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Second-Order Conditioning Models
Second-order may refer to: Mathematics * Second order approximation, an approximation that includes quadratic terms * Second-order arithmetic, an axiomatization allowing quantification of sets of numbers * Second-order differential equation, a differential equation in which the highest derivative is the second * Second-order logic, an extension of predicate logic * Second-order perturbation, in perturbation theory Science and technology * Second-order cybernetics, the recursive application of cybernetics to itself and the reflexive practice of cybernetics according to this critique. * Second-order fluid, an extension of fluid dynamics * Second order Fresnel lens, a size of lighthouse lens * Second-order reaction, a reaction in which the rate is proportional to the square of a reactant's concentration Psychology and philosophy * Second-order conditioning In classical conditioning, second-order conditioning or higher-order conditioning is a form of learning in which the first ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Second Order Approximation
In science, engineering, and other quantitative disciplines, order of approximation refers to formal or informal expressions for how accurate an approximation is. Usage in science and engineering In formal expressions, the English_numerals#Ordinal_numbers, ordinal number used before the word Order_(mathematics)#Analysis, order refers to the highest Power function, power in the series expansion used in the Approximation#Etymology_and_usage, approximation. The expressions: a ''zeroth-order approximation'', a ''first-order approximation'', a ''second-order approximation'', and so forth are used as fixed phrases. The expression a ''zero-order approximation'' is also common. Cardinal numerals are occasionally used in expressions like an ''order-zero approximation'', an ''order-one approximation'', etc. The omission of the word ''order'' leads to phrases that have less formal meaning. Phrases like first approximation or to a first approximation may refer to ''a roughly approximate v ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Second-order Arithmetic
In mathematical logic, second-order arithmetic is a collection of axiomatic systems that formalize the natural numbers and their subsets. It is an alternative to axiomatic set theory as a foundation of mathematics, foundation for much, but not all, of mathematics. A precursor to second-order arithmetic that involves third-order parameters was introduced by David Hilbert and Paul Bernays in their book ''Grundlagen der Mathematik''. The standard axiomatization of second-order arithmetic is denoted by Z2. Second-order arithmetic includes, but is significantly stronger than, its first-order logic, first-order counterpart Peano_axioms#Peano_arithmetic_as_first-order_theory, Peano arithmetic. Unlike Peano arithmetic, second-order arithmetic allows Quantification (logic), quantification over sets of natural numbers as well as numbers themselves. Because real numbers can be represented as (infinite set, infinite) sets of natural numbers in well-known ways, and because second-order arithmet ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Second-order Logic
In logic and mathematics, second-order logic is an extension of first-order logic, which itself is an extension of propositional logic. Second-order logic is in turn extended by higher-order logic and type theory. First-order logic quantifies only variables that range over individuals (elements of the domain of discourse); second-order logic, in addition, quantifies over relations. For example, the second-order sentence \forall P\,\forall x (Px \lor \neg Px) says that for every formula ''P'', and every individual ''x'', either ''Px'' is true or not(''Px'') is true (this is the law of excluded middle). Second-order logic also includes quantification over sets, functions, and other variables (see section below). Both first-order and second-order logic use the idea of a domain of discourse (often called simply the "domain" or the "universe"). The domain is a set over which individual elements may be quantified. Examples First-order logic can quantify over individuals, but no ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Perturbation Theory
In mathematics and applied mathematics, perturbation theory comprises methods for finding an approximate solution to a problem, by starting from the exact solution of a related, simpler problem. A critical feature of the technique is a middle step that breaks the problem into "solvable" and "perturbative" parts. In regular perturbation theory, the solution is expressed as a power series in a small parameter The first term is the known solution to the solvable problem. Successive terms in the series at higher powers of \varepsilon usually become smaller. An approximate 'perturbation solution' is obtained by truncating the series, often keeping only the first two terms, the solution to the known problem and the 'first order' perturbation correction. Perturbation theory is used in a wide range of fields and reaches its most sophisticated and advanced forms in quantum field theory. Perturbation theory (quantum mechanics) describes the use of this method in quantum mechanics. T ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Second-order Cybernetics
Second-order cybernetics, also known as the cybernetics of cybernetics, is the recursive application of cybernetics to itself and the reflexive practice of cybernetics according to such a critique. It is cybernetics where "the role of the observer is appreciated and acknowledged rather than disguised, as had become traditional in western science".Ranulph Glanville, Glanville, R. (2002). "Second order cybernetics." In F. Parra-Luna (ed.), Systems science and cybernetics. In ''Encyclopaedia of Life Support Systems'' (EOLSS). OxfordEoLSS Second-order cybernetics was developed between the late 1960s and mid 1970s by Heinz von Foerster and others, with key inspiration coming from Margaret Mead. Foerster referred to it as "the control of control and the communication of communication" and differentiated first-order cybernetics as "the cybernetics of observed systems" and second-order cybernetics as "the cybernetics of observing systems".Heinz von Foerster, Foerster, Heinz von, ed. ''Cyber ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Second-order Fluid
