Apocynaceae (, from ''

Apocynum ''Apocynum'', commonly known as dogbane or Indian hemp, is a small genus of the flowering plant family Apocynaceae. Its name comes from Ancient Greek , from ''apo-'' "away" and ''kyōn'' "dog", referring to dogbane ('' Cionura erecta''), which ...

'', Greek for "dog-away") is a family of

flowering plant Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (). The term angiosperm is derived from the Ancient Greek, Greek words (; 'container, vessel') and (; 'seed'), meaning that the seeds are enclosed with ...

s that includes trees, shrubs, herbs, stem succulents, and vines, commonly known as the dogbane family, because some taxa were used as dog poison. Notable members of the family include

oleander ''Nerium oleander'' ( ), commonly known as oleander or rosebay, is a shrub or small tree cultivated worldwide in temperate and subtropical areas as an ornamental and landscaping plant. It is the only species currently classified in the genus ...

dogbane Dogbane, dog-bane (plant), bane, dog's bane, and other variations, some of them regional and some transient, are names for certain plants that are reputed to kill or repel dogs; "Bane (plant), bane" originally meant "slayer", and was later appli ...

milkweed ''Asclepias'' is a genus of herbaceous, perennial, flowering plants known as milkweeds, named for their latex, a milky substance containing cardiac glycosides termed cardenolides, exuded where cells are damaged. Most species are toxic to huma ...

s, and periwinkles. The family is native to the European, Asian, African, Australian, and American tropics or subtropics, with some temperate members as well. The former family Asclepiadaceae (now known as

Asclepiadoideae The Asclepiadoideae are a subfamily of plants in the family Apocynaceae. Formerly, it was treated as a separate family under the name Asclepiadaceae, e.g. by APG II, and known as the milkweed family. They form a group of perennial herbs, twinin ...

) is considered a subfamily of Apocynaceae and contains 348 genera. A list of Apocynaceae genera may be found

here Here may refer to: Music * ''Here'' (Adrian Belew album), 1994 * ''Here'' (Alicia Keys album), 2016 * ''Here'' (Cal Tjader album), 1979 * ''Here'' (Edward Sharpe album), 2012 * ''Here'' (Idina Menzel album), 2004 * ''Here'' (Merzbow album), ...

. Many species are tall trees found in tropical forests, but some grow in tropical dry (

xeric Deserts and xeric shrublands are a biome defined by the World Wide Fund for Nature. Deserts and xeric (Ancient Greek 'dry') shrublands form the largest terrestrial biome, covering 19% of Earth's land surface area. Ecoregions in this habita ...

) environments. Also

perennial In horticulture, the term perennial ('' per-'' + '' -ennial'', "through the year") is used to differentiate a plant from shorter-lived annuals and biennials. It has thus been defined as a plant that lives more than 2 years. The term is also ...

herbs from

temperate zone In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (approximately 23.5° to 66.5° N/S of the Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth. These zones generally have wider temperature ra ...

s occur. Many of these plants have milky latex, and many species are poisonous if ingested, the family being rich in genera containing

alkaloids Alkaloids are a broad class of naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. Some synthetic compounds of similar structure may also be termed alkaloids. Alkaloids are produced by a large variety of organisms i ...

and

cardiac glycosides Cardiac glycosides are a class of organic compounds that increase the output force of the heart and decrease its rate of contractions by inhibiting the cellular sodium-potassium ATPase pump. Their beneficial medical uses include treatments for ...

, those containing the latter often finding use as arrow poisons. Some genera of Apocynaceae, such as ''

Adenium ''Adenium'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae first described as a genus in 1819. It is native to Africa and the Arabian Peninsula. Cultivation and uses ''Adenium obesum'' is grown as a houseplant in temperate and tropic ...

'', bleed clear sap without latex when damaged, and others, such as ''

Pachypodium ''Pachypodium'' is a genus of succulent spine-bearing trees and shrubs, native to Madagascar and Africa. It belongs to the family Apocynaceae. Genus characteristics All ''Pachypodium'' are succulent plants that exhibit, to varying degrees, the ...

'', have milky latex apart from their sap.

Description

Growth pattern

The dogbane/milkweed family includes annual plants, perennial herbs, stem succulents, woody shrubs, trees, or vines. Most exude a milky latex when cut.

Leaves and stems

Leaves are

simple Simple or SIMPLE may refer to: *Simplicity, the state or quality of being simple Arts and entertainment * ''Simple'' (album), by Andy Yorke, 2008, and its title track * "Simple" (Florida Georgia Line song), 2018 * "Simple", a song by John ...

. They may appear one at a time (singly) with each occurrence on alternating sides of the stem,Apocynaceae, Thomas Rosatti, Jepson Herbarium
/ref> but usually occur in pairs (and rarely in

whorl A whorl ( or ) is an individual circle, oval, volution or equivalent in a whorled pattern, which consists of a spiral or multiple concentric objects (including circles, ovals and arcs). In nature File:Photograph and axial plane floral diagra ...

s). When paired, they occur on opposite sides of the stem (opposite), with each pair occurring at an angle rotated 90° to the pair below it (

decussate Decussation is used in biological contexts to describe a crossing (due to the shape of the Roman numeral for ten, an uppercase 'X' (), ). In Latin anatomical terms, the form is used, e.g. . Similarly, the anatomical term chiasma is named aft ...

