–response model emphasizes the relation between stimulus and behavior rather than an animal's internal processes (i.e., in the nervous system). *In experimental psychology, a stimulus is the event or object to which a response is measured. Thus, not everything that is presented to participants qualifies as stimulus. For example, a cross mar ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Honeybee
A honey bee (also spelled honeybee) is a eusocial flying insect within the genus ''Apis'' of the bee clade, all native to mainland Afro-Eurasia. After bees spread naturally throughout Africa and Eurasia, humans became responsible for the current cosmopolitan distribution of honey bees, introducing multiple subspecies into South America (early 16th century), North America (early 17th century), and Australia (early 19th century). Honey bees are known for their construction of perennial colonial nests from wax, the large size of their colonies, and surplus production and storage of honey, distinguishing their hives as a prized foraging target of many animals, including honey badgers, bears and human hunter-gatherers. Only 8 surviving species of honey bees are recognized, with a total of 43 subspecies, though historically 7 to 11 species are recognized. Honey bees represent only a small fraction of the roughly 20,000 known species of bees. The best-known honey bee is the wes ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Proboscis Extension Reflex
Proboscis extension reflex (PER) is the extension by an insect with an extendable proboscis (e.g. a bee or fly) of her proboscis (sticking out of her tongue) as a reflex to antennal stimulation. It is evoked when a sugar solution is touched to a bee's antenna. Use The proboscis extension reflex is part of an insect's feeding behavior. When the taste receptors on the antenna or tarsi are stimulated by sugar water, the proboscis automatically sticks out to drink. This reflex response can be used to study insect learning and memory in the context of foraging. The PER paradigm is most commonly used in associative learning experiments in honeybees and bumblebees because it is easy to use for simple Pavlovian conditioning.Bitterman et al. 1983. Classical Conditioning of Proboscis Extension in Honeybees (''Apis mellifera''). J. Comp. Psych. 97: 107-119. It can also be used as a taste behavior assay in fruit flies to measure taste preferences and better understand feeding behaviors. How ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Second-Order Conditioning Models
Second-order may refer to: Mathematics * Second order approximation, an approximation that includes quadratic terms * Second-order arithmetic, an axiomatization allowing quantification of sets of numbers * Second-order differential equation, a differential equation in which the highest derivative is the second * Second-order logic, an extension of predicate logic * Second-order perturbation, in perturbation theory Science and technology * Second-order cybernetics, the recursive application of cybernetics to itself and the reflexive practice of cybernetics according to this critique. * Second-order fluid, an extension of fluid dynamics * Second order Fresnel lens, a size of lighthouse lens * Second-order reaction, a reaction in which the rate is proportional to the square of a reactant's concentration Psychology and philosophy * Second-order conditioning In classical conditioning, second-order conditioning or higher-order conditioning is a form of learning in which the first ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Associative Learning
Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences. The ability to learn is possessed by humans, non-human animals, and some machines; there is also evidence for some kind of learning in certain plants. Some learning is immediate, induced by a single event (e.g. being burned by a hot stove), but much skill and knowledge accumulate from repeated experiences. The changes induced by learning often last a lifetime, and it is hard to distinguish learned material that seems to be "lost" from that which cannot be retrieved. Human learning starts at birth (it might even start before) and continues until death as a consequence of ongoing interactions between people and their environment. The nature and processes involved in learning are studied in many established fields (including educational psychology, neuropsychology, experimental psychology, cognitive sciences, and pedagogy), as well as emerging fields of kn ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Extinction (psychology)
Extinction is a behavioral phenomenon observed in both operantly conditioned and classically conditioned behavior, which manifests itself by fading of non-reinforced conditioned response over time. When operant behavior that has been previously reinforced no longer produces reinforcing consequences, the behavior gradually returns to operant levels (to the frequency of the behavior previous to learning, which may or may not be zero).Miltenberger, R. (2012). ''Behavior modification, principles and procedures''. (5th ed., pp. 87-99). Wadsworth Publishing Company. In classical conditioning, when a conditioned stimulus is presented alone, so that it no longer predicts the coming of the unconditioned stimulus, conditioned responding gradually stops. For example, after Pavlov's dog was conditioned to salivate at the sound of a metronome, it eventually stopped salivating to the metronome after the metronome had been sounded repeatedly but no food came. Many anxiety disorders such a ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Memory Retrieval
Recall in memory refers to the mental process of retrieving information from the past. Along with encoding (memory), encoding and storage (memory), storage, it is one of the three core processes of memory. There are three main types of recall: free recall, cued recall and serial recall. Psychologists test these forms of recall as a way to study the memory processes of humansrecall. (2010). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved March 04, 2010, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/493353/recal/ref> and animals. Two main theories of the process of recall are the two-stage theory and the theory of Encoding specificity principle, encoding specificity. Theories Two-stage theory The ''two-stage theory'' states that the process of recall begins with a search and retrieval process, and then a decision or Recognition memory, recognition process where the correct information is chosen from what has been retrieved. In this theory, recognition only i ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Labile
Lability refers to the degree that something is likely to undergo change. It is the opposite ( antonym) of stability. Biochemistry In reference to biochemistry, this is an important concept as far as kinetics is concerned in metalloproteins. This can allow for the rapid synthesis and degradation of substrates in biological systems. Biology Cells Labile cells refer to cells that constantly divide by entering and remaining in the cell cycle. These are contrasted with "stable cells" and "permanent cells". An important example of this is in the epithelium of the cornea, where cells divide at the basal level and move upwards, and the topmost cells die and fall off. Proteins In medicine, the term "labile" means susceptible to alteration or destruction. For example, a heat-labile protein is one that can be changed or destroyed at high temperatures. The opposite of labile in this context is "stable". Soils Compounds or materials that are easily transformed (often by ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Memory Reconsolidation
Memory consolidation is a category of processes that stabilize a memory trace after its initial acquisition. A memory trace is a change in the nervous system caused by memorizing something. Consolidation is distinguished into two specific processes. The first, synaptic consolidation, which is thought to correspond to late-phase long-term potentiation, occurs on a small scale in the synaptic connections and neural circuits within the first few hours after learning. The second process is systems consolidation, occurring on a much larger scale in the brain, rendering hippocampus-dependent memories independent of the hippocampus over a period of weeks to years. Recently, a third process has become the focus of research, reconsolidation, in which previously consolidated memories can be made labile again through reactivation of the memory trace. History Memory consolidation was first referred to in the writings of the renowned Roman teacher of rhetoric Quintillian. He noted the ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