Second-order may refer to: Mathematics * Second order approximation, an approximation that includes quadratic terms * Second-order arithmetic, an axiomatization allowing quantification of sets of numbers * Second-order differential equation, a differential equation in which the highest derivative is the second * Second-order logic, an extension of predicate logic * Second-order perturbation, in perturbation theory Science and technology * Second-order cybernetics, the recursive application of cybernetics to itself and the reflexive practice of cybernetics according to this critique. * Second-order fluid, an extension of fluid dynamics * Second order Fresnel lens, a size of lighthouse lens * Second-order reaction, a reaction in which the rate is proportional to the square of a reactant's concentration Psychology and philosophy * Second-order conditioning, a form of learning from previous learning * Second-order desire, the desire to have a desire for something * Second-order stimu ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Second Order Fresnel Lens
A Fresnel lens ( ; ; or ) is a type of composite compact lens which reduces the amount of material required compared to a conventional lens by dividing the lens into a set of concentric annular sections. The simpler dioptric (purely refractive) form of the lens was first proposed by Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, and independently reinvented by the French physicist Augustin-Jean Fresnel (1788–1827) for use in lighthouses. The catadioptric (combining refraction and reflection) form of the lens, entirely invented by Fresnel, has outer prismatic elements that use total internal reflection as well as refraction to capture more oblique light from the light source and add it to the beam, making it visible at greater distances. The design allows the construction of lenses of large aperture and short focal length without the mass and volume of material that would be required by a lens of conventional design. A Fresnel lens can be made much thinner than a comparable convent ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Second-order Reaction
In chemistry, the rate equation (also known as the rate law or empirical differential rate equation) is an empirical differential mathematical expression for the reaction rate of a given reaction in terms of concentrations of chemical species and constant parameters (normally rate coefficients and partial orders of reaction) only. For many reactions, the initial rate is given by a power law such as :v_0\; =\; k mathrmx mathrmy where and are the molar concentrations of the species and usually in moles per liter (molarity, ). The exponents and are the partial ''orders of reaction'' for and , respectively, and the ''overall'' reaction order is the sum of the exponents. These are often positive integers, but they may also be zero, fractional, or negative. The order of reaction is a number which quantifies the degree to which the rate of a chemical reaction depends on concentrations of the reactants. In other words, the order of reaction is the exponent to which the concentrati ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Second-order Conditioning
In classical conditioning, second-order conditioning or higher-order conditioning is a form of learning in which the first Stimulus (psychology), stimulus is classically conditioned to an unconditioned stimulus, then a second stimulus is classically conditioned to the first, thereby conditioning it back to the original unconditioned stimulus. For example, an animal might first learn to associate a bell with food (first-order conditioning), but then learn to associate a light with the bell (second-order conditioning), associating the light to food (unconditioned stimulus). Honeybees show second-order conditioning during proboscis extension reflex conditioning.Bitterman et al. 1983. Classical Conditioning of Proboscis Extension in Honeybees (''Apis mellifera''). J. Comp. Psych. 97: 107-119. Second-order conditioning (SOC) occurs in three phases. In the first training phase, a conditioned stimulus, (CS1) is followed by an unconditioned stimulus (US). In the second phase, a second-orde ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Second-order Desire
Higher-order volitions (or higher-order desire), as opposed to action-determining volitions, are volitions about volitions. Higher-order volitions are potentially more often guided by long-term beliefs and reasoning. A higher-order volition can go unfulfilled due to uncontrolled lower-order volitions. History The concept of higher-order volitions was introduced by Harry Frankfurt, who used it to explain free will independently of determinism, of the thesis that what happens in the world is determined by predictable natural laws, which is however made implausible by Heisenberg's uncertainty principle and resulting quantum noise. But even if the world were governed by such laws, one could be free in the sense that higher-order volitions determined the primacy of first-order desires. This view is called compatibilism. An example for a failure to follow higher-order volitions is the drug addict who takes drugs even though they would like to quit taking drugs. According to Frankfur ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Second-order Stimulus
Motion perception is the process of inferring the speed and direction of elements in a scene based on visual, vestibular and proprioceptive inputs. Although this process appears straightforward to most observers, it has proven to be a difficult problem from a computational perspective, and difficult to explain in terms of neural processing. Motion perception is studied by many disciplines, including psychology (i.e. visual perception), neurology, neurophysiology, engineering, and computer science. Neuropsychology The inability to perceive motion is called akinetopsia and it may be caused by a lesion to cortical area V5 in the extrastriate cortex. Neuropsychological studies of a patient who could not see motion, seeing the world in a series of static "frames" instead, suggested that visual area V5 in humans is homologous to motion processing area V5/MT in primates. First-order motion perception When two or more stimuli are alternatively switched on and off, they can produc ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