). There is no

stipule In botany, a stipule is an outgrowth typically borne on both sides (sometimes on just one side) of the base of a leafstalk (the petiole (botany), petiole). They are primarily found among dicots and rare among monocots. Stipules are considered part ...

(a small leaf-like structure at the base of the leaf stem), or stipules are small and sometimes finger-like.

Inflorescence and fruit

Flowers have radial symmetry (

actinomorphic Floral symmetry describes whether, and how, a flower, in particular its perianth, can be divided into two or more identical or mirror-image parts. Uncommonly, flowers may have no axis of symmetry at all, typically because their parts are spirall ...

), and are borne in heads that are

cymes In botany, an inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a plant's stem that is composed of a main branch or a system of branches. An inflorescence is categorized on the basis of the arrangement of flowers on a main axis ( ped ...

raceme A raceme () or racemoid is an unbranched, indeterminate growth, indeterminate type of inflorescence bearing flowers having short floral stalks along the shoots that bear the flowers. The oldest flowers grow close to the base and new flowers are ...

s, or are solitary in axils. They are

perfect Perfect commonly refers to: * Perfection; completeness, and excellence * Perfect (grammar), a grammatical category in some languages Perfect may also refer to: Film and television * ''Perfect'' (1985 film), a romantic drama * ''Perfect'' (20 ...

(bisexual), with a

synsepal A synsepal is a floral structure formed by the partial or complete fusion of two or more sepals. Such sepals are said to be synsepalous or gamosepalous. It is common among lady's slipper orchids (Cypripedioideae) that the two lateral sepals a ...

ous, five-lobed calyx united into a tube at the base. Inflorescences are terminal or

axillary Axillary means "related to the axilla (armpit)" or "related to the leaf axils". "Axillary" may refer to: Biology * Axillary artery * Axillary border * Axillary fascia * Axillary feathers * Axillary hairs * Axillary lines * Axillary lymph nodes ...

. Five petals are united into a tube with four or five epipetalous stamens. The

style Style, or styles may refer to: Film and television * ''Style'' (2001 film), a Hindi film starring Sharman Joshi, Riya Sen, Sahil Khan and Shilpi Mudgal * ''Style'' (2002 film), a Tamil drama film * ''Style'' (2004 film), a Burmese film * '' ...

head is swollen. The pollen is transported in foam. The

ovary The ovary () is a gonad in the female reproductive system that produces ova; when released, an ovum travels through the fallopian tube/ oviduct into the uterus. There is an ovary on the left and the right side of the body. The ovaries are end ...

is usually

superior Superior may refer to: *Superior (hierarchy), something which is higher in a hierarchical structure of any kind Places * Superior (proposed U.S. state), an unsuccessful proposal for the Upper Peninsula of Michigan to form a separate state *Lak ...

, ''bicarpellary,'' and ''apocarpous,'' with a common fused style and stigma. (Fig. 5. and Fig.6. in the illustration of '' Rhigospira quadrangularis'' show a typical tripartite style which divides into three zones (specialised for pollen deposition, viscin secretion, and the reception of pollen). The fruit is a

drupe In botany, a drupe (or stone fruit) is a type of fruit in which an outer fleshy part (exocarp, or skin, and mesocarp, or flesh) surrounds a single shell (the ''pip'' (UK), ''pit'' (US), ''stone'', or ''pyrena'') of hardened endocarp with a seed ...

, a

berry A berry is a small, pulpy, and often edible fruit. Typically, berries are juicy, rounded, brightly colored, sweet, sour or tart, and do not have a stone or pit although many pips or seeds may be present. Common examples of berries in the cul ...

, a capsule, or a (frequently paired) follicle. The seeds are often winged or have appendages of long silky hairs.

Taxonomy

As of 2012, the family was described as comprising some 5,100 species, in five subfamilies:Nazia Nazar, David J. Goyder, James J. Clarkson, Tariq Mahmood and Mark W. Chase, 2013, "The taxonomy and systematics of ''Apocynaceae'': Where we stand in 2012," '' Bot. J. Linn. Soc.,'' 171(3, March), pp. 482–490, se

accessed 22 June 2015. *

Apocynoideae Apocynoideae is a subfamily of the flowering plant family Apocynaceae (order Gentianales), also called the 'dogbane' or Asclepias, milkweed family, containing about 860 species across 78 genera. Several are of pharmacological interest; ''Strophan ...

Burnett, 1835 *

Burnett, 1835 (incorporating the

Asclepiadaceae The Asclepiadoideae are a subfamily of plants in the family Apocynaceae. Formerly, it was treated as a separate family under the name Asclepiadaceae, e.g. by APG II, and known as the milkweed family. They form a group of perennial herbs, twinin ...

