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The Oyo Empire was a Yoruba empire in
West Africa West Africa, also known as Western Africa, is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations geoscheme for Africa#Western Africa, United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Gha ...
. It was located in present-day western
Nigeria Nigeria, officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa. It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean to the south. It covers an area of . With Demographics of Nigeria, ...
(including the
South West Southwest is a compass point. Southwest, south-west, south west, southwestern or south-western or south western may also refer to: * Southwest (direction), an intercardinal direction Geography *South West Queensland, Australia *South West (Weste ...
zone, Benin Republic, and the western half of the North Central zone). The empire grew to become the largest Yoruba-speaking state through the organizational and administrative efforts of the Yoruba people, trade, as well as the military use of
cavalry Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from ''cheval'' meaning "horse") are groups of soldiers or warriors who Horses in warfare, fight mounted on horseback. Until the 20th century, cavalry were the most mob ...
. The Oyo Empire was one of the most politically important states in Western Africa from the late-16th to the early 18th century and held sway not only over most of the other kingdoms in
Yorubaland Yorubaland () is the homeland and cultural region of the Yoruba people in West Africa. It spans the modern-day countries of Nigeria, Togo and Benin, and covers a total land area of . Of this land area, 106,016 km2 (74.6%) lies within Niger ...
, but also over nearby African states, notably the Fon
Kingdom of Dahomey The Kingdom of Dahomey () was a West African kingdom located within present-day Benin that existed from approximately 1600 until 1904. It developed on the Abomey Plateau amongst the Fon people in the early 17th century and became a regional ...
in the modern Republic of
Benin Benin, officially the Republic of Benin, is a country in West Africa. It was formerly known as Dahomey. It is bordered by Togo to the west, Nigeria to the east, Burkina Faso to the north-west, and Niger to the north-east. The majority of its po ...
on its west.


History


Legend of origin

The legendary origins of the Oyo Empire lie with
Ọranyan Ọ̀rĂ nmĂ­yĂ n, also known as Ọranyan, was a legendary Yoruba people, Yoruba king from the kingdom of Ile-Ife, and the founder of the Kingdom of Benin, Benin Kingdom and the Oyo Empire. Although he was the youngest of the descendants of Oduduw ...
(also known as Ọranmiyan), the last prince of the Yoruba Kingdom of Ile-Ife ( Ife). According to oral traditions, Ọranmiyan made an agreement with his brother to launch a punitive raid on their northern neighbors for insulting their father
Oduduwa OdĂčduwĂ  (Ooduwa, Odudua or OĂČdua) was a Yoruba divine king, a creator deity (orisha) in the Yoruba religion, and the legendary figure who ushered in the classical period that later led to the foundation of the Ife Empire. His earthly orig ...
, the first
Ooni of Ife The Ooni of Ile-Ife (Ọọ̀ni of IlĂš-Ifáșč̀) is the traditional ruler of Ifáșč, IlĂ©-Ifáșč̀. The Ooni dynasty existed before the reign of Oduduwa which historians have argued to have been between the 7th-9th centuries A.D. After the de ...
. On the way to the battle, the brothers quarreled and the army split up. Oranmiyan's force was too small to make a successful attack, so he wandered the southern shore of the
Niger River The Niger River ( ; ) is the main river of West Africa, extending about . Its drainage basin is in area. Its source is in the Guinea Highlands in south-eastern Guinea near the Sierra Leone border. It runs in a crescent shape through Mali, Nige ...
until reaching Bussa. There, the local chief entertained him and provided a large snake with a magic charm attached to its throat. The chief instructed Oranmiyan to follow the snake until it stopped somewhere for seven days and disappeared into the ground. Oranmiyan followed the advice and founded Oyo where the serpent stopped. The site is remembered as
Ajaka Ajaka was an Oyo emperor (located within modern-day Nigeria) who was twice on the throne. His father was Oranyan or Oranmiyan and his brother, according to the historian Samuel Johnson, was Shango. Life Ajaka originally ruled Oyo as a regent - ...
. Oranmiyan made Oyo his new kingdom and became the first "oba" (meaning 'king' or 'ruler' in the
Yoruba language Yoruba (, ; Yor. ) is a Niger–Congo languages, Niger-Congo language that is spoken in West Africa, primarily in South West (Nigeria), Southwestern and Middle Belt, Central Nigeria, Benin, and parts of Togo. It is spoken by the Yoruba people. ...
) with the title of "
Alaafin of Oyo Oyo, Oyo State, is the seat of the line of the rulers of Oyo. Their territory, a constituent rump state, is located in what is now Nigeria. Since the 1900 political absorption into Southern Nigeria of the kingdom that it once served as a metro ...
" (Alaafin means 'owner of the palace' in Yoruba). He left all his treasures in Ife and allowed another king to rule there.Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 291 At one time, Oyo-Ile was at war with the Bariba of Borgu, who wanted to subjugate the new city then still under construction. Orangun Ajagunla of Ila, Oranmiyan's elder brother, stormed in with his men to assist. Not long after the war was won, Oranmiyan had a son, Ajuwon Ajaka, by Princess Torosi of the Tapa (
Nupe Nupe or NUPE may refer to: *Nupe people, of Nigeria *Nupe language, their language * Nupe River, in the HuĂĄnuco Region, Peru * Bida Emirate, also known as the Nupe Kingdom, their former state *A member of the Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity in the Uni ...
); much later Arabambi was also born by the same woman. It is believed that the name "Sango" was given by his maternal grandfather or that he adopted it from the local name for the god of Thunder. Either way, the royal family was devoted to the Spirits of Thunder (Jakuta) and War (
Ogun Ogun or Ogoun ( Yoruba: ÒgĂșn, Edo: ÒgĂșn, Portuguese: Ogum, Gu; also spelled Oggun or Ogou; known as OgĂșn or Ogum in Latin America) is a Yoruba Orisha that is adopted in several African religions. ÒgĂșn is a warrior and a powerful spi ...
).


Pre-Imperial period (13th century–1535)

The founding of Oyo is regarded as 1300, but this is only estimated through backtracking the chronology. Oranmiyan, the first oba (king) of Oyo, was succeeded by Oba Ajaka, Alaafin of Oyo. Ajaka was deposed, because he lacked Yoruba military virtues and allowed his sub-chiefs too much independence. Leadership was then conferred upon Ajaka's brother,
Shango Shango (Yoruba language: áčąĂ ngĂł, also known as ChangĂł or XangĂŽ in Latin America; as Jakuta or BadĂ©; and as áčąangĂł in Trinidad Orisha) is an Orisha (or spirit) in Yoruba religion. Genealogically speaking, Shango is a royal ancestor of th ...
(also called Sango), who was later deified as the deity of thunder and lightning. Ajaka was restored after Sango's death. Ajaka returned to the throne thoroughly more warlike. His successor, Kori, managed to conquer the rest of what later historians would refer to as
metropolitan Metropolitan may refer to: Areas and governance (secular and ecclesiastical) * Metropolitan archdiocese, the jurisdiction of a metropolitan archbishop ** Metropolitan bishop or archbishop, leader of an ecclesiastical "mother see" * Metropolitan ar ...
Oyo.


