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Approval-based Committee
Multiwinner approval voting, sometimes also called approval-based committee (ABC) voting, refers to a family of multi-winner electoral systems that use approval ballots. Each voter may select ("approve") any number of candidates, and multiple candidates are elected. Multiwinner approval voting is an adaptation of approval voting to multiwinner elections. In a single-winner approval voting system, it is easy to determine the winner: it is the candidate approved by the largest number of voters. In multiwinner approval voting, there are many different ways to decide which candidates will be elected. Approval block voting In approval block voting (also called unlimited voting), each voter either approves or disapproves of each candidate, and the ''k'' candidates with the most approval votes win (where ''k'' is the predetermined committee size). It does not provide proportional representation. Proportional approval voting Proportional approval voting refers to voting methods ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Electoral System
An electoral or voting system is a set of rules used to determine the results of an election. Electoral systems are used in politics to elect governments, while non-political elections may take place in business, nonprofit organizations and informal organisations. These rules govern all aspects of the voting process: when elections occur, Suffrage, who is allowed to vote, Nomination rules, who can stand as a candidate, Voting method, how ballots are marked and cast, how the ballots are counted, how votes translate into the election outcome, limits on Campaign finance, campaign spending, and other factors that can affect the result. Political electoral systems are defined by constitutions and electoral laws, are typically conducted by election commissions, and can use multiple types of elections for different offices. Some electoral systems elect a single winner to a unique position, such as prime minister, president or governor, while others elect multiple winners, such as membe ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Utilitarian Approval Voting
Approval voting is a single-winner rated voting system where voters can approve of all the candidates as they like instead of choosing one. The method is designed to eliminate vote-splitting while keeping election administration simple and easy-to-count (requiring only a single score for each candidate). Approval voting has been used in both organizational and political elections to improve representativeness and voter satisfaction. Critics of approval voting have argued the simple ballot format is a disadvantage, as it forces a binary choice for each candidate (instead of the expressive grades of other rated voting rules). Effect on elections Research by social choice theorists Steven Brams and Dudley R. Herschbach found that approval voting would increase voter participation, prevent minor-party candidates from being spoilers, and reduce negative campaigning. Brams' research concluded that approval can be expected to elect majority-preferred candidates in practical el ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
East Germany
East Germany, officially known as the German Democratic Republic (GDR), was a country in Central Europe from Foundation of East Germany, its formation on 7 October 1949 until German reunification, its reunification with West Germany (FRG) on 3 October 1990. Until 1989, it was generally viewed as a communist state and described itself as a Socialist state, socialist "workers' and peasants' state". The Economy of East Germany, economy of the country was Central planning, centrally planned and government-owned corporation, state-owned. Although the GDR had to pay substantial war reparations to the Soviets, its economy became the most successful in the Eastern Bloc. Before its establishment, the country's territory was administered and occupied by Soviet forces following the Berlin Declaration (1945), Berlin Declaration abolishing German sovereignty in World War II. The Potsdam Agreement established the Soviet occupation zone in Germany, Soviet-occupied zone, bounded on the east b ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Anna Louise Strong
Anna Louise Strong (November 24, 1885 – March 29, 1970) was an American journalist and activist, best known for her reporting on and support for Communism, communist movements in the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China.Archives West,Anna Louise Strong papers, 1885-1971," deriving frothis page accessed January 26, 2018. Archived here.The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica,Anna Louise Strong: American journalist and scholar, accessed January 26, 2018.John Cory,, ''The New York Times'', March 22, 1986.Today in history: Anna Louise Strong is born, changes worlds ," People's World, November 24, 2015. She wrote over 30 books and varied articles. Biography Early years Strong was born o ...[...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Justified Representation
Justified representation (JR) is a criterion of fairness in multiwinner approval voting. It can be seen as an adaptation of the proportional representation criterion to approval voting. Background Proportional representation (PR) is an important consideration in designing electoral systems. It means that the various groups and sectors in the population should be represented in the parliament in proportion to their size. The most common system for ensuring proportional representation is the party-list system. In this system, the candidates are partitioned into parties, and each citizen votes for a single party. Each party receives a number of seats proportional to the number of citizens who voted for it. For example, for a parliament with 10 seats, if exactly 50% of the citizens vote for party A, exactly 30% vote for party B, and exactly 20% vote for party C, then proportional representation requires that the parliament contains exactly 5 candidates from party A, exactly 3 can ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Fair Cake-cutting
Fair cake-cutting is a kind of fair division problem. The problem involves a ''heterogeneous'' resource, such as a cake with different toppings, that is assumed to be ''divisible'' – it is possible to cut arbitrarily small pieces of it without destroying their value. The resource has to be divided among several partners who have different preferences over different parts of the cake, i.e., some people prefer the chocolate toppings, some prefer the cherries, some just want as large a piece as possible. The division should be ''unanimously'' fair – each person should receive a piece believed to be a fair share. The "cake" is only a metaphor; procedures for fair cake-cutting can be used to divide various kinds of resources, such as land estates, advertisement space or broadcast time. The prototypical procedure for fair cake-cutting is divide and choose, which is mentioned in the book of Book of Genesis, Genesis to resolve Abraham and Lot's conflict. This procedure solves the fa ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Average Satisfaction