) *

Periplocoideae Periplocoideae is a subfamily of the dogbane plant family, Apocynaceae. It was not divided into tribes as of 2014. Genera In 2014, the subfamily was circumscribed to contain the following genera: *'' Atherandra'' Decne. *'' Baroniella'' Costant ...

Endl., 1838 *

Rauvolfioideae Rauvolfioideae is a subfamily of the flowering plant family Apocynaceae (order Gentianales). Many species are woody lianas, others are shrubs or perennial herbs. Tribes and genera To date (2022), eleven tribes have been erected:Endress ME, Liede ...

Kostel., 1834 *

Secamonoideae Secamonoideae is a subfamily of the dogbane family, Apocynaceae Apocynaceae (, from '' Apocynum'', Greek for "dog-away") is a family of flowering plants that includes trees, shrubs, herbs, stem succulents, and vines, commonly known as the dog ...

Endl., 1838 The former family Asclepiadaceae is included in Apocynaceae according to the

Angiosperm Flowering plants are plants that bear flowers and fruits, and form the clade Angiospermae (). The term angiosperm is derived from the Greek words (; 'container, vessel') and (; 'seed'), meaning that the seeds are enclosed within a fruit ...

Phylogeny Group III (

APG III The APG III system of flowering plant classification is the third version of a modern, mostly molecular-based, system of plant taxonomy being developed by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG). Published in 2009, it was superseded in 2016 by a fur ...

) modern, largely molecular-based system of flowering plant taxonomy. An updated classification, including 366 genera, 25 tribes, and 49 subtribes, was published in 2014. 376 genera are currently accepted.''Apocynaceae'' Juss.
''

Plants of the World Online Plants of the World Online (POWO) is an online taxonomic database published by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. History Following the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Royal Botanic Gardens in Kew launched Plants of the World Online i ...

''. Retrieved 24 July 2023.

Distribution and habitat

Species in this family are distributed mainly in tropical regions: *In the tropical forests and swamps of

Indomalaya The Indomalayan realm is one of the eight biogeographic realms. It extends across most of South and Southeast Asia and into the southern parts of East Asia. Also called the Oriental realm by biogeographers, Indomalaya spreads all over the Ind ...

: small to very tall evergreen trees up to tall, often with buttress roots, such as ''

Alstonia ''Alstonia'' is a widespread genus of evergreen trees and shrubs, of the family Apocynaceae. It was named by Robert Brown in 1811, after Charles Alston (1685–1760), professor of botany at Edinburgh from 1716 to 1760. The type species ''Alston ...

'' and ''

Dyera ''Dyera'' is a genus of tropical trees up to 80 m in height. They are in family (biology), family Apocynaceae, native to southeast Asia. It was first described as a genus in 1882, by Joseph Dalton Hooker.Middleton, D.J. (2007). Apocynaceae (subfa ...

.'' *In Australia: occurs in all habitats; about 46 genera and about 200 species, including about 20 naturalised; herbs, vines, shrubs and trees. *In deciduous forests of Africa, India, and

Indo-China Mainland Southeast Asia (historically known as Indochina and the Indochinese Peninsula) is the continental portion of Southeast Asia. It lies east of the Indian subcontinent and south of Mainland China and is bordered by the Indian Ocean to th ...

: smaller trees such as '' Carissa'', ''

Wrightia ''Wrightia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae, first described as a genus in 1810. It native to tropical Africa, China, the Indian Subcontinent, Southeast Asia, Papuasia, and Australia. The species are all small trees or s ...

,'' and '' Holarrhena'' *In tropical America, India, Myanmar, and Malaya: evergreen trees and shrubs, such as ''

Rauvolfia ''Rauvolfia'' (sometimes spelled ''Rauwolfia'') is a genus of evergreen trees and shrubs, commonly known as devil peppers, in the family Apocynaceae. The genus is named to honor Leonhard Rauwolf. The genus can mainly be found in Tropics, trop ...

'', ''

Tabernaemontana ''Tabernaemontana'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae. It has a pan-tropical distribution, found in Asia, Africa, Australia, North America, South America, and islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans. These plants are everg ...

,'' and '' Acokanthera.'' *In Central America: ''

Plumeria ''Plumeria'' (), also known as frangipani, is a genus of flowering plants in the subfamily Rauvolfioideae, of the family Apocynaceae. Most species are deciduous shrubs or small trees. The species are native to the Neotropical realm (in Mexico, ...

'', or the frangipani, with its waxy white or pink flowers and a sweet scent. *In South America, Africa, and Madagascar: many

liana A liana is a long-Plant stem, stemmed Woody plant, woody vine that is rooted in the soil at ground level and uses trees, as well as other means of vertical support, to climb up to the Canopy (biology), canopy in search of direct sunlight. T ...

s, such as ''

Landolphia ''Landolphia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae first described as a genus in 1806. They take the form of vines that scramble over host trees. ''Landolphia'' is native to tropical Africa. Characteristics There are about f ...