The Nupe occupation

Oyo had grown into a formidable inland power by the end of the 14th century. For over a century, the Yoruba state had expanded at the expense of its neighbors. During the reign of Onigbogi, Oyo suffered military defeats at the hands of the Nupe led by Tsoede.Stride & Ifeka p. 292 Sometime around 1535, the
Nupe Nupe or NUPE may refer to: *Nupe people, of Nigeria *Nupe language, their language * Nupe River, in the HuĂĄnuco Region, Peru * Bida Emirate, also known as the Nupe Kingdom, their former state *A member of the Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity in the Uni ...
occupied Oyo and forced its ruling dynasty to take refuge in the kingdom of
Borgu Borgu is a region and former country split between north-west Nigeria and the northern Republic of Benin. It was partitioned between British Empire, Great Britain and France by the Anglo-French Convention of 1898. People of Borgu are known as B ...
.Oliver & Atmore 2001, p. 89. The Nupe sacked the capital, destroying Oyo as a regional power until the early 17th century.Thornton 1999, p. 77.


Imperial period (1608–1800)

The Yoruba of Oyo went through an interregnum of 80 years as an exiled dynasty after its defeat by the Nupe. They re-established Oyo to be more centralized and expansive than ever. The people created a government that established its power over a vast territory. During the 17th century, Oyo began a long stretch of growth, becoming a major empire. The growth was related to a multitude of factors such as its agriculturally favoured geography, a rebuilt political structure, the industrial skills of its people, its Trans-Saharan trade network, and the large abundance of tributes it collected from kingdoms under its protection. At its heights, royals and citizens alike from many kingdoms sought out Oyo to solve disputes between polities within its reach. One such polity was
Great Ardra The Kingdom of Ardra, also known as the Kingdom of Allada, was a coastal West African kingdom in southern Benin. While historically a sovereign kingdom, in present times the monarchy continues to exist as a non-sovereign monarchy within the repub ...
, whose people — on one occasion — sought Oyo's aid due to harsh treatment of its citizens by the Ardrasian King. On another occasion, fleeing princes from the kingdom of WĂ©mĂš, conquered by Dahomey, sought Oyo for redress. Oyo answered these requests with the force of its cavalry to such a devastating extent that neighbouring kingdoms became exceedingly fearful of Oyo. The spread of Oyo's tributary reach came to include some of the coastal kingdoms involved in the Atlantic slave trade. Oyo never encompassed all Yoruba people, but it was the most populous kingdom in Yoruba history.Alpern 1998, p. 37.


Reconquest and expansion

The key to the Yoruba rebuilding of Oyo was a stronger military and a more centralized government. Taking a cue from their
Nupe Nupe or NUPE may refer to: *Nupe people, of Nigeria *Nupe language, their language * Nupe River, in the HuĂĄnuco Region, Peru * Bida Emirate, also known as the Nupe Kingdom, their former state *A member of the Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity in the Uni ...
enemies (whom they called "Tapa"), the Yoruba rearmed with armor and cavalry.
Oba Ofinran Ofinran was a 16th-century king of the Oyo Empire in West Africa who succeeded Onigbogi as Alaafin after the latter had left for exile in Borgu with a few other Yorubas from Oyo. Ofinran was then made king in a foreign land and joined his host in ...
, Alaafin of Oyo, succeeded in regaining Oyo's original territory from the Nupe. A new capital, Oyo-Igboho, was constructed, and the original became known as Old Oyo. The next oba,
Eguguojo Eguguojo (also known as Egunoju) was the Alaafin of Oyo during the sixteenth century. It was during his reign that the capital city was moved from Oyo ile to Oyo Igboho (New Oyo), after a protracted battle with the Nupes and also as a result of in ...
, conquered nearly all of Yorubaland. After this, Oba
Orompoto Orompoto (also spelled Oronpoto) was an Alaafin of the Yoruba Oyo Empire, the first female Alaafin to be precise. The empire of which she ruled is located in what is modern day western and north-central Nigeria. History Orompoto was the sister of ...
led attacks to obliterate the Nupe to ensure Oyo was never threatened by them again. During the reign of Oba
Ajiboyede Ajiboyede was a successful but autocratic ''alaafin'' of the Oyo empire The Oyo Empire was a Yoruba people, Yoruba empire in West Africa. It was located in present-day western Nigeria (including the South West (Nigeria), South West zone, Benin R ...
, he held the first Bere festival, an event to celebrate peace in the kingdom. Celebrated regularly, it would retain much significance among the Yoruba long after the fall of Oyo. Under his successor,
Abipa King Abipa, also known as Ogbolu or Oba M'oro, was an Alaafin of the Oyo empire. He is believed to have ruled during the late sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. Early life Abipa was the son of Egunoju and one of his queens. He was repo ...
, the Yoruba repopulated Oyo-Ile and rebuilt the original capital. Oyo attempted to take and conquer the
Benin Kingdom The Kingdom of Benin, also known as Great Benin, is a traditional kingdom in southern Nigeria. It has no historical relation to the modern republic of Benin, which was known as Dahomey from the 17th century until 1975. The Kingdom of Benin's c ...
sometime between 1578 and 1608, but failed as the mountains in Ekiti stopped the advance of cavalry units to attack Benin. A few kingdoms in Ekiti fell under Oyo, and Otun Ekiti served as buffer independent town between Oyo and Benin yet, Oyo continued to expand. The Oyo allowed autonomy to the southeast of metropolitan Oyo, where the non-Yoruba areas could also act as a buffer between Oyo and Benin.Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 296. By the end of the 16th century, the Ewe and Aja states of modern Benin Republic were paying tribute to Oyo.Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 293.


=Dahomey Wars

= The Oyo Empire began raiding southward as early as 1682.Thornton 1999, p. 79. By the end of its military expansion, Oyo's borders would extend to the coast, some southwest of its capital.Smith 1989, p. 122. It met little serious opposition until the early 18th century. In 1728, the Oyo Empire invaded the
Kingdom of Dahomey The Kingdom of Dahomey () was a West African kingdom located within present-day Benin that existed from approximately 1600 until 1904. It developed on the Abomey Plateau amongst the Fon people in the early 17th century and became a regional ...
in a major campaign dominated by its cavalry.Smith 1989, p. 48. Dahomey warriors, on the other hand, had no cavalry but many firearms. Their gunshots scared the Oyo cavalry horses and prevented their charging.Thornton 1999, p. 82. The Dahomey army also built fortifications such as trenches, which effectively made the use of cavalry useless.Thornton 1999, p. 86. The battle lasted four days, but the Oyo were eventually victorious after reinforcements arrived. Dahomey was forced to pay tribute to Oyo. The Oyo invaded Dahomey 11 times before finally subjugating the kingdom in 1748.