Justified representation (JR) is a criterion of fairness in multiwinner approval voting. It can be seen as an adaptation of the proportional representation criterion to approval voting. Background Proportional representation (PR) is an important consideration in designing electoral systems. It means that the various groups and sectors in the population should be represented in the parliament in proportion to their size. The most common system for ensuring proportional representation is the party-list system. In this system, the candidates are partitioned into parties, and each citizen votes for a single party. Each party receives a number of seats proportional to the number of citizens who voted for it. For example, for a parliament with 10 seats, if exactly 50% of the citizens vote for party A, exactly 30% vote for party B, and exactly 20% vote for party C, then proportional representation requires that the parliament contains exactly 5 candidates from party A, exactly 3 can ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Stochastic Dominance
Stochastic dominance is a Partially ordered set, partial order between random variables. It is a form of stochastic ordering. The concept arises in decision theory and decision analysis in situations where one gamble (a probability distribution over possible outcomes, also known as prospects) can be ranked as superior to another gamble for a broad class of decision-makers. It is based on shared preference (economics), preferences regarding sets of possible outcomes and their associated probabilities. Only limited knowledge of preferences is required for determining dominance. Risk aversion is a factor only in second order stochastic dominance. Stochastic dominance does not give a total order, but rather only a partial order: for some pairs of gambles, neither one stochastically dominates the other, since different members of the broad class of decision-makers will differ regarding which gamble is preferable without them generally being considered to be equally attractive. Through ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Hamming Distance
In information theory, the Hamming distance between two String (computer science), strings or vectors of equal length is the number of positions at which the corresponding symbols are different. In other words, it measures the minimum number of ''substitutions'' required to change one string into the other, or equivalently, the minimum number of ''errors'' that could have transformed one string into the other. In a more general context, the Hamming distance is one of several string metrics for measuring the edit distance between two sequences. It is named after the American mathematician Richard Hamming. A major application is in coding theory, more specifically to block codes, in which the equal-length strings are Vector space, vectors over a finite field. Definition The Hamming distance between two equal-length strings of symbols is the number of positions at which the corresponding symbols are different. Examples The symbols may be letters, bits, or decimal digits, am ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Ordered Weighted Averaging
In applied mathematics, specifically in fuzzy logic, the ordered weighted averaging (OWA) operators provide a parameterized class of mean type aggregation operators. They were introduced by Ronald R. Yager.Yager, R. R., "On ordered weighted averaging aggregation operators in multi-criteria decision making," IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics 18, 183–190, 1988. Many notable mean operators such as the max, arithmetic average, median and min, are members of this class. They have been widely used in computational intelligence because of their ability to model linguistically expressed aggregation instructions. Definition An OWA operator of dimension \ n is a mapping F: \mathbb^n \rightarrow \mathbb that has an associated collection of weights \ W = _1, \ldots, w_n lying in the unit interval and summing to one and with : F(a_1, \ldots , a_n) = \sum_^n w_j b_j where b_j is the ''j''th largest of the a_i . By choosing different ''W'' one can implement ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
SAT Solver
In computer science and formal methods, a SAT solver is a computer program which aims to solve the Boolean satisfiability problem (SAT). On input a formula over Boolean data type, Boolean variables, such as "(''x'' or ''y'') and (''x'' or not ''y'')", a SAT solver outputs whether the formula is satisfiability, satisfiable, meaning that there are possible values of ''x'' and ''y'' which make the formula true, or unsatisfiable, meaning that there are no such values of ''x'' and ''y''. In this case, the formula is satisfiable when ''x'' is true, so the solver should return "satisfiable". Since the introduction of algorithms for SAT in the 1960s, modern SAT solvers have grown into complex software, software artifacts involving a large number of heuristics and program optimizations to work efficiently. By a result known as the Cook–Levin theorem, Boolean satisfiability is an NP-completeness, NP-complete problem in general. As a result, only algorithms with exponential worst-case comple ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
Mathematics Of Apportionment
In mathematics and fair division, apportionment problems involve dividing (''apportioning'') a whole number of identical goods fairly across several parties with real-valued entitlements. The original, and best-known, example of an apportionment problem involves distributing seats in a legislature between different federal states or political parties. However, apportionment methods can be applied to other situations as well, including bankruptcy problems, inheritance law (e.g. dividing animals), manpower planning (e.g. demographic quotas), and rounding percentages. Mathematically, an apportionment method is just a method of rounding real numbers to natural numbers. Despite the simplicity of this problem, every method of rounding suffers one or more paradoxes, as proven by the Balinski–Young theorem. The mathematical theory of apportionment identifies what properties can be expected from an apportionment method. The mathematical theory of apportionment was studied as early ... [...More Info...] [...Related Items...] OR: [Wikipedia] [Google] [Baidu] |