'' *In the Mediterranean region: ''

Nerium ''Nerium oleander'' ( ), commonly known as oleander or rosebay, is a shrub or small tree cultivated worldwide in temperate and subtropical areas as an ornamental and landscaping plant. It is the only species currently classified in the genus ...

'', with the well-known oleander or be-still tree (''

Nerium oleander ''Nerium oleander'' ( ), commonly known as oleander or rosebay, is a shrub or small tree cultivated worldwide in temperate and subtropical areas as an ornamental and landscaping plant. It is the Monotypic taxon, only species currently classifi ...

''), and Apple of Sodom (''

Calotropis procera ''Calotropis procera'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae that is native to North Africa, Northern and Afrotropical realm, Tropical Africa, West Asia, Western Asia, South Asia and Mainland Southeast Asia, Indochina (main ...

''), with other ('' Calotropis'') species extending into South Asia. *The only genera found in temperate Europe away from the Mediterranean are ''

Vinca ''Vinca'' (; Latin: ''vincire'' "to bind, fetter") is an Old World genus of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae, The English name periwinkle is shared with the related genus '' Catharanthus'' (and with the mollusc '' Littorina littorea'') ...

'' (Rauvolfioideae) and ''

Vincetoxicum ''Vincetoxicum'' is a genus of plants in the family Apocynaceae. Although the species in ''Vincetoxicum'' have sometimes been included in '' Cynanchum'', chemical and molecular evidence shows that ''Vincetoxicum'' is more closely related to ''Tyl ...

'' (Asclepiadoideae). Also ''

Asclepias syriaca ''Asclepias syriaca'', commonly called common milkweed, butterfly flower, silkweed, silky swallow-wort, and Virginia silkweed, is a species of flowering plant. It is native to southern Canada and much of the United States east of the Rocky Moun ...

'' is an invasive weed (e. g., in many areas of Ukraine). *In North America: ''

'', dogbane or Indian hemp, including ''

Apocynum cannabinum ''Apocynum cannabinum'' (dogbane, amy root, hemp dogbane, prairie dogbane, Indian hemp, hemp dogsbane, rheumatism root, dogsbane, or wild cotton) is a perennial herbaceous plant that grows throughout much of North America—in the southern hal ...

'', a traditional source of fiber. Also the bluestars, ''

Amsonia ''Amsonia'' is a genus of flowering plants in the Apocynum, dogbane family, Apocynaceae, first described as a genus in 1788. It is native primarily to North America with one species in East Asia and another in the eastern Mediterranean. It was ...

'', herbaceous perennials of upright habit, grown as ornamental plants for their attractive flowers. *In continental southern Africa (Angola, Botswana, Eswatini, Mozambique, South Africa, and Zimbabwe) and Madagascar, except for the humid evergreen forest of the eastern side of Madagascar, and never above for the entire island: ''

'' and ''

Fockea ''Fockea'' is a genus of succulent scrubs native to Africa south of the equator. They are members of the Asclepiadoideae (milkweeds), a subfamily of the dogbane family Apocynaceae. Of the six accepted species, only the two most widely distributed ...

.''

Ecology

Several genera are preferred larval host plants for the

Queen Butterfly The queen butterfly (''Danaus gilippus'') is a North and South American butterfly in the family Nymphalidae with a wingspan of . It is orange or brown with black wing borders and small white forewing spots on its dorsal wing surface, and reddish ...

(''Danaus gilippus'').

Toxicity

Many species of plants from the family Apocynaceae have some toxicity, with some being extremely poisonous if parts are ingested, or if they are not handled properly. Genera containing

cardiac glycoside Cardiac glycosides are a class of organic compounds that increase the output force of the heart and decrease its rate of contractions by inhibiting the cellular sodium-potassium ATPase pump. Their beneficial medical uses include treatments for ...

s—'' Cerbera'', ''

'', ''

Asclepias ''Asclepias'' is a genus of herbaceous, perennial, flowering plants known as milkweeds, named for their latex, a milky substance containing cardiac glycosides termed cardenolides, exuded where cells are damaged. Most species are toxic to huma ...

'', '' Cascabela'', ''

Strophanthus ''Strophanthus'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae, first described as a genus in 1802. It is native primarily to tropical Africa, extending to South Africa, with a few species in Asia from southern India to New Guinea and ...

,'' '' Acokanthera'', ''

,'' '' Thevetia,'' etc.—have therapeutic ranges, but are often associated with accidental poisonings, in many cases lethal (see below).

Alkaloid Alkaloids are a broad class of natural product, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. Some synthetic compounds of similar structure may also be termed alkaloids. Alkaloids are produced by a large varie ...

-producing species like ''

Rauvolfia serpentina ''Rauvolfia serpentina'', the Indian snakeroot, devil pepper, serpentine wood, Sarpagandha (as known locally) or Chandrika, is a species of flower in the milkweed family Apocynaceae. It is native to the Indian subcontinent and East Asia (from Ind ...