=Later conquest

= With its cavalry, Oyo campaigned over great distances. The Oyo army was able to attack defensive fortifications, but it was harder to supply an army, and they withdrew when supplies ran out.Thornton 1999, p. 97. The Oyo did not use guns in its major conquests. The military waited until the 19th century to adopt them. In 1764, a joint
Akyem The Akyem Kingdoms (also known as Greater Akyem, Akim, Great Akim, or Akan Grande) were prominent Akan people, Akan kingdoms in precolonial Ghana, consisting of the three related states of Akyem Abuakwa, Akyem Kotoku, and Akyem Bosome. Located in ...
-Dahomey-Oyo force
defeated Defeated may refer to: * "Defeated" (Breaking Benjamin song) * "Defeated" (Anastacia song) *"Defeated", a song by Snoop Dogg from the album ''Bible of Love'' *Defeated, Tennessee Defeated is an unincorporated community in Smith County, Tennessee ...
an invading Ashanti army. The victory among the alliance defined the borders between the neighboring states. Oyo led a successful campaign into Mahi territory north of Dahomey in the late 18th century. The Yoruba also made use of the forces of their tributaries, for instance, they accomplished a 1784 naval blockade of Badagri with an Oyo-Dahomey-Lagos force.


Zenith

By 1680, the Oyo Empire spanned over 150,000 square kilometers.Thornton 1998, p. 104. It reached the height of its power in the 18th century. Despite its violent creation, it was held together by mutual self-interest. The government was able to provide unity for a vast area through a combination of local autonomy and imperial authority. Unlike the great savannah empires, of which Oyo may not be called a successor since it was a successor of Ife, there was little if any
Islam Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...
ic influence in the empire. It is known that at least some Muslim officials were kept in Metropolitan Oyo,Smith 1989, p. 20. and men capable of writing and calculating in
Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...
were reported by French traders in 1787. Muslim communities existed in several towns throughout the empire by the 19th century.


Decline

Many believe the decline of the Oyo empire had started as early as 1754 with the dynastic intrigues and palace coups sponsored by the Oyo
Prime Minister A prime minister or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. A prime minister is not the head of state, but r ...
Gaha Bashorun Gaha (or Gaa) was a nobleman and leader of the military in the old Oyo Empire during the 18th century. From 1650 to 1750, Oyo Empire was at the pinnacle of its greatness, peace, prosperity and wealth. The Empire had expanded to the utmost ...
. In his quest for absolute power, Gaha conspired with the Oyo Mesi and probably to some extent the Ogboni to force four successive Alaafins to commit ritual suicide after they had been presented with the symbolic parrot's eggs. Between June and October 1754 alone, two Alaafins had been forced to commit suicide by Gaha. Because of this, Alaafin Awonbioju spent 130 days on the throne, while Alaafin Labisi only spent 17 days on the throne. Gaha's treachery was not ended until 1774 during the reign of Alaafin Abiodun, the fifth Alaafin he served. Gaha was subsequently executed by Abiodun but the instability that had been brought about by these intrigues had further weakened Oyo. Alaafin Abiodun during his reign had also conducted failed campaigns against Borgu in 1783 and Nupe in 1789, losing the equivalent of 11 and 13 generals and their men respectively. Abiodun was subsequently murdered by his own son
Awole Awole Arogangan, sometimes spelled AĂłlĂš, was the Alaafin (''emperor'') of the Oyo empire in northwestern Yorubaland, West Africa, from 1789-1796. His paranoid, vindictive reign set the stage for the collapse of the empire in the early 19th centu ...
, who subsequently ascended his father's throne. The events that led to the secession of Ilorin began in 1793. Ilorin was a war camp headed by the Aare-Ona Kakanfo
Afonja Afonja of Ilorin was the " Are-Ona-Kakanfo", or chief military leader, of the Oyo Empire. Laderin, the great-grandfather of Afonja, was the founder of Ilorin city. He was succeeded by his son, Pasin, a powerful warrior who became a threat and ta ...
. Afonja took cause with
Awole Awole Arogangan, sometimes spelled AĂłlĂš, was the Alaafin (''emperor'') of the Oyo empire in northwestern Yorubaland, West Africa, from 1789-1796. His paranoid, vindictive reign set the stage for the collapse of the empire in the early 19th centu ...
when the latter commanded him to attack Alaafin Abiodun's maternal home, Iwere-Ile. Afonja, being bound by an oath and also desirous not to fall under a curse from a previous Alaafin made to the effect that any Aare Ona Kakanfo who attacked Iwere-Ile (his paternal home) was to die miserably, refused to comply. A further cause was given in 1795, when Awole ordered Afonja to attack the market town of
Apomu Apomu is a medium-sized town in the Osun state. It has a population of about 71,656 people. History It is a historic town in osun state South west Yoruba territory, dating to the 16th century. For about 400 years, it was the only commercial ce ...
, a part of Ile-Ife. All Alaafins, due to the Yoruba belief that Ife was the spiritual home of the Yorubas, were previously made to swear an oath never to attack Ife. Afonja carried out Awole's order and sacked Apomu, but on the return of the army from the campaign he marched on the capital Oyo-Ile (which was itself a taboo), and demanded that Awole abdicate. Awole eventually committed ritual suicide. After the death of Awole, there was a scramble for the throne by numerous contenders; some were reported to have spent less than six months on the throne; there was also a period of interregnum of almost twenty years where the various factions could not agree on a candidate. This power vacuum led to the ascendancy of powerful military and regional commanders like Adegun, the Onikoyi and Solagberu, the Otun Are-Ona Kakanfo. Shehu Alimi, a
Fulani The Fula, Fulani, or Fulɓe people are an ethnic group in Sahara, Sahel and West Africa, widely dispersed across the region. Inhabiting many countries, they live mainly in West Africa and northern parts of Central Africa, South Sudan, Darfur, ...
chief who was the leader of the growing Muslim population in Oyo, also rose to power at this time. These new elements had lost regard for the office of the Alaafin due to the various political wranglings and the lack of a central authority at the time; this situation eventually led to Afonja seceding Ilorin from Oyo in 1817 with the help of Oyo Muslims. In 1823, after Afonja had been killed by his erstwhile allies Shehu Alimi and Solagberu (who was himself later killed by Alimi's son), Ilorin became part of the Sokoto Caliphate. By the time Captain
Hugh Clapperton Bain Hugh Clapperton (18 May 1788 – 13 April 1827) was a British naval officer and explorer of West and Central Africa. Early career Clapperton was born in Annan, Dumfriesshire, where his father, George Clapperton, was a surgeon. He gained so ...
visited Oyo-Ile in 1825 during the reign of Alaafin Majotu, the empire was already in a state of decline. Clapperton's party recorded passing numerous Oyo villages burned by the Fulani of Ilorin while Majotu had also sought the help of the English king and the Oba of Benin in putting down the Ilorin rebellion. Clapperton also noticed a shortage of horses, even though the Oyo were renowned as a great cavalry force; this might have something to do with the fact that most of the empire's soldiers and hence cavalry were stationed at Ilorin under the command of Afonja (and later Alimi's successors). Ilorin then besieged Offa and started raiding, burning and pillaging villages in Oyo, eventually destroying the capital Oyo-Ile in 1835.