,'' ''

Catharanthus roseus ''Catharanthus roseus'', commonly known as bright eyes, Cape periwinkle, graveyard plant, Madagascar periwinkle, old maid, pink periwinkle, rose periwinkle, is a perennial species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae. It is native and en ...

,'' and ''

Tabernanthe iboga ''Tabernanthe'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae, first described as a genus in 1888. It is native to tropical central Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent after Asia. At a ...

'' are likewise the source of compounds with therapeutic ranges, but which have significant associated toxicities if not taken in appropriate doses and in controlled fashion. (See below)

Uses

Several members of the family Apocynaceae have had economic uses in the past. Several are sources of important

natural product A natural product is a natural compound or substance produced by a living organism—that is, found in nature. In the broadest sense, natural products include any substance produced by life. Natural products can also be prepared by chemical s ...

s—pharmacologic tool compounds and drug research candidates, and in some cases actual prescription drugs.

Cardiac glycoside Cardiac glycosides are a class of organic compounds that increase the output force of the heart and decrease its rate of contractions by inhibiting the cellular sodium-potassium ATPase pump. Their beneficial medical uses include treatments for ...

s, which affect heart function, are a ready example. Genera studied and known to contain such glycosides include '' Acokanthera'', ''

'', '' Cerbera'', ''

'', '' Thevetia'' and ''

.'' ''

'' (Indian snakeroot) contains the alkaloid

reserpine Reserpine is a drug that is used for the treatment of hypertension, high blood pressure, usually in combination with a thiazide diuretic or vasodilator. Large clinical trials have shown that combined treatment with reserpine plus a thiazide diur ...

, which has been used as an antihypertensive and an antipsychotic drug but its adverse effects limit its clinical use. ''

'' yields alkaloids used in the treatment of cancer. ''

Voacanga africana ''Voacanga'' is a genus of plants in the family Apocynaceae found in Africa, Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and Australia. the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families recognises 13 species:Search for "Voacanga", ;Species # ''Voacanga africana' ...

, and Tabernaemontana undulata'' contain the alkaloid

ibogaine Ibogaine is a psychoactive indole alkaloid derived from plants such as '' Tabernanthe iboga'', characterized by hallucinogenic and oneirogenic effects. Traditionally used by Central African foragers, it has undergone controversial research ...

, which is a

psychedelic drug Psychedelics are a subclass of hallucinogenic drugs whose primary effect is to trigger non-ordinary mental states (known as psychedelic experiences or "trips") and a perceived "expansion of consciousness". Also referred to as classic halluc ...

which may help with drug addiction, but which has significant adverse effects, with ibogaine being both cardiotoxic and neurotoxic.

Ajmalicine Ajmalicine, also known as δ-yohimbine or raubasine, is an antihypertensive drug used in the treatment of high blood pressure. It has been marketed under numerous brand names including Card-Lamuran, Circolene, Cristanyl, Duxil, Duxor, Hydroxysar ...

, an

alkaloid Alkaloids are a broad class of natural product, naturally occurring organic compounds that contain at least one nitrogen atom. Some synthetic compounds of similar structure may also be termed alkaloids. Alkaloids are produced by a large varie ...

found in ''

'' spp., ''

'', and ''

Mitragyna speciosa ''Mitragyna speciosa'' is a tropical evergreen tree of the Rubiaceae family (coffee family) native to Southeast Asia. It is indigenous to Cambodia, Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, and Papua New Guinea, where its dark green, glossy leav ...

'', is an antihypertensive drug used in the treatment of high blood pressure. Many genera are grown as

ornamental plant Ornamental plants or ''garden plants'' are plants that are primarily grown for their beauty but also for qualities such as scent or how they shape physical space. Many flowering plants and garden varieties tend to be specially bred cultivars th ...

s, including ''

'' (bluestar), ''

'' (oleander), ''

'' (periwinkle), '' Carissa'' (Natal plum), ''

Allamanda ''Allamanda'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae. They are native to the Americas, where they are distributed from Mexico to Argentina. Some species are familiar as ornamental plants cultivated for their large, colorful flow ...

'' (golden trumpet), ''

'' (frangipani), '' Thevetia'', ''

Mandevilla ''Mandevilla'' is a genus of tropical and subtropical flowering vines belonging to the family Apocynaceae. It was first described as a genus in 1840. A common name is rocktrumpet. ''Mandevilla'' species are native to the Southwestern United St ...

'' (Savannah flower), and ''

'' (desert-rose). In addition, the genera ''

'', '' Carpodinus'', and '' Mascarenhasia'' have been used as commercial sources of inferior rubber. (See

Congo rubber ''Landolphia owariensis'' is a species of liana from the family Apocynaceae found in tropical Africa. Latex can be extracted from this plant for the manufacture of natural rubber. Other names for this vine are eta, the white rubber vine and the C ...

) There are limited dietary uses of plants from this family. The flower of '' Echites panduratus'' (common name: ') is edible. '' Carissa'' (Natal plum) produces an edible fruit, but all other parts of the plant are poisonous. The genus ''

'' was reportedly used as a source of fiber by Native Americans. The aromatic fruit juice from '' Saba comorensis'' (syn. ''Landolphia comorensis'', the Bungo or Mbungo fruit) is used as a drink. Finally, ethnopharmacologic and ethnotoxicologic uses are also known. The roots of ''

'' and certain ''

Voacanga ''Voacanga'' is a genus of plants in the family Apocynaceae found in Africa, Southeast Asia, New Guinea, and Australia. the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families recognises 13 species:Search for "Voacanga", ;Species # ''Voacanga africana' ...

'' species have traditionally been used ceremonially as hallucinogens in Africa. The

-type alkaloids responsible for the psychoactivity of these plants have been studied with regard to the treatment of drug addiction. The juice of '' Acokanthera'' species such as '' A. venenata'' and the milky juice of the

Namibia Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country on the west coast of Southern Africa. Its borders include the Atlantic Ocean to the west, Angola and Zambia to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south; in the no ...

n ''

'' have been used as poison for arrow tips. Many species are ornamental in gardens or as houseplants.

Gallery

Flowers

File:Acokanthera oblongifolia 2445.JPG, ''

Acokanthera oblongifolia ''Acokanthera'' is a genus of flowering plants in the family Apocynaceae. It comprises 5 species and is generally restricted to Africa, although ''A. schimperi'' also occurs in Yemen. Its sap contains the deadly toxin ''ouabain'', a glycosid ...

'' File:Adenium obesum3.jpg, ''

Adenium obesum ''Adenium obesum'', more commonly known as a desert rose, is a poisonous species of flowering plant belonging to the tribe Nerieae of the subfamily Apocynoideae of the Apocynum, dogbane family, Apocynaceae. It is native plant, native to the Sahe ...

'' File:Allamanda cathartica flowers 2.JPG, ''

Allamanda cathartica ''Allamanda cathartica'', commonly called golden trumpet, common trumpetvine, and yellow allamanda, is a species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae. It is native to Bolivia, Brazil, French Guiana, Guyana, Suriname, and Venezuela, and w ...

'' File:糖膠樹(黑板樹) Alstonia scholaris -香港中央圖書館 Hong Kong Central Library- (9237370435).jpg, ''

Alstonia scholaris ''Alstonia scholaris'', commonly called blackboard tree, scholar tree, milkwood or devil's tree in English, is an evergreen tree in the oleander and frangipani family Apocynaceae. Its natural range is from Pakistan to China, and south to northe ...

'' File:Alyxia.oliviformis1web.jpg, '' Alyxia oliviformis'' File:Amsonia tabernaemontana kz01.jpg, ''

Amsonia tabernaemontana ''Amsonia tabernaemontana'', the eastern bluestar, is a North American species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae, found in central and eastern North America. Gallery File:Amsonia tabernaemontana kz01.jpg, Detail of inflorescence File: ...

'' File:Ancylobothrys capensis08.jpg, '' Ancylobothrys capensis'' File:Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-017.jpg, ''

Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco ''Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco'', commonly known as Quebracho blanco, kebrako, or white quebracho, is a South American tree species, native to Brazil, northern Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay. It must not be confused with other species ...

'' illustration in Köhler's Medizinal-Pflanzen File:Caralluma burchardii IMGP8282.JPG, ''

Apteranthes burchardii ''Apteranthes burchardii'' is a fleshy and superficially cactus-like plant that belongs to the genus ''Apteranthes'' in the subfamily Asclepiadoideae of the family Apocynaceae. Its basionym is ''Caralluma burchardii''. This species is native to ...

'' File:Asclepias curassavica 1854.jpg, ''

Asclepias curassavica ''Asclepias curassavica'', commonly known as tropical milkweed, is a flowering plant species of the milkweed genus, ''Asclepias''. It is native to the Neotropical realm, American tropics and has a pantropical distribution as an introduced species ...

'' File:Caralluma acutangula Bild0685.jpg, '' Caralluma acutangula'' File:Caralluma europaea - cvet.jpg, '' Caralluma europaea'' File:Caralluma socotrana 01.jpg, '' Caralluma socotrana'' File:Cascabela thevetia1MTFL.jpg, ''

Cascabela thevetia ''Cascabela thevetia'' (Synonym (taxonomy), synonym ''Thevetia peruviana'') is a poisonous plant native throughout Mexico and in Central America, and cultivated widely as an ornamental. It is a relative of ''Nerium oleander'', giving it a common ...

'' (syn. ''Thevetia peruviana'') File:Catharanthus roseus-IMG 5432.jpg, ''

'' File:Cerbera manghas flower.jpg, ''

Cerbera manghas ''Cerbera manghas'' (formerly ''Cerbera tanghin''), commonly known as the sea mango, tangena or bintaro is a small evergreen coastal tree growing up to tall. It is native to coastal areas in Africa, Asia, Australasia, and the Pacific islands. It ...