Loss of the Egbado Corridor

As Oyo tore itself apart via political intrigue, its vassals began taking advantage of the situation to press for independence. The Egba, under the leadership of a war chief called Lishabi, massacred the Ilari stationed in their area and drove off an Oyo punitive force.


The Dahomey Revolt

In 1823, Dahomey was reported to have raided villages that were under the protection of Oyo. Oyo immediately demanded a huge tribute from King
Gezo Ghezo, also spelled Gezo, was King of Dahomey (present-day Republic of Benin) from 1818 until 1858. Ghezo replaced his brother Adandozan (who ruled from 1797 to 1818) as king through a coup with the assistance of the Brazilian slave trader Fra ...
for the unauthorized incursion, to which Gezo dispatched his Brazilian viceroy, Chacha
Francisco Félix de Sousa Francisco is the Spanish and Portuguese form of the masculine given name ''Franciscus''. Meaning of the name Francisco In Spanish, people with the name Francisco are sometimes nicknamed " Paco". San Francisco de Asís was known as ''Pater Comm ...
, to the Alaafin at Oyo to make peace. The peace talks eventually broke down, and Oyo subsequently attacked Dahomey. The Oyo army was decisively defeated, ending Oyo's hegemony over Dahomey.Alpern 1998, p. 166. After gaining its independence, Dahomey began raiding the corridor.


Ago d'Oyo

After the destruction of Oyo-Ile, the capital was moved further south, to Ago d'Oyo. Oba Atiba sought to preserve what remained of Oyo by placing on Ibadan the duty of protecting the capital from the Ilorin in the north and northeast.Smith 1989, p. 123. He also attempted to get the Ijaye to protect Oyo from the west against the Dahomeans. The center of Yoruba power moved further south to
Ibadan Ibadan (, ; ) is the Capital city, capital and most populous city of Oyo State, in Nigeria. It is the List of Nigerian cities by population, third-largest city by population in Nigeria after Lagos and Kano (city), Kano, with a total populatio ...
, a Yoruba war camp settled by Oyo commanders in 1830.


Final demise

Atiba's gambit failed, and Oyo never regained its prominence in the region. The Oba, otherwise called
Atiba Atobatele Alaafin Atiba Atobatele was a king of the Oyo Empire. He was the son of King Abiodun of Oyo, and Eni-olufan from Akeitan. Growing up, he was involved in thievery and kidnapping before relocating to the town of Ago and raising a private army. ...
, died in 1859. His first son, Adelu Alao Agunloye, became the Alaafin after him and ruled from 1859 to 1876, followed by his fourth son Alowolodu Adeyemi I, the third Alaafin to rule in the present Oyo, who also died in 1905. Others who ruled after Adeyemi I were Lawani Agogo ija, Ladigbolu I, Adeyemi II, Gbadegesin, and Lamidi Adeyemi, who died in 2022. During the colonial period, the Yorubas were one of the most urbanized groups in Africa. About 22% of the population lived in large areas with populations exceeding 100,000, and over 50% lived in cities made up of 25,000 or more people. The index of urbanization in 1950 was close to that of the United States, excluding Ilorin. The Yoruba continue to be the most urbanized African ethnic group today. Prominent contemporary cities include Oyo,
Ibadan Ibadan (, ; ) is the Capital city, capital and most populous city of Oyo State, in Nigeria. It is the List of Nigerian cities by population, third-largest city by population in Nigeria after Lagos and Kano (city), Kano, with a total populatio ...
,
Abeokuta Abeokuta is the capital city of Ogun State located at the south western part of Nigeria. It is situated on the east bank of the Ogun River, near a group of rocky outcrops in a wooded savanna; north of Lagos by railway, or by water. , Abeokut ...
,
Osogbo Osogbo (also known as ''OáčŁogbo'', and seldomly as ''Oshogbo'') is a city in Nigeria. It became the capital city of Osun State in 1991. Osogbo city seats the Headquarters of both Osogbo Local Government Area (situated at Oke-Baale Area of th ...
, Ogbomoso, and
Ilaro Ilaro is a town in Ogun State, Nigeria. Ilaro's population in 2008 was estimated at 33,000 people, and in 2015 it was estimated to have grown to about 60,000. Ilaro is the headquarters of the Yewa South, Yewa South Local government, known as Ye ...
, which are some of the major cities that flourished after old Oyo's collapse.Bascom 1962, pp. 699-709. A remnant of the monarchy continues to exist as one of the traditional states of contemporary Nigeria.


Political structure

The Oyo Empire developed a highly sophisticated political structure to govern its territorial domains. Scholars have not determined how much of this structure existed before the Nupe invasion. After reemerging from exile in the early 17th century, Oyo took on a noticeably more militant character. The influence of an aggressive Yoruba culture is exemplified in the standards placed on the oba (king) and the roles of his council.