'' File:Cryptolepis buchananii (2618297906).jpg, '' Cryptolepis dubia'' File:Cycladeniahumilisjonesii.JPG, '' Cycladenia humilis var.jonesii'' File:Holarrhena pubescens flowers.jpg, ''

Holarrhena pubescens ''Holarrhena pubescens'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae. It is native to central and southern Africa, the Indian Subcontinent, Indochina, and parts of China. ''Holarrhena pubescens'' is sometimes confused with the speci ...

'' File:Hoodia gordonii 1DS-II 2-3327.jpg, ''

Hoodia gordonii ''Hoodia gordonii'', also known as Bushman’s hat, is a leafless spiny succulent plant supposed to have therapeutic properties in traditional medicine, folk medicine. It grows naturally in Botswana, South Africa and Namibia. The species became i ...

'' File:Hoya FR 2013.jpg, ''

Hoya carnosa ''Hoya carnosa'', the porcelain flower or wax plant, is a species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae, native to East Asia. It is a common house plant grown for its attractive waxy foliage, and sweetly scented flowers. It is grown well i ...

'' File:Mandevilla boliviensis.jpg, '' Mandevilla boliviensis'' File:Nerium oleander pink.jpg, ''

'' File:Ochrosia borbonica 02.JPG, ''

Ochrosia borbonica ''Ochrosia borbonica'' is a species of plant in the family Apocynaceae. It is native to Mauritius and Réunion, and naturalized in Guangdong Province in China. The species is listed as endangered. References

Ochrosia, borbonica Endanger ...

'' File:Pachypodium lamerei 5Dsr 1733.jpg, '' Pachypodium lamerei'' File:Comarca Oeste, Las Palmas, Spain - panoramio.jpg, ''Pachypodium lamerei'' growth habit File:Fiore di Periploca graeca.jpg, '' Periploca graeca'' File:Plumeria rubra L. (2257161947).jpg, ''

Plumeria rubra ''Plumeria rubra'' is a deciduous plant species belonging to the genus ''Plumeria''."Botanica. The Illustrated AZ of over 10000 garden plants and how to cultivate them", p. 691. Könemann, 2004. Originally native to Mexico, Central America, Col ...

'' File:Rhabdadenia madida.jpg, '' Rhabdadenia madida'' File:Rauvolfia serpentina 11.JPG, ''

'' File:Saba senegalensis 0002.jpg, '' Saba senegalensis'' File:Secamone alpini00.jpg, '' Secamone alpini'' File:Aasblume Aug 2005.jpg, ''

Stapelia gigantea ''Stapelia gigantea'' is a species of flowering plant in the genus '' Stapelia'' of the family Apocynaceae. Common names include Zulu giant, carrion plant and toad plant (although the nickname "carrion plant" can also refer to '' Stapelia grandif ...

'' File:Strophanthus speciosus 1DS-II 6026.jpg, ''

Strophanthus speciosus ''Strophanthus speciosus'', commonly known as the forest poison rope, is a tree, shrub or woody climber which is native to southern Africa. Description ''Strophanthus speciosus'' grows as a tree or shrub up to tall, and as a liana up to long, ...

'' File:Tabernaemontana divaricata flower in jaffna.JPG, ''

Tabernaemontana divaricata ''Tabernaemontana divaricata'', commonly called pinwheel flower, crape jasmine, East India rosebay, and Nero's crown, is an evergreen shrub or small tree native to South Asia, Southeast Asia and China. In zones where it is not hardy it is grown a ...

'' File:Tabernanthe iboga MS 4098.jpg, ''

'' in flower and fruit File:(MAD) T. jasminoides-1.jpg, ''

Trachelospermum jasminoides ''Trachelospermum jasminoides'' is a species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae, native to eastern and southeastern Asia (Japan, Korea, southern China and Vietnam). Common names include Confederate jasmine, star jasmine, Confederate jes ...

'' File:Vinca minor beentree.jpg, ''

Vinca minor ''Vinca minor'' (common names lesser periwinkle or dwarf periwinkle) is a species of flowering plant in the dogbane family, native to central and southern Europe. Other vernacular names used in cultivation include small periwinkle, common peri ...

'' File:Wrightia tinctoria flowers in Keesaraguda, AP W IMG 9109.jpg, ''

Wrightia tinctoria ''Wrightia tinctoria'', Pala indigo plant or dyer's oleander, is a flowering plant species in the genus '' Wrightia'' found in India, southeast Asia and Australia. It is found in dry and moist regions in its distribution. Various parts of the pla ...

'' File:Wrightia antidysenterica (2).JPG, ''

Wrightia antidysenterica ''Wrightia antidysenterica'', the coral swirl or tellicherry bark, is a flowering plant in the genus '' Wrightia''. ''Wrightia antidysenterica'' is sometimes confused with the species ''Holarrhena pubescens ''Holarrhena pubescens'' is a specie ...

'' File:Wrightia tinctoria 09.JPG, ''

'' single flower

Fruits

File:Acokanthera oblongifolia 03.jpg, ''

'' File:Fruits in Adenuim Obesum Plant on Terrace garden.jpg, ''

'' File:Adenium obesum pod and seeds.jpg, ''

'' dehiscence of single fruit. File:Allamanda cathartica MHNT.jpg, ''

'' File:Alstonia scholaris fruits.JPG, ''

'' File:Alyxia oliviformis fruit.jpg, '' Alyxia oliviformis'' File:Amsonia tabernaemontana container plant in fruit (paired follicles).jpg, ''

'' containerised specimen in fruit File:Amsonia tabernaemontana single paired follicle detached from plant (pale side).jpg, ''Amsonia tabernaemontana'' single paired follicle detached from plant (paler, unsunned side) File:Ancylobothrys capensis, vrugte, Faerie Glen NR.jpg, '' Ancylobothrys capensis'' File:Milkweed-in-seed.jpg, ''

'' dehiscent follicles (before unfurling of pappi) File:Asclepias curassavica 003.JPG, ''

'' dehiscent follicles shedding seeds with unfurled pappi File:Thevetia peruviana 04.JPG, ''

'' (syn.''Thevetia peruviana'') File:Thevetia peruviana - Fruits.jpg, ''

'' (syn.''Thevetia peruviana''): dissection of toxic fruits. File:Cerbera tanghin - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-176.jpg, ''

'' File:Cryptolepis buchananii (6048993215).jpg, '' Cryptolepis dubia'' File:Holarrhena pubescens fruits.jpg, ''

'' File:Hoodia gordonii Frucht P1010402.JPG, ''

Hoodia gordoniI ''Hoodia gordonii'', also known as Bushman’s hat, is a leafless spiny succulent plant supposed to have therapeutic properties in traditional medicine, folk medicine. It grows naturally in Botswana, South Africa and Namibia. The species became i ...

'' File:Mandevilla boliviensis 9zz.jpg, '' Mandevilla boliviensis'' File:Nerium oleander seeds.jpg, ''

'' (dehiscence) File:Ochrosia borbonica fruit 1.JPG, ''

Ochrosia, borbonica Endanger ...

'' File:Pachypodium namaquanum 1DS-II 1-C5587.jpg, '' Pachypodium namaquanum'' File:Periploca graeca Silk Vine ღვედკეცი.JPG, '' Periploca graeca'' File:Plumeria alba (seed pods).jpg, '' Plumeria alba'' File:സർപഗന്ധി വിത്തുകൾ 13.JPG, ''

'' File:Saba senegalensis MS 1367.JPG, '' Saba senegalensis'' unripe fruit File:Saba senegalensis - fruit pulp sections.jpg, '' Saba senegalensis'': dissection of ripe, edible fruit File:Secamone parvifolia 1DS-II 3-3506.jpg, '' Secamone parvifolia'' File:Stapelia gigantea 1DS-II 8834.jpg, ''

'' File:Strophanthus speciosus, vrugkapsule en sade, Manie van der Schijff BT, a.jpg, ''

'' (dehiscence) File:Tabernaemontana catharinensis (1).JPG, '' Tabernaemontana catharinensis'' (dehiscence) File:Iboga.jpg, ''

'' File:Trachelospermum jasminoides fruits+seeds.jpg, ''

'' (dehiscence) File:Trachelospermum jasminoides seeds.jpg, ''Trachelospermum jasminoides'': individual seeds, showing pappus File:Vinca major vima 002 php.jpg, ''

Vinca major ''Vinca major'', with the common names bigleaf periwinkle, large periwinkle, greater periwinkle and blue periwinkle, is a species of flowering plant in the family Apocynaceae, native to the western Mediterranean. Growing to tall and spreading i ...

'' (seeds) File:Illustration Vinca minor0 clean.png, ''

'': botanical plate showing paired fruits (no. 5) File:Wrightia tinctoria 32.JPG, ''

Pachycaul species

File:Desert rose Adenium obesum in Tanzania 2259 Nevit.jpg, ''

'' growth habit of wild specimens, Tanzania File:Desert Rose (Adenium obesum), Ghana.jpg, ''Adenium obesum'' close-up of colossal specimen, Ghana File:Desert Rose, Socotra Is (17131661372).jpg, ''Adenium obesum'' trunk of extreme pachycaul specimen, Socotra File:Pachypodium lamerei 01.jpg, '' Pachypodium lamerei'' wild specimen of maximum height (approx ) attained by species File:Pachypodium lamieri1MTFL.jpg, '' Pachypodium lamerei'' in flower File:PachypodiumLamerei.jpg, ''Pachypodium lamerei'' mature, multi-trunked specimen cultivated in glasshouse File:Pachypodium namaquanum00.jpg, '' Pachypodium namaquanum''

References

External links

Apocynaceae
i

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