The Alaafin of Oyo

The oba (meaning 'king' in the Yoruba language) at Oyo, who was referred to as the
Alaafin Alaafin, or ''The custodian of the Palace'' in the Yoruba language, is the title of the king of the Oyo Empire and present-day Oyo town of West Africa. It is the particular title of the Oba (king) of the Oyo. It is sometimes translated as ...
of Oyo (Alaafin means 'owner of the palace' in Yoruba), was the head of the empire and supreme overlord of the people.Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 298. He was responsible for keeping tributaries safe from attack, settling internal quarrels between sub-rulers, and mediating between those sub-rulers and their people. The Alaafin of Oyo was also expected to give his subordinates honours and presents. In return, all sub-rulers had to pay homage to the Oba and renew their allegiance at annual ceremonies. The most important of these was the Bere festival, marking the acclamation of successful rule by the Alaafin. After the Bere festival, peace in Yorubaland was supposed to last for three years. The king could not be disposed of but could be compelled to commit suicide if he was no longer wanted. This was done by sending Bashorun (The prime minister) to present either an empty
calabash Calabash (; ''Lagenaria siceraria''), also known as bottle gourd, white-flowered gourd, long melon, birdhouse gourd, New Guinea bean, New Guinea butter bean, Tasmania bean, and opo squash, is a vine grown for its fruit. It can be either harvest ...
or a dish of
parrot Parrots (Psittaciformes), also known as psittacines (), are birds with a strong curved beak, upright stance, and clawed feet. They are classified in four families that contain roughly 410 species in 101 genus (biology), genera, found mostly in ...
's eggs to him and pass a sentence of rejection, known as ''Awon Eniyan Koo'' (i.e. the people reject you, the world rejects you and the gods reject you also). According to tradition, the Alaafin was expected to commit
ritual suicide A suicide method is any means by which a person may choose to end their life. Suicide attempts do not always result in death, and a non-fatal suicide attempt can leave the person with serious physical injuries, long-term health problems, or ...
thereafter.


The Bashorun

The Basorun was a key political office in the Oyo (often likened to the role of the Prime Minister and Chancellor of the Kingdom) during the 16th to 18th centuries, controlled by Ibariba families. Serving as the head of the seven highest-ranking non-royal lords in the Oyo Mesi council, the Bashorun played a crucial role in advising the king and representing non-royal interests. Their power was substantial, especially in the selection of a new king. From 1570 to 1750, several Basoruns had Ibariba or non-YorĂčbĂĄ origins such as Basorun Magaji, Woruda, Biri, Yamba, Jambu, and Gaa. The Bashorun's duties were closely tied to warfare, leading military campaigns for the state. Their position was second only to the alaafin.


Selection of the Alaafin

The Oyo Empire was not a purely hereditary monarchy, nor was it an absolute one. The Oyo Mesi selected the Alaafin. He was not always closely related to his predecessor, although he did have to be descended from Oranmiyan, a son of
Oduduwa OdĂčduwĂ  (Ooduwa, Odudua or OĂČdua) was a Yoruba divine king, a creator deity (orisha) in the Yoruba religion, and the legendary figure who ushered in the classical period that later led to the foundation of the Ife Empire. His earthly orig ...
, and to hail from the Ona Isokun ward (which is one of the three royal wards). At the beginning of the Oyo Empire, the Alaafin's eldest son usually succeeded his father upon the throne. This sometimes led the
crown prince A crown prince or hereditary prince is the heir apparent to the throne in a royal or imperial monarchy. The female form of the title, crown princess, is held by a woman who is heir apparent or is married to the heir apparent. ''Crown prince ...
, known as the Aremo, to hasten the death of his father. To prevent this occurrence, it became traditional for the crown prince to be made to commit ritual
suicide Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death. Risk factors for suicide include mental disorders, physical disorders, and substance abuse. Some suicides are impulsive acts driven by stress (such as from financial or ac ...
upon his father's death. Independent of the succession, the Aremo was quite powerful in his own right. For instance, by custom, the Alaafin abstained from leaving the palace, except during the important festivals, which in practice curtailed his power. By contrast, the Aremo often left the palace. This led the noted historian S. Johnson to observe: "The father is the king of the palace, and the son the king for the general public". The two councils which checked the Alaafin tended to select a weak Alaafin after the reign of a strong one to keep the office from becoming too powerful.Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 300.


The Ilari

The Alaafin of Oyo appointed certain religious and government officials, who were usually
eunuch A eunuch ( , ) is a male who has been castration, castrated. Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2 ...
s.Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 299. These officials were known as the ''ilari'' or half-heads, because of the custom of shaving half of their heads and applying what was believed to be a magical substance into them.Smith 1989, p. 12. The hundreds of Ilari were divided evenly between the sexes. Junior members of the Ilari did menial tasks, while seniors acted as guards or sometimes messengers to the other world via sacrifice. Their titles related to the king, such as ''oba l'olu'' ("the king is supreme") or ' ("do not oppose him"). They carried red and green fans as credentials of their status. All sub-courts of Oyo had Ilari who acted as both spies and taxmen. Oyo appointed these to visit and sometimes reside in Dahomey and the Egbado Corridor to collect taxes and spy on Dahomey's military successes so that the Alaafin of Oyo could get his cut.Smith 1989, p. 10.


The Councils

While the Alaafin of Oyo was the supreme overlord of the people, he was not without checks on his power. The
Oyo Mesi The Oyo Mesi is the privy council of Oyo, Oyo State, Oyo, a Yoruba people, Yoruba List of Nigerian traditional states, traditional state in Southwestern Nigeria. It dates to the medieval period, when it served as the government of a powerful pre- ...
and the Yoruba Earth cult known as Ogboni kept the Oba's power in check. The Oyo Mesi spoke for the politicians while the Ogboni spoke for the people and were backed by the power of religion. The power of the Alaafin of Oyo to the Oyo Mesi and Ogboni depended on his personal character and political shrewdness.


Oyo Mesi

The Oyo Mesi were the seven principal councilors of the state. They constituted the Electoral Council and possessed legislative powers. Led by the Bashorun, acting as prime minister, and consisting of the Agbaakin, the Samu, the Alapini, the Laguna, the Akiniku, and the Ashipa, they represented the voice of the nation and had the chief responsibility of protecting the interests of the empire. The Alaafin was required to take counsel from them whenever any important matter affecting the state occurred.Afolayan, Funso. (2000) "Kingdoms of West Africa", ''Africa Vol. 1'' ed. by Tony Falola, p. 173. Each chief had a state duty to perform at court every morning and afternoon. Each also had a deputy whom they would send to the Alaafin if their absence was unavoidable. The Oyo Mesi developed as a check on the Alaafin's power, preventing the Alaafin from being an
autocrat Autocracy is a form of government in which absolute power is held by the head of state and government, known as an autocrat. It includes some forms of monarchy and all forms of dictatorship, while it is contrasted with democracy and feudalism. ...
; they compelled many Alaafins to commit suicide during the 17th and 18th centuries. The head of the council of Oyo Mesi, the Bashorun, consulted the
Ifa IFA or Ifa may refer to: Organisations Economics * Independent financial adviser, a type of financial services professional in the UK * Index Fund Advisors * Institute and Faculty of Actuaries, representing actuaries in the UK * Institute of Act ...
oracle before the royal succession for approval from the gods. New alaafins of Oyo were therefore seen as being appointed by the gods. They were regarded as ''Ekeji Orisa,'' meaning "deputy of the gods." The Bashorun had the final say on the nomination of the new Alaafin, his power rivaling that of the king himself. For example, the Bashorun orchestrated many religious festivals; he did this in addition to being commander-in-chief of the army, which gave him considerable independent religious authority. Chief among the responsibilities of the Bashorun was the all-important festival of Orun. This religious divination, held every year, was to determine if the members of the Mesi still held favour with the Alaafin. If the council decided the disapproval of the Alaafin, the Bashorun presented the Alaafin with an empty calabash, or parrot's eggs, as a sign that he must commit suicide. This was the only way to remove the Alaafin because he could not legally be deposed. Once given the calabash or the parrot's eggs, the Alaafin, his eldest son the Aremo, and his personal counselor within the Oyo Mesi, the Asamu, all had to commit suicide to renew the government. The suicide ceremony took place during the Orun festival.


The Ogboni

The Oyo Mesi did not enjoy absolute power either. While the Oyo Mesi wielded political influence, the Ogboni represented the popular opinion backed by the authority of religion, and therefore the views of the Oyo Mesi could be moderated by the Ogboni. There were checks and balances on the power of the Alaafin and the Oyo Mesi and thus no one was arrogated absolute power. The Ogboni was a very powerful secret society composed of aristocratic freemen noted for their age, wisdom, and importance in religious and political affairs. Its members enjoyed immense power over the common people due to their religious station. A testament to how widespread the institution was is the fact that there were (and still are) Ogboni councils at nearly all sub-courts within Yorubaland. Aside from their duties with respect to the worship of the earth, they were responsible for judging any case dealing with the spilling of blood. The leader of the Ogboni, the Oluwo, had the unqualified right of direct access to the Alaafin of Oyo on any matter.


Territory

At the beginning, the people were concentrated in metropolitan Oyo. With imperial expansion, Oyo reorganized to better manage its vast holdings within and outside of Yorubaland. It was divided into four layers defined by relation to the core of the empire.Oliver & Atmore 2001, p. 95. These layers were Metropolitan Oyo, southern Yorubaland, the Egbado Corridor, and Ajaland.


Metropolitan Oyo

Metropolitan Oyo corresponded, more or less, to the Oyo state prior to the Nupe invasion. This was the hub of the empire, where the Yoruba spoke the Oyo dialect. Metropolitan Oyo was divided into six provinces, with three on the west side of the
Ogun River The Ogun River ( Yoruba: OdĂČ Ă’gĂčn) is a waterway in Nigeria that discharges into the Lagos Lagoon. Ogun State of Nigeria is named after the river. Course and usage The river rises near the towns of Sepeteri and Shaki in upper Oyo State at ...
and three to the river's east. Each province was supervised by a governor appointed directly by the Alaafin of Oyo.Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 297. The heart of metropolitan Oyo was its capital at Oyo-Ile (also known as ''Oya Katunga'', ''Old Oyo'' or ''Oyo-Oro'').Goddard 1971, pp. 207–211. The two most important structures in Oyo-Ile were the 'Afin,' or palace of the Oba, and his market. The palace was at the center of the city close to the Oba's market called 'Oja-Oba'. Around the capital was an enormous earthen wall for defense with 17 gates. The importance of the two large structures (the palace and the Oja Oba) signified the importance of the king in Oyo.


Yorubaland

The second layer of the empire was composed of the towns closest to Oyo-Ile, which were recognized as brothers. This area was south of metropolitan Oyo, and its Yoruba inhabitants spoke different dialects from that of Oyo. These tributary states were led by their own rulers, titled Obas, who were confirmed by the Alaafin of Oyo.


Egbado Corridor

The empire's third layer was the Egbado Corridor southwest of Yorubaland. This area was inhabited by the
Egba The European Gaming and Betting Association (EGBA) is the Brussels-based trade association representing the leading online gambling operators established, licensed and regulated within the EU. EGBA works together with national and EU authorities ...
and
Egbado The áșžgbado (Morphology: áșžgba l'odo), now Yewa, are a subgroup of the Yoruba people and mostly inhabit Ogun West Senatorial District, Ogun State, in south-west Nigeria, Africa. In 1995, the group's name was changed to Yewa after the Yewa Riv ...
, and guaranteed Oyo's trade with the coast. The Egba and
Egbado The áșžgbado (Morphology: áșžgba l'odo), now Yewa, are a subgroup of the Yoruba people and mostly inhabit Ogun West Senatorial District, Ogun State, in south-west Nigeria, Africa. In 1995, the group's name was changed to Yewa after the Yewa Riv ...
tributaries were allowed, like their Yoruba counterparts, to rule themselves. They were, however, supervised by Ajele. These were agents appointed by the Alaafin of Oyo to oversee his interest and monitor commerce. The lead representative of Oyo in the corridor was the Olu, ruler of the town of Ilaro.


Ajaland

Ajaland was the last layer added to the empire. It was the most restive and distant, and kept in line with threats of expeditions against it. This territory extended from the non-Yoruba areas west of the Egbado Corridor far into Ewe controlled territory in modern
Togo Togo, officially the Togolese Republic, is a country in West Africa. It is bordered by Ghana to Ghana–Togo border, the west, Benin to Benin–Togo border, the east and Burkina Faso to Burkina Faso–Togo border, the north. It is one of the le ...
. This area, like all tributary states, was allowed a fair degree of autonomy as long as taxes were paid, the orders from Oyo were strictly followed, and access to local markets was provided to Oyo merchants. The Oyo often demanded tribute in slaves. The tributary chiefs of other kingdoms sometimes made war on others to capture slaves for this purpose.Alpern 1998, p. 3
Amazons of Black Sparta, 2nd Edition: The Women Warriors of Dahomey By Stanley B. Alpern
/ref> Oyo was known to punish disobedience by wholesale slaughter of the erring community, as it accomplished in
Allada Allada is a town, arrondissement, and commune, located in the Atlantique Department of Benin. The current town of Allada corresponds to Great Ardra (also called Grand Ardra, or Arda), which was the capital of a Fon kingdom also called Allada ...
in 1698.


Military

There was a high degree of professionalism in the army of the Oyo Empire.Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 301. Its military success was due in large part to its cavalry, its renowned
archers Archery is the sport, practice, or skill of using a Bow and arrow, bow to shooting, shoot arrows.Paterson ''Encyclopaedia of Archery'' p. 17 The word comes from the Latin ''arcus'', meaning bow. Historically, archery has been used for hunting ...
, as well as the leadership and courage of Oyo officers and warriors. The people of Oyo had a reputation for being the "best bowmen in Africa", according to
Hugh Clapperton Bain Hugh Clapperton (18 May 1788 – 13 April 1827) was a British naval officer and explorer of West and Central Africa. Early career Clapperton was born in Annan, Dumfriesshire, where his father, George Clapperton, was a surgeon. He gained so ...
. Starting from a young age, boys would practise and quickly become excellent with the bow. Skill refinements were culturally incorporated as games where individuals would take on the task of discharging arrows into a small hole from over 100 yards away. A feat many accomplished successive times. This deadly ability was in use both by Oyo's cavalry and the infantry. A geographic focus north of the forest ensured easier farming for Oyo, and thus a steady growth in population. This contributed to Oyo's ability to consistently field a large force. There was also an entrenched military culture in Oyo where victory was obligatory and defeat carried the duty of committing suicide. This do-or-die policy no doubt contributed to the military aggressiveness of Oyo's generals.


Cavalry

The Oyo Empire was one of the only Yoruba states to adopt
cavalry Historically, cavalry (from the French word ''cavalerie'', itself derived from ''cheval'' meaning "horse") are groups of soldiers or warriors who Horses in warfare, fight mounted on horseback. Until the 20th century, cavalry were the most mob ...
; it did so because most of its territory was in the northern
savannah A savanna or savannah is a mixed woodland-grassland (i.e. grassy woodland) biome and ecosystem characterised by the trees being sufficiently widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach th ...
. The origin of the cavalry is unclear; however, the
Nupe Nupe or NUPE may refer to: *Nupe people, of Nigeria *Nupe language, their language * Nupe River, in the HuĂĄnuco Region, Peru * Bida Emirate, also known as the Nupe Kingdom, their former state *A member of the Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity in the Uni ...
,
Borgu Borgu is a region and former country split between north-west Nigeria and the northern Republic of Benin. It was partitioned between British Empire, Great Britain and France by the Anglo-French Convention of 1898. People of Borgu are known as B ...
and
Hausa Hausa may refer to: * Hausa people, an ethnic group of West Africa * Hausa language, spoken in West Africa * Hausa Kingdoms, a historical collection of Hausa city-states * Hausa (horse) or Dongola horse, an African breed of riding horse See also ...
in neighbouring territories also used cavalry and may have had the same historical source.Law 1975, pp. 1–15. Oyo was able to purchase horses from the north and maintain them in metropolitan Oyo because of partial freedom from the
tsetse fly Tsetse ( , or ) (sometimes spelled tzetze; also known as tik-tik flies) are large, biting flies that inhabit much of tropical Africa. Tsetse flies include all the species in the genus ''Glossina'', which are placed in their own family, Gloss ...
.Stride & Ifeka 1971, p. 302. Cavalry was the long arm of the Oyo Empire. Late 16th and 17th century expeditions were composed entirely of cavalry. There were drawbacks to this. Oyo could not maintain its cavalry army in the south but could raid at will. Despite its drawbacks, Oyo Empire amassed a cavalry force exceeding one hundred thousand horsemen, with a contingent of that size reportedly mobilized specifically for campaigns against the Kingdom of Dahomey. This formidable military capacity contributed significantly to Oyo's dominance and the widespread recognition of its power across West Africa. Cavalry in highly developed societies such as Oyo was divided into light and heavy. Heavy cavalry on larger imported horses was armed with bow & arrows. Light cavalry on smaller indigenous ponies was armed with clubs.Smith 1989, p. 50.
Chain mail Mail (sometimes spelled maille and, since the 18th century, colloquially referred to as chain mail, chainmail or chain-mail) is a type of armour consisting of small metal rings linked together in a pattern to form a mesh. It was in common milita ...
armor was imported into Yorubaland from the north, and may have been worn by Oyo cavalrymen.Law 1975, pp. 1–15.


Infantry

Infantry in the region around the Oyo Empire was uniform in both armour and armament. All infantry in the region carried shields, swords and lances of one type or another. Shields were four feet tall and two feet wide and made of elephant or ox hide.Thornton 1999, p. 80. A heavy sword was the main armament for close combat. The Yoruba and their neighbours used triple barbed javelins which could be thrown accurately from about 30 paces.


Structure

The Oyo Empire, like many empires before it, used both local and tributary forces to expand its domains. The structure of the Oyo military prior to its imperial period was simple and closer aligned to the central government in metropolitan Oyo. This may have been adequate in the 14th century when Oyo controlled only its heartland, but to make and maintain conquest farther away, the structure underwent several changes.


The Eso

Oyo maintained a semi-standing army of specialist cavalry soldiers called the ''Eso'', the ''Esho'' or, formally, the Eso of Ikoyi.Smith 1989, p. 56. These were 70 junior war chiefs who were nominated by the Oyo Mesi and confirmed by the Alaafin of Oyo. The Eso were appointed for their military skill without regard to heritage, although de facto dynasties of Eso were also known to exist. The Eso were led by the Aare-Ona-Kakanfo, and were famous for living by a
warrior code A warrior is a guardian specializing in combat or warfare, especially within the context of a tribal or clan-based warrior culture society that recognizes a separate warrior aristocracy, class, or caste. History Warriors seem to have been pr ...
that was comparable to the Latin dictum infra dignitatem.


Aare Ona Kakanfo

After Oyo's return from exile, the post of Aare-Ona-Kakanfo was established as the supreme military commander.Smith 1989, p. 53. He was required to live in a frontier province of great importance to keep an eye on the enemy and to keep him from usurping the throne. During Oyo's imperial period, the Aare-Ona-Kakanfo personally commanded the army in the field on all campaigns.


Metropolitan Army

Since the Aare-Ona-Kakanfo could not reside near the capital, arrangements had to be made for the latter's protection in case of emergency. Forces inside metropolitan Oyo were commanded by the Bashorun, leading member of the Oyo Mesi. As stated earlier, Metropolitan Oyo was divided into six provinces divided evenly by a river. Provincial forces were thus grouped into two armies, under the ''Onikoyi'' and the ''Okere'' for the east and west side of the river respectively. Lesser war chiefs were known as Balogun, a title carried on by the soldiers of Oyo's successor state,
Ibadan Ibadan (, ; ) is the Capital city, capital and most populous city of Oyo State, in Nigeria. It is the List of Nigerian cities by population, third-largest city by population in Nigeria after Lagos and Kano (city), Kano, with a total populatio ...
.Smith 1989, p. 57.


Tributary Army

Tributary leaders and provincial governors were responsible for collecting tribute and contributing troops under local generalship to the imperial army in times of emergency. Occasionally, tributary leaders would be ordered to attack neighbors even without the backing of the main imperial army. These forces were often utilized in Oyo's distant campaigns on the coast or against other states.


Culture


Commerce

Oyo became the southern emporium of the Trans-Saharan trade. Exchanges were made in salt, leather, horses,
kola nut The kola nut ( Yoruba: ''obi'', Dagbani: ''guli'', Hausa: goro, Igbo: ''ọjị'', SĂ€ngö: ''gĂŽro,'' Swahili: ''mukezu'') is the seed of certain species of plant of the genus ''Cola'', placed formerly in the cocoa family Sterculiaceae and ...
s,
ivory Ivory is a hard, white material from the tusks (traditionally from elephants) and Tooth, teeth of animals, that consists mainly of dentine, one of the physical structures of teeth and tusks. The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mamm ...
, cloth and slaves. The Yoruba of metropolitan Oyo were also highly skilled in craft making and iron work. Aside from taxes on trade products coming in and out of the empire, Oyo also became wealthy off the taxes imposed on its tributaries. Taxes on the kingdom of Dahomey alone brought in an amount estimated at 14 million US dollars a year. In pre colonial times, was a type of
rotating savings and credit association A rotating savings and credit association (ROSCA) is a group of individuals who agree to meet for a defined period in order to save and borrow together, a form of combined peer-to-peer banking and peer-to-peer lending. Members all chip in regula ...
among the Yoruba. Esusu was recorded to have been practiced in Oyo during the reign of Alaafin Abiodun in the 18th century.


Architecture

The architecture within the Oyo Empire, exhibited an intricate built environment. Elite residences in Oyo-Ile showcased a distinctive architectural style, highlighted by intricate sculptures that symbolized the status of the inhabitants. Sculptors adorned houses and compounds with finely carved wooden posts and bas-relief doors, often depicting narratives of significant events, asserting power, and immortalizing the experiences of the residents. However, the most intricate and elaborate architectural artworks were reserved for the temples dedicated to the deities. An exceptional example is the temple of Sango. The structure, perfectly square and approximately twenty yards on each side, featured polished, deep-red stained floors and walls. Hugh Clapperton called it "The largest and most fancifully ornamented of any of a similar kind in the interior of Africa." In the surrounding provinces of the Oyo Empire, smaller replicas of the architectural artistry dedicated to Sango were established. For example, a temple in
Ilaro Ilaro is a town in Ogun State, Nigeria. Ilaro's population in 2008 was estimated at 33,000 people, and in 2015 it was estimated to have grown to about 60,000. Ilaro is the headquarters of the Yewa South, Yewa South Local government, known as Ye ...
was described as a large square building supported by round pillars, against which were set sculptures of men, some armed with sword and shield and others holding pistols. Clapperton noted the remarkable skill of the artisans, stating that some of their sculptural creations rivaled those he had seen in Europe in terms of delicacy. The support
pillars A column or pillar in architecture and structural engineering is a structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below. In other words, a column is a compression member. ...
of the Oyo palace were made of brass and were measured to be around 2 meters in height. The roof of the Old Oyo palace in its heyday was said to held up with around 100 brass pillars in a long corridor before The palace was invaded and ransacked by the Ilorin Emirate in the 19th century. It is claimed that they were first erected during the reign of Alaafin Aganju around the 15th century, although some sources attribute them to have been cast between 1750 and 1780. Doors were also intricately cast and crafted in oyo. A large iron door looted from Oyo was kept and passed down from Emirs, and an Alaafin from the 18th century was said to have "made seven silver doors to the seven entrances of his sleeping apartment".
Potsherd This page is a glossary of archaeology, the study of the human past from material remains. A B C D E F ...
Pavements at Old Oyo have been dated from the 13th to 14th centuries.


Ethnic diversity in Oyo

After the Nupe crisis, Oyo grew a more diverse population. The Yoruba elements remained the dominant population in the reconstructed empire. Next to them in influence were the Ibariba, and joining this multiethnic nation were elements of Nupe, Songhai, and Mossi. The presence of Ibariba, Songhai, and Mossi facial scarification among the Oyo population provides evidence for this multiethnic and multicultural integration in the formation of the Oyo identity after 1570. File:Araldiz Manno 259.svg, Ìbọ̀, ('' Solomon's knot''), a quasi-
heraldic Heraldry is a discipline relating to the design, display and study of armorial bearings (known as armory), as well as related disciplines, such as vexillology, together with the study of ceremony, rank and pedigree. Armory, the best-known branc ...
symbol of Yoruba royalty File:Solomons-knot-quadruple.svg, Ìbọ̀ onĂ­gun máșč́rin, (Quadruple '' Solomon's knot''). File:VeveOgoun.svg, The
veve A ''veve'' (also spelled ''vĂšvĂš'' or ''vevĂš'') is a religious symbol commonly used in different branches of Vodun throughout the African diaspora, such as Haitian Vodou and Louisiana Voodoo. The ''veve'' acts as a "beacon" for the '' lwa'', a ...
of
Ogun Ogun or Ogoun ( Yoruba: ÒgĂșn, Edo: ÒgĂșn, Portuguese: Ogum, Gu; also spelled Oggun or Ogou; known as OgĂșn or Ogum in Latin America) is a Yoruba Orisha that is adopted in several African religions. ÒgĂșn is a warrior and a powerful spi ...
, war god of the Yoruba and totem of the Alaafins of Oyo


See also

*
Ijebu Kingdom Ijebu (also known as Jebu, Geebu, or Xabu ) was a Yoruba people, Yoruba kingdom in South West Nigeria. It was formed around the fifteenth century. According to legend, its ruling dynasty was founded by Obanta whose personal name was Ogborogan o ...
*
Ondo Kingdom The Ondo Kingdom is a traditional state that traces its origins back for over 500 years, with its capital in Ode Ondo. Ondo Kingdom was established by Princess Pupupu, one of the twins of Alafin Oluaso. Her mother was Queen Olu who later di ...
*
Ife empire The Ife Empire was the first empire in History of the Yoruba people, Yoruba history. It was founded in what is now southwestern Nigeria and eastern Benin. A classical period starting from 1000 to 1420 CE, marked the age of its most well known s ...
*
Rulers of the Yoruba state of Oyo Oyo, Oyo State, is the seat of the line of the rulers of Oyo. Their territory, a constituent rump state, is located in what is now Nigeria. Since the 1900 political absorption into Southern Nigeria of the kingdom that it once served as a metro ...
* Oyotunji African Village *
History of Nigeria The history of Nigeria can be traced to the earliest inhabitants whose date remains at least 13,000 BC through the early civilizations such as the Nok culture which began around 1500 BC. Numerous ancient African civilizations settled in the reg ...


Notes


References

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Easley, Dr. Larry. "The Four Forest States of Africa." Oyo Empire. Southeast Missouri State University, Cape Girardeau. 2 Mar. 2009. * Kehnide Salami, Yunusa PhD
The Democratic Structure of Yoruba Political-Cultural Heritage.
Department of Philosophy Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife. 29 Apr. 2009. * Shillington, Kevin. History of Africa. 2nd ed. New York: Macmillan Limited, 1995 * Fasanya, Akin (2004). "The Original Religion of the Yorubas." http://www.laits.utexas.edu/africa/2004/database/fasanya.html *


External links



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